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isotopes",1,{"id":36,"data":37,"type":38,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":34},"e7d0ee4e-425f-434d-9441-856cef80e81f",{"type":38,"intro":39},10,[40,41],"What made radium glow in the dark?","Why did the use of radium decline over time?",[43,48,81,86],{"id":44,"data":45,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20},"493ca971-46ff-4c63-8251-b0480b51bd73",{"type":34,"markdownContent":46,"audioMediaId":47},"**Radium**, a radioactive element, was first discovered by the esteemed scientists **Marie** and **Pierre Curie**. Between them, Marie and Pierre Curie shook the scientific world. Their work on radium and radioactivity paved the way for further research on radioactive elements and their potential applications, with significant consequences for the wider world.\n\nRadium is formed through the radioactive decay of **uranium** and **thorium**. It can be found in uranium ores and thorium ores. **Less than 100 grams** of radium is produced annually.\n\n![Graph](image://24b70622-c9e3-4699-a884-e8fc9219f27b \"A small piece of radium. grenadier, CC BY 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nRadium has had various applications throughout history. One of the most notable uses of radium was in **luminous paints** for watches, aircraft switches, and instrument dials. The radioactivity of radium causes it to glow, making it seemingly ideal for use in these applications where visibility in low light conditions is crucial.","ee41b76c-7f32-40cf-a201-4203acd354fc",{"id":49,"data":50,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":53},"92a9702d-c81b-4109-a685-0fd7f72d1a38",{"type":34,"markdownContent":51,"audioMediaId":52},"The discovery of radium was made by Marie Curie and Pierre Curie in 1898. In the same year, they discovered another new radioactive element - **polonium**. Marie Curie coined the term ‘**radioactive**’ to describe these elements that emitted energy through atomic decay.\n\n![Graph](image://2cd48784-435a-47c0-8398-9f50f1f15144 \"Marie Curie. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThe Curies' discovery of radium was a result of their extensive research on a mineral called **pitchblende**, which is primarily composed of uranium. They managed to extract 1mg of radium from ten tonnes of pitchblende, demonstrating the rarity and difficulty of extracting radium in significant quantities.\n\nMarie Curie's work on radium earned her two Nobel prizes, making her the **first woman to receive a Nobel prize** and the first person to receive a second Nobel prize. She was awarded her first Nobel prize in Physics in 1903, shared with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel, for their research on radiation. She received her second Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1911.\n\nTragically, Marie Curie’s foundational work in the study of radioactivity was also the cause of her death. She spent many years working with radioactive substances such as radium, before the extremely dangerous effects of such substances were widely understood. This was almost certainly a factor in her eventual death from aplastic anemia.","48f02ed8-9278-4c5b-9110-eb4a3e6f2f64",[54,63,74],{"id":55,"data":56,"type":57,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":19},"3acb3229-f9ca-4ade-b309-98bb092a5660",{"type":57,"reviewType":58,"spacingBehaviour":34,"clozeQuestion":59,"clozeWords":61},11,4,[60],"Radium, discovered by Marie and Pierre Curie, is formed through the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium.",[62],"uranium",{"id":64,"data":65,"type":57,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":19},"f05b07bc-a304-4bcd-bdea-87c77a31b080",{"type":57,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":34,"multiChoiceQuestion":66,"multiChoiceCorrect":68,"multiChoiceIncorrect":70,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[67],"What mineral did the Curies research to discover radium?",[69],"Pitchblende",[71,72,73],"Curium","Arsenic","Onyx",{"id":75,"data":76,"type":57,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":19},"24ba9df7-c820-44fe-bcf1-7252c85e2b1d",{"type":57,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":34,"activeRecallQuestion":77,"activeRecallAnswers":79},[78],"How is radium formed?",[80],"Radioactive decay of uranium and thorium",{"id":82,"data":83,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20},"728aa114-57de-4865-933f-4a9857b6f235",{"type":34,"markdownContent":84,"audioMediaId":85},"Radium is formed by the radioactive decay of **uranium** and **thorium**. This process involves radioactive atoms giving off radiation in the form of energy or particles to reach a stable state. This decay process is a **fundamental aspect of radioactivity** and is responsible for the creation of many radioactive elements, including radium.\n\n![Graph](image://9e6f472a-583e-447c-9771-f5de78bd9ca4 \"The decay chain of uranium. User:Tosaka, CC BY 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\n**Pure radium is silvery white**. When it’s exposed to air, it reacts quickly with nitrogen. This reaction produces **radium nitride** which creates a black surface layer.\n\nRadium has **88** protons in its atomic nucleus, which gives it the **atomic number 88**. It has 33 known isotopes. The most common of these are Ra-226 and Ra-228, which are produced by the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium respectively.\n\nThese isotopes are distinguished by the number of neutrons in their atomic nucleus. Despite having different numbers of neutrons, **all isotopes of an element share the same number of protons** and thus have the same atomic number.","7a18142d-68e1-4b61-bfc4-0e9eda20180b",{"id":87,"data":88,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":91},"a813a661-0031-4eb4-81f6-dd97a052182c",{"type":34,"markdownContent":89,"audioMediaId":90},"Radium is known for its **high radioactivity**. This radioactivity is what makes radium **both useful and hazardous**.\n\nBut what does radioactivity actually mean? In simple terms, it is where **an element’s atoms are unstable**, and therefore emit particles and energy from their nucleus.\n\n![Graph](image://e2a745bb-fc6c-4ae3-b84f-21d3ff33b13f \"A clock with a Radium dial glowing in the dark due to Radium's radioactivity. Arma95, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nIn the last section we discussed isotopes – meaning versions of the same atoms that have differing numbers of neutrons. A nucleus will be more or less stable depending upon **its relative numbers of neutrons and protons.** In the case of radium, many isotopes, such as Ra-226, are unstable. As a result, **the atoms are prone to firing out particles to try to stabilise their nuclei.**\n\nIt is this emission of particles that is known as ‘**radiation**’, and it can be highly dangerous. There are many elements in the periodic table that are radioactive. Mostly they appear at the bottom of the table.","5c481621-852b-4a3f-be6d-0f72dfe903e8",[92],{"id":93,"data":94,"type":57,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":19},"8206e900-f9ef-4d8e-b594-a23d89aed150",{"type":57,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":34,"collapsingSiblings":95,"multiChoiceQuestion":99,"multiChoiceCorrect":101,"multiChoiceIncorrect":103,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":107,"matchPairsPairs":109},[96,97,98],"871b5a54-05b5-4e7e-ac4a-04e76aa8aadc","83dfd0e7-8ec9-462a-a1c4-4aea00562d21","ee17ef84-f05a-4c3c-81cd-86f1310b3c53",[100],"Which of the following is the symbol for radium?",[102],"Symbol Ra",[104,105,106],"Symbol Fe","Symbol Au","Symbol C",[108],"Match the pairs below:",[110],{"left":17,"right":102,"direction":19},{"id":112,"data":113,"type":20,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":115,"introPage":123,"pages":129},"e18083d9-2690-4f41-84e7-c1a639c086a5",{"type":20,"title":114},"The Sources and Uses of Radium",{"id":116,"data":117,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":34},"6671be77-eb54-48d0-a110-b224b53d3545",{"type":19,"summary":118},[119,120,121,122],"Radium is produced during the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium in Earth's crust","One kilogram of Earth's crust contains about 900 picograms of radium","Radium was used to make luminous paints for clocks and watches","Radium-223 is used to treat prostate cancer that has spread to bones",{"id":124,"data":125,"type":38,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":34},"32a5bc3d-60d5-4901-84fd-1e2456402f3f",{"type":38,"intro":126},[127,128],"What were the Radium Girls known for?","How did radium exposure change labor laws?",[130,178,203],{"id":131,"data":132,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":135},"d1ea9c5f-e203-45e0-9ddb-2b03c1bba622",{"type":34,"markdownContent":133,"audioMediaId":134},"Radium is produced during the radioactive decay of **uranium** and **thorium** in the Earth's crust. This natural process is responsible for the presence of radium in the environment, albeit in trace amounts. Radium undergoes radioactive decay to produce the inert gas radon.\n\nAll primordial radium originally present on Earth will have decayed already, meaning that any radium currently present is a result of ongoing radioactive decay processes.\n\n![Graph](image://13e3b552-eacc-4418-83fa-0071fe1cec87 \"A piece of uranium ore. Image: Nuclear Regulatory Commission from US, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","8099b757-151b-4c57-bff9-2f2748430175",[136,154,167],{"id":137,"data":138,"type":57,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":19},"559330e7-d140-4a0e-b8f6-c86d5834fe43",{"type":57,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":34,"collapsingSiblings":139,"multiChoiceQuestion":143,"multiChoiceCorrect":145,"multiChoiceIncorrect":146,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":150,"matchPairsPairs":151},[140,141,142],"649fe517-8c3f-4aaf-97ea-824c4725f6d2","7e621897-11e6-4018-aa47-f5ad9d77a7be","3e63580c-f0ff-4ddb-9177-674b038c6c35",[144],"Which element is formed from the decay of thorium?",[17],[147,148,149],"Hydrogen","Fossil Fuels","Uranium",[108],[152],{"left":17,"right":153,"direction":19},"Formed from decay of thorium",{"id":142,"data":155,"type":57,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":57,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":34,"collapsingSiblings":156,"multiChoiceQuestion":157,"multiChoiceCorrect":159,"multiChoiceIncorrect":161,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":164,"matchPairsPairs":165},[140,141,137],[158],"Which of the following most closely applies to uranium?",[160],"Radioactive, present in the earth's crust",[162,163,153],"Clean and renewable source of energy","Powered the industrial revolution",[108],[166],{"left":149,"right":160,"direction":19},{"id":168,"data":169,"type":57,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":19},"c29ad9bd-6440-498c-a5ee-9a9254c53b60",{"type":57,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":34,"multiChoiceQuestion":170,"multiChoiceCorrect":172,"multiChoiceIncorrect":174,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[171],"What does radium decay to produce?",[173],"Radon",[175,176,177],"Radion","Radox","Radum",{"id":179,"data":180,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":183},"821bc53b-ad9d-49ce-bcaa-048bb47fd7e1",{"type":34,"markdownContent":181,"audioMediaId":182},"Despite its decay, **radium is still present in tiny quantities in the environment**. One kilogram of Earth's crust typically contains about **900 picograms** of radium, while a liter of seawater contains around **89 femtograms**. These are incredibly tiny amounts, but it's there. Commercially, radium is typically only available in the compounds radium chloride or radium bromide due to the difficulty of isolating pure radium.\n\nUranium ores from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Canada are the richest sources of radium today, but annual production of radium is only around **100 grams in total**.\n\nDespite its radioactivity, radium found its way into various commercial and industrial applications. The unique properties of radium, such as its radioactivity and luminescence, made it a sought-after resource in a variety of fields.","ea9ae39f-4895-4c15-9cd6-477a8939ea3f",[184],{"id":185,"data":186,"type":57,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":19},"93f857a8-8398-4631-8c32-62bd7628ee66",{"type":57,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":34,"collapsingSiblings":187,"multiChoiceQuestion":191,"multiChoiceCorrect":193,"multiChoiceIncorrect":195,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":199,"matchPairsPairs":200},[188,189,190],"9fa1214d-ed1a-400b-9bb0-571a6acebeab","eb07d82a-5f99-4c7b-aa35-a300e5dc0c3c","eb0c2d87-0f07-43da-8d7c-4e9c9bb2136e",[192],"What is the number of grams of radium produced annually?",[194],"100",[196,197,198],"6","8","26",[108],[201],{"left":202,"right":194,"direction":19},"Grams of radium produced annually",{"id":204,"data":205,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":208},"7c02cc86-f2ea-4c96-894f-1756b511a91e",{"type":34,"markdownContent":206,"audioMediaId":207},"Radium was once used to make luminous paints for objects such as clocks, watches, and airplane controls. The glow produced by radium made these objects visible in low light conditions, making it a useful tool for the job. However, due to the health risks associated with radium, it is now considered too hazardous to be used in this way.\n\n![Graph](image://479e657e-0e5e-40ef-a0cb-c660d86648cf \"Radium paint in a glass vial. Image by TheBeSphereOfCourse via Wikimedia Commons.\")\n\nHistorically, radium has been used in the treatment of cancer, particularly via the production of radon gas. Radium-223 is sometimes used now to treat prostate cancer that has spread to the bones. This isotope of radium emits alpha particles, which can kill cancer cells. However, in general, radium is not commonly used in modern cancer treatments due to its instability and rarity. Other more stable radioactive elements are typically used instead.","08f0261f-b78c-4a8c-b47c-429dd4314d78",[209],{"id":210,"data":211,"type":57,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":19},"d7c2d7d1-3cd2-4527-bd34-f53029607766",{"type":57,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":34,"activeRecallQuestion":212,"activeRecallAnswers":214},[213],"What was radium once used for?",[215],"Making luminous paints for objects",{"id":217,"data":218,"type":20,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":220,"introPage":228,"pages":234},"97ff9851-e75f-470e-aac5-282c26439529",{"type":20,"title":219},"The Hazards and Historical Impact of Radium",{"id":221,"data":222,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":34},"f075819c-8808-4c62-8aa3-f6d3631848be",{"type":19,"summary":223},[224,225,226,227],"Radium exposure can cause cancer and damage blood, eyes, teeth, and bones","Antoine Becquerel's skin ulcerated after carrying radium for 6 hours","Radon gas from radium increases lung cancer risk when inhaled","The Radium Girls' tragedy led to better safety laws for handling radioactive materials",{"id":229,"data":230,"type":38,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":34},"ddd95563-b287-47cb-949d-9fb728656dc4",{"type":38,"intro":231},[232,233],"What health issues did the Radium Girls face from painting watch dials?","Why did Antoine Becquerel's skin ulcerate after carrying radium?",[235,253,266],{"id":236,"data":237,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":240},"00e9dbc2-dcbf-4bba-8f79-7d8caa847304",{"type":34,"markdownContent":238,"audioMediaId":239},"Radium poses a significant health hazard due to its radioactivity. Exposure to radium can increase the risk of some types of cancer, and higher doses of radium have been shown to affect the blood, eyes, teeth, and bones. \n\nThe harmful effects of radium were made clear very soon after the element’s discovery, with the first case of ‘**radium dermatitis**’. In 1910, the French scientist Antoine Becquerel carried a vial of radium in the pocket of his waistcoat for 6 hours. His skin became ulcerated as a result.\n\n![Graph](image://a04371a7-1e8e-4002-a9a6-f158ad474271 \"A portrait of Antoine Becquerel. Image :\nPaul Nadar via Wikimedia Commons\")","a9e80e70-0edf-462b-9a7e-1baeb172c274",[241],{"id":242,"data":243,"type":57,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":19},"7970c28e-7469-4f6d-a3bc-becf3c9b6fd2",{"type":57,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":34,"multiChoiceQuestion":244,"multiChoiceCorrect":246,"multiChoiceIncorrect":249,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[245],"Which of these are known effects of Radium?",[247,248],"Skin ulceration","Cancer",[250,251,252],"Chronic digestive issues","Schizophrenia","Jaundice",{"id":254,"data":255,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":258},"6015fcb4-aa5b-46a9-b9cc-a7920723057d",{"type":34,"markdownContent":256,"audioMediaId":257},"One of the decay products of radium, **radon gas**, is also a health hazard. When radon gas is inhaled, radioactive particles can get trapped in your lungs, increasing the risk of lung cancer over time. This risk is particularly high in areas with high levels of radium in the soil and rock. \n\nThe dangers of radium and its decay products have led to strict regulations on its use and disposal. These regulations are designed to protect people and the environment from the harmful effects of radium and other radioactive substances.","0a52b81b-589e-4df7-ace4-ad3082837f05",[259],{"id":260,"data":261,"type":57,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":19},"6c043d58-c929-4b2c-84a6-2ff78a1fc78b",{"type":57,"reviewType":58,"spacingBehaviour":34,"clozeQuestion":262,"clozeWords":264},[263],"One of the decay products of radium, radon gas, is a health hazard that can increase the risk of lung cancer.",[265],"radon gas",{"id":267,"data":268,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":271},"507d6d22-5c2c-4305-8bad-82fea8612d5f",{"type":34,"markdownContent":269,"audioMediaId":270},"**The Radium Girls** were factory workers who contracted radiation poisoning from painting watch dials with self-luminous paint containing radium. Their story is a tragic example of the dangers of radium and the lack of safety measures in place at the time. Women at the three factories involved in the USA **were told the radium-based paint was safe**, and they even **put the brushes in their mouths** to give them a fine tip.\n\nThis practice led to the ingestion of radium, which resulted in severe health problems for these women. The symptoms experienced by the Radium Girls included anemia, bone fractures, and necrosis of the jaw. **Their experience led to significant changes in labor laws** and safety standards for workers handling radioactive materials. This tragic event serves as a stark reminder of the dangers of radium and the importance of proper safety measures when handling radioactive substances.","41d0f046-2085-4bde-bfe6-cc3d617e58a0",[272],{"id":273,"data":274,"type":57,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":19},"edac3f7c-2008-4fbc-b71d-800d7d9a943c",{"type":57,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":34,"activeRecallQuestion":275,"activeRecallAnswers":277},[276],"Who were the Radium Girls?",[278],"Factory workers who contracted radiation poisoning",[280,592,706],{"id":23,"data":24,"type":20,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":26,"introPage":35,"pages":281},[282,365,429,516],{"id":44,"data":45,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"parsed":283},{"data":284,"body":287,"toc":363},{"title":285,"description":286},"","Radium, a radioactive element, was first discovered by the esteemed scientists Marie and Pierre Curie. Between them, Marie and Pierre Curie shook the scientific world. Their work on radium and radioactivity paved the way for further research on radioactive elements and their potential applications, with significant consequences for the wider world.",{"type":288,"children":289},"root",[290,317,341,351],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":293,"children":294},"element","p",{},[295,301,303,308,310,315],{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":297,"children":298},"strong",{},[299],{"type":300,"value":17},"text",{"type":300,"value":302},", a radioactive element, was first discovered by the esteemed scientists ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":304,"children":305},{},[306],{"type":300,"value":307},"Marie",{"type":300,"value":309}," and ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":311,"children":312},{},[313],{"type":300,"value":314},"Pierre Curie",{"type":300,"value":316},". Between them, Marie and Pierre Curie shook the scientific world. Their work on radium and radioactivity paved the way for further research on radioactive elements and their potential applications, with significant consequences for the wider world.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":318,"children":319},{},[320,322,326,327,332,334,339],{"type":300,"value":321},"Radium is formed through the radioactive decay of ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":323,"children":324},{},[325],{"type":300,"value":62},{"type":300,"value":309},{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":328,"children":329},{},[330],{"type":300,"value":331},"thorium",{"type":300,"value":333},". It can be found in uranium ores and thorium ores. ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":335,"children":336},{},[337],{"type":300,"value":338},"Less than 100 grams",{"type":300,"value":340}," of radium is produced annually.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":342,"children":343},{},[344],{"type":291,"tag":345,"props":346,"children":350},"img",{"alt":347,"src":348,"title":349},"Graph","image://24b70622-c9e3-4699-a884-e8fc9219f27b","A small piece of radium. grenadier, CC BY 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":352,"children":353},{},[354,356,361],{"type":300,"value":355},"Radium has had various applications throughout history. One of the most notable uses of radium was in ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":357,"children":358},{},[359],{"type":300,"value":360},"luminous paints",{"type":300,"value":362}," for watches, aircraft switches, and instrument dials. The radioactivity of radium causes it to glow, making it seemingly ideal for use in these applications where visibility in low light conditions is crucial.",{"title":285,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":364},[],{"id":49,"data":50,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":53,"parsed":366},{"data":367,"body":369,"toc":427},{"title":285,"description":368},"The discovery of radium was made by Marie Curie and Pierre Curie in 1898. In the same year, they discovered another new radioactive element - polonium. Marie Curie coined the term ‘radioactive’ to describe these elements that emitted energy through atomic decay.",{"type":288,"children":370},[371,390,398,410,422],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":372,"children":373},{},[374,376,381,383,388],{"type":300,"value":375},"The discovery of radium was made by Marie Curie and Pierre Curie in 1898. In the same year, they discovered another new radioactive element - ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":377,"children":378},{},[379],{"type":300,"value":380},"polonium",{"type":300,"value":382},". Marie Curie coined the term ‘",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":384,"children":385},{},[386],{"type":300,"value":387},"radioactive",{"type":300,"value":389},"’ to describe these elements that emitted energy through atomic decay.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":391,"children":392},{},[393],{"type":291,"tag":345,"props":394,"children":397},{"alt":347,"src":395,"title":396},"image://2cd48784-435a-47c0-8398-9f50f1f15144","Marie Curie. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia",[],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":399,"children":400},{},[401,403,408],{"type":300,"value":402},"The Curies' discovery of radium was a result of their extensive research on a mineral called ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":404,"children":405},{},[406],{"type":300,"value":407},"pitchblende",{"type":300,"value":409},", which is primarily composed of uranium. They managed to extract 1mg of radium from ten tonnes of pitchblende, demonstrating the rarity and difficulty of extracting radium in significant quantities.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":411,"children":412},{},[413,415,420],{"type":300,"value":414},"Marie Curie's work on radium earned her two Nobel prizes, making her the ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":416,"children":417},{},[418],{"type":300,"value":419},"first woman to receive a Nobel prize",{"type":300,"value":421}," and the first person to receive a second Nobel prize. She was awarded her first Nobel prize in Physics in 1903, shared with Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel, for their research on radiation. She received her second Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1911.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":423,"children":424},{},[425],{"type":300,"value":426},"Tragically, Marie Curie’s foundational work in the study of radioactivity was also the cause of her death. She spent many years working with radioactive substances such as radium, before the extremely dangerous effects of such substances were widely understood. This was almost certainly a factor in her eventual death from aplastic anemia.",{"title":285,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":428},[],{"id":82,"data":83,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"parsed":430},{"data":431,"body":433,"toc":514},{"title":285,"description":432},"Radium is formed by the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium. This process involves radioactive atoms giving off radiation in the form of energy or particles to reach a stable state. This decay process is a fundamental aspect of radioactivity and is responsible for the creation of many radioactive elements, including radium.",{"type":288,"children":434},[435,458,466,483,502],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":436,"children":437},{},[438,440,444,445,449,451,456],{"type":300,"value":439},"Radium is formed by the radioactive decay of ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":441,"children":442},{},[443],{"type":300,"value":62},{"type":300,"value":309},{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":446,"children":447},{},[448],{"type":300,"value":331},{"type":300,"value":450},". This process involves radioactive atoms giving off radiation in the form of energy or particles to reach a stable state. This decay process is a ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":452,"children":453},{},[454],{"type":300,"value":455},"fundamental aspect of radioactivity",{"type":300,"value":457}," and is responsible for the creation of many radioactive elements, including radium.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":459,"children":460},{},[461],{"type":291,"tag":345,"props":462,"children":465},{"alt":347,"src":463,"title":464},"image://9e6f472a-583e-447c-9771-f5de78bd9ca4","The decay chain of uranium. User:Tosaka, CC BY 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":467,"children":468},{},[469,474,476,481],{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":470,"children":471},{},[472],{"type":300,"value":473},"Pure radium is silvery white",{"type":300,"value":475},". When it’s exposed to air, it reacts quickly with nitrogen. This reaction produces ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":477,"children":478},{},[479],{"type":300,"value":480},"radium nitride",{"type":300,"value":482}," which creates a black surface layer.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":484,"children":485},{},[486,488,493,495,500],{"type":300,"value":487},"Radium has ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":489,"children":490},{},[491],{"type":300,"value":492},"88",{"type":300,"value":494}," protons in its atomic nucleus, which gives it the ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":496,"children":497},{},[498],{"type":300,"value":499},"atomic number 88",{"type":300,"value":501},". It has 33 known isotopes. The most common of these are Ra-226 and Ra-228, which are produced by the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium respectively.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":503,"children":504},{},[505,507,512],{"type":300,"value":506},"These isotopes are distinguished by the number of neutrons in their atomic nucleus. Despite having different numbers of neutrons, ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":508,"children":509},{},[510],{"type":300,"value":511},"all isotopes of an element share the same number of protons",{"type":300,"value":513}," and thus have the same atomic number.",{"title":285,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":515},[],{"id":87,"data":88,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":91,"parsed":517},{"data":518,"body":520,"toc":590},{"title":285,"description":519},"Radium is known for its high radioactivity. This radioactivity is what makes radium both useful and hazardous.",{"type":288,"children":521},[522,541,553,561,578],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":523,"children":524},{},[525,527,532,534,539],{"type":300,"value":526},"Radium is known for its ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":528,"children":529},{},[530],{"type":300,"value":531},"high radioactivity",{"type":300,"value":533},". This radioactivity is what makes radium ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":535,"children":536},{},[537],{"type":300,"value":538},"both useful and hazardous",{"type":300,"value":540},".",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":542,"children":543},{},[544,546,551],{"type":300,"value":545},"But what does radioactivity actually mean? In simple terms, it is where ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":547,"children":548},{},[549],{"type":300,"value":550},"an element’s atoms are unstable",{"type":300,"value":552},", and therefore emit particles and energy from their nucleus.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":554,"children":555},{},[556],{"type":291,"tag":345,"props":557,"children":560},{"alt":347,"src":558,"title":559},"image://e2a745bb-fc6c-4ae3-b84f-21d3ff33b13f","A clock with a Radium dial glowing in the dark due to Radium's radioactivity. Arma95, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":562,"children":563},{},[564,566,571,573],{"type":300,"value":565},"In the last section we discussed isotopes – meaning versions of the same atoms that have differing numbers of neutrons. A nucleus will be more or less stable depending upon ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":567,"children":568},{},[569],{"type":300,"value":570},"its relative numbers of neutrons and protons.",{"type":300,"value":572}," In the case of radium, many isotopes, such as Ra-226, are unstable. As a result, ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":574,"children":575},{},[576],{"type":300,"value":577},"the atoms are prone to firing out particles to try to stabilise their nuclei.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":579,"children":580},{},[581,583,588],{"type":300,"value":582},"It is this emission of particles that is known as ‘",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":584,"children":585},{},[586],{"type":300,"value":587},"radiation",{"type":300,"value":589},"’, and it can be highly dangerous. There are many elements in the periodic table that are radioactive. Mostly they appear at the bottom of the table.",{"title":285,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":591},[],{"id":112,"data":113,"type":20,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":115,"introPage":123,"pages":593},[594,631,681],{"id":131,"data":132,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":135,"parsed":595},{"data":596,"body":598,"toc":629},{"title":285,"description":597},"Radium is produced during the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium in the Earth's crust. This natural process is responsible for the presence of radium in the environment, albeit in trace amounts. Radium undergoes radioactive decay to produce the inert gas radon.",{"type":288,"children":599},[600,616,621],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":601,"children":602},{},[603,605,609,610,614],{"type":300,"value":604},"Radium is produced during the radioactive decay of ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":606,"children":607},{},[608],{"type":300,"value":62},{"type":300,"value":309},{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":611,"children":612},{},[613],{"type":300,"value":331},{"type":300,"value":615}," in the Earth's crust. This natural process is responsible for the presence of radium in the environment, albeit in trace amounts. Radium undergoes radioactive decay to produce the inert gas radon.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":617,"children":618},{},[619],{"type":300,"value":620},"All primordial radium originally present on Earth will have decayed already, meaning that any radium currently present is a result of ongoing radioactive decay processes.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":622,"children":623},{},[624],{"type":291,"tag":345,"props":625,"children":628},{"alt":347,"src":626,"title":627},"image://13e3b552-eacc-4418-83fa-0071fe1cec87","A piece of uranium ore. Image: Nuclear Regulatory Commission from US, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":285,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":630},[],{"id":179,"data":180,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":183,"parsed":632},{"data":633,"body":635,"toc":679},{"title":285,"description":634},"Despite its decay, radium is still present in tiny quantities in the environment. One kilogram of Earth's crust typically contains about 900 picograms of radium, while a liter of seawater contains around 89 femtograms. These are incredibly tiny amounts, but it's there. Commercially, radium is typically only available in the compounds radium chloride or radium bromide due to the difficulty of isolating pure radium.",{"type":288,"children":636},[637,663,674],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":638,"children":639},{},[640,642,647,649,654,656,661],{"type":300,"value":641},"Despite its decay, ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":643,"children":644},{},[645],{"type":300,"value":646},"radium is still present in tiny quantities in the environment",{"type":300,"value":648},". One kilogram of Earth's crust typically contains about ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":650,"children":651},{},[652],{"type":300,"value":653},"900 picograms",{"type":300,"value":655}," of radium, while a liter of seawater contains around ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":657,"children":658},{},[659],{"type":300,"value":660},"89 femtograms",{"type":300,"value":662},". These are incredibly tiny amounts, but it's there. Commercially, radium is typically only available in the compounds radium chloride or radium bromide due to the difficulty of isolating pure radium.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":664,"children":665},{},[666,668,673],{"type":300,"value":667},"Uranium ores from the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Canada are the richest sources of radium today, but annual production of radium is only around ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":669,"children":670},{},[671],{"type":300,"value":672},"100 grams in total",{"type":300,"value":540},{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":675,"children":676},{},[677],{"type":300,"value":678},"Despite its radioactivity, radium found its way into various commercial and industrial applications. The unique properties of radium, such as its radioactivity and luminescence, made it a sought-after resource in a variety of fields.",{"title":285,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":680},[],{"id":204,"data":205,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":208,"parsed":682},{"data":683,"body":685,"toc":704},{"title":285,"description":684},"Radium was once used to make luminous paints for objects such as clocks, watches, and airplane controls. The glow produced by radium made these objects visible in low light conditions, making it a useful tool for the job. However, due to the health risks associated with radium, it is now considered too hazardous to be used in this way.",{"type":288,"children":686},[687,691,699],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":688,"children":689},{},[690],{"type":300,"value":684},{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":692,"children":693},{},[694],{"type":291,"tag":345,"props":695,"children":698},{"alt":347,"src":696,"title":697},"image://479e657e-0e5e-40ef-a0cb-c660d86648cf","Radium paint in a glass vial. Image by TheBeSphereOfCourse via Wikimedia Commons.",[],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":700,"children":701},{},[702],{"type":300,"value":703},"Historically, radium has been used in the treatment of cancer, particularly via the production of radon gas. Radium-223 is sometimes used now to treat prostate cancer that has spread to the bones. This isotope of radium emits alpha particles, which can kill cancer cells. However, in general, radium is not commonly used in modern cancer treatments due to its instability and rarity. Other more stable radioactive elements are typically used instead.",{"title":285,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":705},[],{"id":217,"data":218,"type":20,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":220,"introPage":228,"pages":707},[708,740,764],{"id":236,"data":237,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":240,"parsed":709},{"data":710,"body":712,"toc":738},{"title":285,"description":711},"Radium poses a significant health hazard due to its radioactivity. Exposure to radium can increase the risk of some types of cancer, and higher doses of radium have been shown to affect the blood, eyes, teeth, and bones.",{"type":288,"children":713},[714,718,730],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":715,"children":716},{},[717],{"type":300,"value":711},{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":719,"children":720},{},[721,723,728],{"type":300,"value":722},"The harmful effects of radium were made clear very soon after the element’s discovery, with the first case of ‘",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":724,"children":725},{},[726],{"type":300,"value":727},"radium dermatitis",{"type":300,"value":729},"’. In 1910, the French scientist Antoine Becquerel carried a vial of radium in the pocket of his waistcoat for 6 hours. His skin became ulcerated as a result.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":731,"children":732},{},[733],{"type":291,"tag":345,"props":734,"children":737},{"alt":347,"src":735,"title":736},"image://a04371a7-1e8e-4002-a9a6-f158ad474271","A portrait of Antoine Becquerel. Image :\nPaul Nadar via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":285,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":739},[],{"id":254,"data":255,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":258,"parsed":741},{"data":742,"body":744,"toc":762},{"title":285,"description":743},"One of the decay products of radium, radon gas, is also a health hazard. When radon gas is inhaled, radioactive particles can get trapped in your lungs, increasing the risk of lung cancer over time. This risk is particularly high in areas with high levels of radium in the soil and rock.",{"type":288,"children":745},[746,757],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":747,"children":748},{},[749,751,755],{"type":300,"value":750},"One of the decay products of radium, ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":752,"children":753},{},[754],{"type":300,"value":265},{"type":300,"value":756},", is also a health hazard. When radon gas is inhaled, radioactive particles can get trapped in your lungs, increasing the risk of lung cancer over time. This risk is particularly high in areas with high levels of radium in the soil and rock.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":758,"children":759},{},[760],{"type":300,"value":761},"The dangers of radium and its decay products have led to strict regulations on its use and disposal. These regulations are designed to protect people and the environment from the harmful effects of radium and other radioactive substances.",{"title":285,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":763},[],{"id":267,"data":268,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":271,"parsed":765},{"data":766,"body":768,"toc":806},{"title":285,"description":767},"The Radium Girls were factory workers who contracted radiation poisoning from painting watch dials with self-luminous paint containing radium. Their story is a tragic example of the dangers of radium and the lack of safety measures in place at the time. Women at the three factories involved in the USA were told the radium-based paint was safe, and they even put the brushes in their mouths to give them a fine tip.",{"type":288,"children":769},[770,794],{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":771,"children":772},{},[773,778,780,785,787,792],{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":774,"children":775},{},[776],{"type":300,"value":777},"The Radium Girls",{"type":300,"value":779}," were factory workers who contracted radiation poisoning from painting watch dials with self-luminous paint containing radium. Their story is a tragic example of the dangers of radium and the lack of safety measures in place at the time. Women at the three factories involved in the USA ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":781,"children":782},{},[783],{"type":300,"value":784},"were told the radium-based paint was safe",{"type":300,"value":786},", and they even ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":788,"children":789},{},[790],{"type":300,"value":791},"put the brushes in their mouths",{"type":300,"value":793}," to give them a fine tip.",{"type":291,"tag":292,"props":795,"children":796},{},[797,799,804],{"type":300,"value":798},"This practice led to the ingestion of radium, which resulted in severe health problems for these women. The symptoms experienced by the Radium Girls included anemia, bone fractures, and necrosis of the jaw. ",{"type":291,"tag":296,"props":800,"children":801},{},[802],{"type":300,"value":803},"Their experience led to significant changes in labor laws",{"type":300,"value":805}," and safety standards for workers handling radioactive materials. This tragic event serves as a stark reminder of the dangers of radium and the importance of proper safety measures when handling radioactive substances.",{"title":285,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":807},[],{"left":4,"top":4,"width":809,"height":809,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":810},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":809,"height":809,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":812},"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"M4 5h16M4 12h16M4 19h16\"/>",1778179405746]