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1.41783L252.467 2.47876L251.45 2.3637L251.707 0.60165C252.118 0.401088 252.563 0.253475 253.041 0.15797C253.519 0.0529708 253.958 1.99446e-05 254.359 0Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\u003C/g>",{"tile":13,"orbsWithOnlyMarkdownPages":493},{"id":14,"data":15,"type":16,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"orbs":21},"3bb0a208-ea78-4e09-8239-c3cd7eec4098",{"type":16,"title":17,"tagline":18},9,"Anatomy of the Atmosphere","The basic makeup of the atmosphere",3,8,[22,179,326,397],{"id":23,"data":24,"type":25,"version":27,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":28,"introPage":37,"pages":44},"3ade9d29-b84c-45af-8680-e4a249c81331",{"type":25,"title":26},2,"Atmospheric Composition",6,{"id":29,"data":30,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":36},"544e3dc7-d58d-4f42-b64c-71a7a806680b",{"type":19,"summary":31},[32,33,34,35],"The atmosphere is mostly nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%)","Water vapor and aerosols like dust and pollen are also in the atmosphere","Air pressure drops as you go higher because there's less air above","Temperature changes with altitude but not in a straight line",1,{"id":38,"data":39,"type":40,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":36},"5dc92090-60a5-40ba-8ca6-bf8e9c6da4b8",{"type":40,"intro":41},10,[42,43],"What are the primary gases that make up the atmosphere?","How does atmospheric pressure change with altitude?",[45,78,131],{"id":46,"data":47,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":50,"reviews":51},"69a4aad7-4cd0-47ec-b36b-32a767352db1",{"type":36,"markdownContent":48,"audioMediaId":49},"The atmosphere is primarily made up of two important gases: nitrogen and oxygen.\n\nThese account for about 78% of the atmosphere, and 21% of the atmosphere, respectively. The remaining 1% of the atmosphere is a diverse mix of gases such as argon (0.9%), methane, and carbon dioxide.\n\n![Graph](image://3788555a-1124-4adf-9c18-ef579e9ac566 \"Atmospheric gases. Dbc334, Public domain/CC0, \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/share-your-work/public-domain/> via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe atmosphere also contains varying amounts of water vapor. Take a look at the sky, and you might see some of it now in the form of a passing cloud.\n\nThe atmosphere also contains aerosols: Tiny particles including dust, volcanic ash, pollutants, spores, and pollen.\n\nIn other words, the atmosphere is a soup of different components. And it’s also important to understand how this atmospheric soup behaves. There are two main factors to be aware of: pressure and temperature.","fa8b3596-059d-421b-92a0-5aad198d1172",4,[52,60],{"id":53,"data":54,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"1b8634c3-26ec-4784-82b9-32c73bdb7617",{"type":55,"reviewType":50,"spacingBehaviour":36,"clozeQuestion":56,"clozeWords":58},11,[57],"The atmosphere contains tiny particles known as aerosols.",[59],"aerosols",{"id":61,"data":62,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"383235a9-4bb8-4068-a72f-7b156a32da5d",{"type":55,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":36,"matchPairsQuestion":63,"matchPairsPairs":65,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[64],"What percentage of the atmosphere is made up of each gas?",[66,69,72,75],{"left":67,"right":68,"direction":19},"Nitrogen","78%",{"left":70,"right":71,"direction":19},"Oxygen","21%",{"left":73,"right":74,"direction":19},"Methane","0.9%",{"left":76,"right":77,"direction":19},"Carbon Dioxide","\u003C0.1%",{"id":79,"data":80,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":50,"reviews":83},"ba0f9e05-409a-4896-a51e-e6ab0b48a8fb",{"type":36,"markdownContent":81,"audioMediaId":82},"Atmospheric pressure — also known as air pressure — is a relatively simple concept.\n\nTake any point in the atmosphere, and think about the weight of all the air above it. This weight applies pressure as it squeezes down on that point.\n\nAs a general rule, pressure reduces as you get higher in the atmosphere because there’s less air above you, and therefore less weight pushing down. It’s just like the ocean. The pressure of the water is much higher at the bottom than it is just beneath the surface.\n\nMillibars (mb) are a unit of pressure that meteorologists use to describe the atmosphere. At sea level, the average air pressure is just over 1000 mb. At the top of Mount Everest, air pressure is closer to 300 mb.","7665f8a3-fa99-4a8b-a505-61376bb751fb",[84,104,122],{"id":85,"data":86,"type":55,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":19},"cef9e1f2-0395-4634-8a61-6ad6789b6ed9",{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"collapsingSiblings":87,"multiChoiceQuestion":91,"multiChoiceCorrect":93,"multiChoiceIncorrect":95,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":99,"matchPairsPairs":101},[88,89,90],"0f0f6dc9-9c54-4c8d-b938-085c76e81d8d","557955fe-4ad7-431c-8873-5599f9af078e","f6559215-115e-477d-ac41-9fecc38f9a88",[92],"What best describes atmospheric/air pressure?",[94],"Weight of all the air above a certain point",[96,97,98],"Short-term conditions of the atmosphere","Long-term conditions of the atmosphere","Process of water evaporation, cloud formation, and rainfall",[100],"Match the pairs below:",[102],{"left":103,"right":94,"direction":19},"Atmospheric pressure/Air pressure",{"id":105,"data":106,"type":55,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":19},"6d78d2ff-4a07-45e9-b163-ed9ef4941770",{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"collapsingSiblings":107,"multiChoiceQuestion":111,"multiChoiceCorrect":113,"multiChoiceIncorrect":115,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":119,"matchPairsPairs":120},[108,109,110],"3f76b939-ae37-4470-ab6c-67f581ce47be","cf94817a-cbc1-47ce-8ae4-a24669c6c2d3","6d7b525a-515d-4e3b-90cc-b0fea89bce0f",[112],"Which of the below applies to atmospheric pressure?",[114],"Reduces as you get higher",[116,117,118],"Non-linear changes as you get higher","Absorbs high-energy solar radiation","Used to divide the atmosphere into layers",[100],[121],{"left":103,"right":114,"direction":19},{"id":123,"data":124,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"ae0166ea-a75d-46ee-accd-9f9d3ba931a4",{"type":55,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":36,"binaryQuestion":125,"binaryCorrect":127,"binaryIncorrect":129},[126],"Which unit do meteorologists use to describe atmospheric pressure?",[128],"Millibars",[130],"Megabars",{"id":132,"data":133,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":27,"reviews":136},"986e1ccf-26e3-4e12-b2e7-b6e1c12545d9",{"type":36,"markdownContent":134,"audioMediaId":135},"Speaking of mountains: if you’ve ever climbed one, you might have noticed that the atmosphere feels colder at the top than it does at the bottom.\n\nThis principle is known as the **lapse rate**: the rate at which the temperature falls as we get higher in altitude, just like atmospheric pressure.\n\nBut unlike pressure, this principle only takes us so far. At a height of approximately 5 miles (8 kilometers) the temperature of the atmosphere actually starts to go up. Even higher, it drops again, then it starts to go up again, yo-yo-ing back and forth.\n\nWe’ll discuss this in more detail later. For now, it’s just important to know that atmospheric temperature gradients — that’s the change in temperature in relation to altitude — aren’t as linear as changes in pressure.","6ece18f5-34e6-42ad-a5b6-74799e4f808f",[137,149,160,167],{"id":108,"data":138,"type":55,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"collapsingSiblings":139,"multiChoiceQuestion":140,"multiChoiceCorrect":142,"multiChoiceIncorrect":143,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":145,"matchPairsPairs":146},[105,109,110],[141],"Which of the following applies to atmospheric temperature gradients?",[116],[114,117,144],"Linear changes as you get higher",[100],[147],{"left":148,"right":116,"direction":19},"Atmospheric temperature gradients",{"id":150,"data":151,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"a1b199e3-702d-4093-b5f6-fca5bf26a7c7",{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"multiChoiceQuestion":152,"multiChoiceCorrect":154,"multiChoiceIncorrect":156,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[153],"As a balloon moves through the atmosphere, the pressure changes from 300 mb to 400 mb. Is the balloon travelling down or up?",[155],"Down",[157,158,159],"Up","Neither","It depends on the initial altitude",{"id":161,"data":162,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"60473964-95e0-4804-b187-0f293bf83a90",{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"multiChoiceQuestion":163,"multiChoiceCorrect":165,"multiChoiceIncorrect":166,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[164],"As a balloon moves through the atmosphere, the temperature changes from 10 °C to 15 °C. Is the balloon travelling down or up?",[159],[155,157,158],{"id":168,"data":169,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"83783c8f-01c7-46e8-93d3-313728c706e5",{"type":55,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":36,"matchPairsQuestion":170,"matchPairsPairs":171,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[100],[172,174,176,178],{"left":173,"right":96,"direction":19},"Weather",{"left":175,"right":97,"direction":19},"Climate",{"left":177,"right":98,"direction":19},"Hydrological cycle",{"left":103,"right":94,"direction":19},{"id":180,"data":181,"type":25,"version":27,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":183,"introPage":191,"pages":197},"8576e873-a10a-46cb-9ee6-3b7a9c242b21",{"type":25,"title":182},"Atmospheric Layers",{"id":184,"data":185,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":36},"e72f4c2f-af6e-4b4e-b4f0-920ce48fa3ac",{"type":19,"summary":186},[187,188,189,190],"The troposphere is where all weather happens and where we breathe","The stratosphere has lots of ozone, which absorbs UV radiation","The mesosphere is the coldest layer in the atmosphere","The thermosphere is the hottest layer, where auroras occur",{"id":192,"data":193,"type":40,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":36},"b303f7ff-1410-4362-8219-15a80a9e980c",{"type":40,"intro":194},[195,196],"What causes the temperature to increase in the stratosphere?","Which atmospheric layer is the coldest and why?",[198,234,270,304],{"id":199,"data":200,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":203,"reviews":204},"de674930-aadd-4d4a-8183-4315efd32c12",{"type":36,"markdownContent":201,"audioMediaId":202},"The changing temperature gradients, at different points in the atmosphere, are used by meteorologists to divide the atmosphere into layers.\n\nYou can think of it like a gaseous cake with five main tiers.\n\n![Graph](image://1cfa0d21-3689-4888-bf5b-c9bb2fde80df \"Layers of the Earth's atmosphere. William Crochot, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe bottom layer of the atmosphere is called the **troposphere**. All the air you breathe? That’s the troposphere. All the weather you experience? That’s the troposphere too.\n\nThis part of the atmosphere has the highest pressure, as it’s right at the bottom of all the other layers. It’s also the densest layer, as the atmospheric pressure squeezes all the particles close together. As for temperature, it drops off as altitude increases.\n\nThen something strange happens. The temperature levels off, before starting to increase. This change in the direction of the temperature gradient marks the start of the next layer: the stratosphere.","33780ee8-8434-4c7e-8415-e4c12e05c1d0",5,[205,216,223],{"id":206,"data":207,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"c06a63a3-311c-426c-a90e-96c87bdcf3ab",{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"multiChoiceQuestion":208,"multiChoiceCorrect":210,"multiChoiceIncorrect":212,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[209],"What happens to temperature in the troposphere?",[211],"It decreases with altitude",[213,214,215],"It increases with altitude","It remains constant with altitude","It fluctuates randomly with altitude",{"id":217,"data":218,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"abf97838-d789-42e1-8506-42ee8f4b31fc",{"type":55,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":36,"activeRecallQuestion":219,"activeRecallAnswers":221},[220],"How do meteorologists differentiate between different atmospheric layers?",[222],"The temperature gradient changes direction",{"id":110,"data":224,"type":55,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"collapsingSiblings":225,"multiChoiceQuestion":226,"multiChoiceCorrect":228,"multiChoiceIncorrect":229,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":230,"matchPairsPairs":231},[105,108,109],[227],"Which of the following applies to temperature gradient reversals/transitions?",[118],[114,144,117],[100],[232],{"left":233,"right":118,"direction":19},"Reversals/transitions in temperature gradients",{"id":235,"data":236,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":50,"reviews":239},"55babdd9-b791-4b84-84ce-2cfe555ff473",{"type":36,"markdownContent":237,"audioMediaId":238},"The **stratosphere** is the atmospheric layer that starts about 7.5 miles (12 kilometers) above the Earth’s surface and stops about 23.5 miles (38 kilometers) later.\n\nIts most notable feature is the fact that it contains a high concentration of ozone.\n\n**Ozone** is a type of gas made of three oxygen atoms, which is great at absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the sun. It’s like a giant blanket sucking up heat — that’s why temperature increases as you get higher and higher in this layer.\n\nWith lower pressure, the air is much thinner up here than it is in the troposphere, and we don’t see any real weather. The odd cloud might stretch into the stratosphere, but most of the action happens down below.\n\nAbove the stratosphere, temperatures start decreasing again, which marks the next layer: the **mesosphere**.\n\nThe **mesosphere is** the atmospheric layer that starts at 31 miles (50 kilometers) and stops after another 19 miles (30 kilometers). There’s less ozone here, which is why the temperature starts to drop off. The highest point of the mesosphere is the coldest place in the atmosphere.","6864d200-884c-48e6-9e5b-ea9adda02a78",[240,251],{"id":241,"data":242,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"f68a3d15-5273-41c9-a6d1-a1062bdca431",{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"multiChoiceQuestion":243,"multiChoiceCorrect":245,"multiChoiceIncorrect":247,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[244],"The stratosphere contains a high concentration of ozone. But what is ozone made of?",[246],"Three oxygen atoms (O3)",[248,249,250],"One oxygen atom (O1)","Two oxygen atoms (O2)","Four oxygen atoms (O4)",{"id":252,"data":253,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"9ef9701f-7863-4715-b8cf-5580855a6f22",{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"collapsingSiblings":254,"multiChoiceQuestion":258,"multiChoiceCorrect":260,"multiChoiceIncorrect":262,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":266,"matchPairsPairs":267},[255,256,257],"a9ab0847-ca28-4d03-90d6-91b7fdea0bd1","7d8e49fb-0ba2-482a-94b3-e856074a12e6","f63092e7-c351-4084-8479-ba499e05c9eb",[259],"Which of the following applies to ozone?",[261],"Absorbs ultraviolet radiation",[263,264,265],"Up to 50 kilometers above Earth's surface","High-altitude wind, can exceed 250 km per hour","Currents of air at altitudes of about 8 to 15 kms",[100],[268],{"left":269,"right":261,"direction":19},"Ozone",{"id":271,"data":272,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":50,"reviews":275},"fb9a4ee4-3e0a-4062-a14f-338c09755615",{"type":36,"markdownContent":273,"audioMediaId":274},"The next layer is called the **thermosphere**. It’s the atmospheric layer that starts 50 miles (80 kilometers) from the surface of the Earth and continues upwards for a massive 390 miles (620 kilometers).\n\nIn some places, you might be able to glimpse it. This is where the aurora borealis and aurora australis usually take place.\n\n![Graph](image://1aa585f9-edcd-4e8a-836e-13f2059ab73d \"The aurora borealis. NASA, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAgain, it’s differentiated from the layer beneath by the fact that the temperature gradient changes. The temperature starts to climb again because the atoms here are absorbing a lot of high-energy solar radiation. This is the hottest layer in the atmosphere, which is why it’s called the thermosphere.","adb5020f-9840-42b3-b196-3abf346799c9",[276,287,297],{"id":109,"data":277,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"collapsingSiblings":278,"multiChoiceQuestion":279,"multiChoiceCorrect":281,"multiChoiceIncorrect":282,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":283,"matchPairsPairs":284},[105,108,110],[280],"Which of the following most closely applies to the thermosphere?",[117],[114,116,118],[100],[285],{"left":286,"right":117,"direction":19},"Thermosphere",{"id":288,"data":289,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"8f418c20-0071-4a7a-a8e6-6c3ab49119c9",{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"multiChoiceQuestion":290,"multiChoiceCorrect":292,"multiChoiceIncorrect":294,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[291],"At a height of 7.5 miles, a balloon descends from the stratosphere into the layer below it. Which atmospheric layer would this be?",[293],"Troposphere",[295,286,296],"Mesosphere","Exosphere",{"id":298,"data":299,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"e62d9671-b24a-4c7f-b857-465c76e233e8",{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"multiChoiceQuestion":300,"multiChoiceCorrect":302,"multiChoiceIncorrect":303,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[301],"At a height of 31 miles, a balloon ascends from the stratosphere into the layer above it. Which atmospheric layer would this be?",[295],[293,286,296],{"id":305,"data":306,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":309},"06558a47-243a-4870-9caf-1edc311b7656",{"type":36,"markdownContent":307,"audioMediaId":308},"Last but not least — right at the top of this atmospheric cake — is the **exosphere**.\n\nIt’s the atmospheric layer that starts 440 miles (700 kilometers) up in the air, then continues upwards for a staggering 5760 miles (9300 kilometers).\n\n![Graph](image://25938e58-c38e-4bc3-b605-c6f806fde9e1 \"The exosphere. Kevin Gill from Los Angeles, CA, United States, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHere, the temperature drops again, as the atmosphere starts to merge with outer space. The higher you get, the fewer gases there are, until there’s nothing there at all.","99a07389-0846-4cc1-9dc7-42832a39aabb",[310],{"id":311,"data":312,"type":55,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19},"bb409e7d-5bbf-4af6-8c6f-19cf78eebbf9",{"type":55,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":36,"orderAxisType":313,"orderQuestion":314,"orderItems":316},15,[315],"Order the atmospheric sphere's by their distance from the Earth's surface (from the shortest distance to the longest):",[317,320,322,324],{"label":318,"reveal":319,"sortOrder":4},"Stratosphere","7.5 miles (12 km) from Earth",{"label":295,"reveal":321,"sortOrder":36},"31 miles (50 km) from Earth",{"label":286,"reveal":323,"sortOrder":25},"50 miles (80 km) from Earth",{"label":296,"reveal":325,"sortOrder":19},"440 miles (700 km) from Earth",{"id":327,"data":328,"type":25,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":330,"introPage":338,"pages":344},"38ac07b0-4300-4825-a075-a37817a62dbf",{"type":25,"title":329},"Local Atmospheric Movement",{"id":331,"data":332,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":36},"b52cd8fc-d7c2-4f6c-8af6-1635c112a461",{"type":19,"summary":333},[334,335,336,337],"The troposphere is where all the weather action happens","Land heats up faster than water, causing temperature differences","Hot air rises, cool air sinks, creating wind","Sea breezes and land breezes are examples of local wind patterns",{"id":339,"data":340,"type":40,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":36},"85857b43-03a9-4c98-b5f2-6e2b72e3a77e",{"type":40,"intro":341},[342,343],"What causes the constant motion in the troposphere?","How are land and sea breezes are formed?",[345,358,375],{"id":346,"data":347,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":350},"77c6af32-b7db-457f-843a-3553072b35fb",{"type":36,"markdownContent":348,"audioMediaId":349},"In the context of meteorology, the most important layer of the atmosphere is the troposphere. \n\nThis is where all the action happens. The air in the troposphere is constantly in motion, like a churning, gaseous sea.\n\nIt mostly comes down to temperature differences. We’ve already discussed the lapse rate in the tropospheres, but this isn’t the only factor that influences the troposphere’s temperature.\n\nThink about it: the air by the sea is usually cooler than the air a little further inland. The altitude might be the same in both places, but the temperature is still quite different.\n\nThis is because the land has a lower heat capacity than water — that’s the energy it takes to raise a body’s temperature. In other words, it takes less energy to raise the temperature of land than it does to raise the temperature of water. They could both receive the same amount of sunlight, but the land would warm faster, mainly because it’s more dense and opaque.\n\nAnd as the land gets warmer, so does the air above it. This leads to local differences in temperature — and these differences lead to some very important side effects.","bec72572-82e3-4710-aac2-7ccfa25b7292",[351],{"id":352,"data":353,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"651784d9-170d-4e04-afcf-10dc77dadd5b",{"type":55,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":36,"activeRecallQuestion":354,"activeRecallAnswers":356},[355],"Why does land have a lower heat capacity than water?",[357],"It's dense and opaque",{"id":359,"data":360,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":363},"b3717ee6-8734-4b70-aa26-6709b7d37184",{"type":36,"markdownContent":361,"audioMediaId":362},"When air gets hotter, it gets lighter. This causes the air to rise. \n\nWhen air gets cooler, it gets heavier. This causes the air to sink.\n\nThis simple process is an essential part of meteorology. When a patch of air warms up — for example, over a landmass — it rises upwards. At the same time, cooler air from neighboring areas will flow in to replace it.\n\nWe experience this as wind: a flow of air from one part of the atmosphere to the other.\n\nAs that hot patch of air gets higher in altitude, the lapse rate will cool it down again. As it starts to get heavier, it will sink back down again.\n\nThis is why the troposphere is constantly in motion: patches of air are always heating and cooling, rising and falling and flowing. \n\nIn meteorology, a patch of hot, rising air is called a low-pressure system. A patch of cold, sinking air is called a high-pressure system.\n\n![Graph](image://585908a7-bd82-47a7-b3a6-8e8601180d4a \"High pressure system. NASA, MODIS Rapid Response System, Public domain/CCO, \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/share-your-work/public-domain/> via Wikimedia Commons\")","6409d2cd-abca-44d4-813e-fd84a33fd76b",[364],{"id":365,"data":366,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"4ad72bc7-1dc1-4dc1-b55e-ab24349b9a93",{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"multiChoiceQuestion":367,"multiChoiceCorrect":369,"multiChoiceIncorrect":371,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[368],"In meteorology, a patch of hot, rising air is called what?",[370],"Low pressure system",[372,373,374],"High pressure system","Low temperature system","High temperature system",{"id":376,"data":377,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":380},"a7d00fee-b1fc-4a5b-ae86-93f39ecca881",{"type":36,"markdownContent":378,"audioMediaId":379},"Local movements of air, caused by differences in temperature, are sometimes referred to as microscale wind patterns.\n\nSea breezes and land breezes are common examples. During the day, the land heats up faster than the water, and a breeze pulls in from the sea. \n\nAt night, the land cools faster than the water, so a breeze flows back out to the sea.\n\n![Graph](image://e12fc6aa-99c0-4a33-a125-fbad547427b7 \"Sea and land breezes. Ingwik, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nMountain breezes are another example. During the day, the air on the sunlit slopes of a mountain heats up, while the shaded valley remains cool. This leads to a breeze flowing up from the valley to the mountain.\n\nThese different breezes are good examples of the interconnectedness between the atmosphere, the troposphere, and the lithosphere. By looking at the distribution of land and water in a specific area, a meteorologist should be able to predict the behavior of microscale winds.","64e51ba8-4c32-4fb3-ab90-76add2709146",[381,390],{"id":382,"data":383,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"e8f41cce-4bbc-497a-8c84-03aca49b29bb",{"type":55,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":36,"binaryQuestion":384,"binaryCorrect":386,"binaryIncorrect":388},[385],"During the day, would breezes flow from the land to the sea, or from the sea to the land?",[387],"Sea to land",[389],"Land to sea",{"id":391,"data":392,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"a1f63e67-1fbd-4ee5-86ed-9fb08b2283ef",{"type":55,"reviewType":50,"spacingBehaviour":36,"clozeQuestion":393,"clozeWords":395},[394],"Local movements of air are sometimes referred to as microscale wind patterns.",[396],"microscale",{"id":398,"data":399,"type":25,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":401,"introPage":409,"pages":415},"9f5cd692-469d-4126-b3e2-c1cd4cb62d80",{"type":25,"title":400},"Global Atmospheric Movement",{"id":402,"data":403,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":36},"8e3563ed-4650-4d7d-907d-5322925b1ef8",{"type":19,"summary":404},[405,406,407,408],"The equator gets more sunlight than the poles because of Earth's tilt","Hot air rises at the equator and flows towards the poles","The Coriolis Effect makes air veer right in the north and left in the south","Global winds curve west due to Earth's rotation",{"id":410,"data":411,"type":40,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":36},"06b3dabf-30f1-4ecd-86b7-aff02d70301a",{"type":40,"intro":412},[413,414],"What's the role of Earth's tilt in creating global temperature differences?","How does the Coriolis Effect influence global wind patterns?",[416,433,448],{"id":417,"data":418,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":421},"524c5a98-94c9-4845-b781-972e619eeedb",{"type":36,"markdownContent":419,"audioMediaId":420},"Along with local temperature differences, like those between sea and land, there are also global differences in atmospheric temperatures. These also have a major impact on the movement of air in the troposphere.\n\nThe Sahara Desert and the North Pole are at roughly the same altitude. But is the temperature of the air in the Sahara Desert the same as the air in the Arctic? Of course not.\n\n![Graph](image://69eb3355-2ade-4240-9ea5-8aad884c783f \"Global daily temperatures. Robert A. Rohde, CC BY 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis uneven heating is mainly due to the tilt of the Earth's axis. This tilt means the equator receives more sunlight than the poles, and consequently, the troposphere in equatorial regions will be warmer.","0b1f6a84-55ec-4096-b9fe-0f88daf73236",[422],{"id":423,"data":424,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"c4118494-9ced-4d67-beab-395a3df9df6a",{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"multiChoiceQuestion":425,"multiChoiceCorrect":427,"multiChoiceIncorrect":429,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[426],"Which part of the Earth receives the most sunlight?",[428],"Equator",[430,431,432],"Tropics","North Pole","South Pole",{"id":434,"data":435,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":438},"a7e5e39a-9576-48ff-8cf1-45f8a382277a",{"type":36,"markdownContent":436,"audioMediaId":437},"On a global scale, the temperature differences between the equator and the poles lead to massive movements of air. These are referred to as **global wind patterns**, or atmospheric circulation.\n\nAs a general principle, hot air rises at the equator, then flows north and south towards the poles. At the same time, cold air from the poles flows back towards the equator. This happens at a lower elevation than the hot air, and leads to global winds.\n\nThis model was devised by William Hadley, a British meteorologist, in the 1700s. But it doesn’t tell the whole story. Other factors influence global wind patterns. For example, the rotation of the Earth.","2f4714dd-6e81-4bcc-a053-c00ef564a1a6",[439],{"id":440,"data":441,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"adf07427-ce83-4fb6-9fe6-9a21149a57e6",{"type":55,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":36,"binaryQuestion":442,"binaryCorrect":444,"binaryIncorrect":446},[443],"According to Hadley's theory, global winds travel in which direction?",[445],"From the poles to the equator",[447],"From the equator to the poles",{"id":449,"data":450,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":453},"fee43f94-dcc8-495b-8527-cf13efcbb7a5",{"type":36,"markdownContent":451,"audioMediaId":452},"The **Coriolis Effect** is an important phenomenon that results from the Earth's rotation. It causes moving air to veer to the right in the northern hemisphere and veer to the left in the southern hemisphere.\n\nActually, that isn’t quite accurate. The air is still moving in a straight line, but it *appears* to be veering because the Earth is rotating underneath it.\n\nThis is why Hadley’s model of atmospheric circulation isn’t entirely accurate. As well as moving from the equator in the direction of the poles, global winds also veer, or curve, to one side.\n\nIn the northern hemisphere, they veer west as they travel from the Arctic to the equator, giving an overall southwesterly direction. In the southern hemisphere, they also veer to the west, giving an overall northwesterly direction.\n\n![Graph](image://3cec5025-0302-448c-a9ad-e7cbabf77ac2 \"Harvesting global winds. Tom Brewster Photography, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","f60b74f0-cfa6-4ff1-8b96-f28197947005",[454,473,484],{"id":455,"data":456,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"ad3bf9d3-74d0-4037-86f3-1cdfb3f507fc",{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"collapsingSiblings":457,"multiChoiceQuestion":461,"multiChoiceCorrect":463,"multiChoiceIncorrect":465,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":469,"matchPairsPairs":470},[458,459,460],"8c4d04eb-a4ae-4369-863b-94f44eed3b99","b593dfdf-d466-4bc7-afc4-52f669af3282","ec3fc49d-1b48-43ae-a1f9-16537d882393",[462],"Which of the following most closely applies to the Coriolis Effect?",[464],"Causes moving air to veer due to Earth's rotation",[466,467,468],"Can influence dispersion of pollutants","Reflects sunlight back into space, cools planet","Traps heat radiating from Earth's surface, warms planet",[100],[471],{"left":472,"right":464,"direction":19},"Coriolis Effect",{"id":474,"data":475,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"341abc9f-2c2c-4f9f-9612-c923cd3fce1a",{"type":55,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":36,"multiChoiceQuestion":476,"multiChoiceCorrect":478,"multiChoiceIncorrect":480,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[477],"The Coriolis Effect causes global winds to veer in which direction?",[479],"West",[481,482,483],"North","South","East",{"id":485,"data":486,"type":55,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":19},"18557802-fff9-422c-992f-8d463a08d486",{"type":55,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":36,"binaryQuestion":487,"binaryCorrect":489,"binaryIncorrect":491},[488],"A weather balloon is released in Norway. Would the global winds transport it to Spain (south-west) or Turkey (south-east)?",[490],"Spain",[492],"Turkey",[494,605,791,920],{"id":23,"data":24,"type":25,"version":27,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":28,"introPage":37,"pages":495},[496,543,570],{"id":46,"data":47,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":50,"reviews":51,"parsed":497},{"data":498,"body":501,"toc":541},{"title":499,"description":500},"","The atmosphere is primarily made up of two important gases: nitrogen and oxygen.",{"type":502,"children":503},"root",[504,511,516,526,531,536],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":507,"children":508},"element","p",{},[509],{"type":510,"value":500},"text",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":512,"children":513},{},[514],{"type":510,"value":515},"These account for about 78% of the atmosphere, and 21% of the atmosphere, respectively. The remaining 1% of the atmosphere is a diverse mix of gases such as argon (0.9%), methane, and carbon dioxide.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":517,"children":518},{},[519],{"type":505,"tag":520,"props":521,"children":525},"img",{"alt":522,"src":523,"title":524},"Graph","image://3788555a-1124-4adf-9c18-ef579e9ac566","Atmospheric gases. Dbc334, Public domain/CC0, \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/share-your-work/public-domain/> via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":527,"children":528},{},[529],{"type":510,"value":530},"The atmosphere also contains varying amounts of water vapor. Take a look at the sky, and you might see some of it now in the form of a passing cloud.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":532,"children":533},{},[534],{"type":510,"value":535},"The atmosphere also contains aerosols: Tiny particles including dust, volcanic ash, pollutants, spores, and pollen.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":537,"children":538},{},[539],{"type":510,"value":540},"In other words, the atmosphere is a soup of different components. And it’s also important to understand how this atmospheric soup behaves. There are two main factors to be aware of: pressure and temperature.",{"title":499,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":542},[],{"id":79,"data":80,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":50,"reviews":83,"parsed":544},{"data":545,"body":547,"toc":568},{"title":499,"description":546},"Atmospheric pressure — also known as air pressure — is a relatively simple concept.",{"type":502,"children":548},[549,553,558,563],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":550,"children":551},{},[552],{"type":510,"value":546},{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":554,"children":555},{},[556],{"type":510,"value":557},"Take any point in the atmosphere, and think about the weight of all the air above it. This weight applies pressure as it squeezes down on that point.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":559,"children":560},{},[561],{"type":510,"value":562},"As a general rule, pressure reduces as you get higher in the atmosphere because there’s less air above you, and therefore less weight pushing down. It’s just like the ocean. The pressure of the water is much higher at the bottom than it is just beneath the surface.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":564,"children":565},{},[566],{"type":510,"value":567},"Millibars (mb) are a unit of pressure that meteorologists use to describe the atmosphere. At sea level, the average air pressure is just over 1000 mb. At the top of Mount Everest, air pressure is closer to 300 mb.",{"title":499,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":569},[],{"id":132,"data":133,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":27,"reviews":136,"parsed":571},{"data":572,"body":574,"toc":603},{"title":499,"description":573},"Speaking of mountains: if you’ve ever climbed one, you might have noticed that the atmosphere feels colder at the top than it does at the bottom.",{"type":502,"children":575},[576,580,593,598],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":577,"children":578},{},[579],{"type":510,"value":573},{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":581,"children":582},{},[583,585,591],{"type":510,"value":584},"This principle is known as the ",{"type":505,"tag":586,"props":587,"children":588},"strong",{},[589],{"type":510,"value":590},"lapse rate",{"type":510,"value":592},": the rate at which the temperature falls as we get higher in altitude, just like atmospheric pressure.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":594,"children":595},{},[596],{"type":510,"value":597},"But unlike pressure, this principle only takes us so far. At a height of approximately 5 miles (8 kilometers) the temperature of the atmosphere actually starts to go up. Even higher, it drops again, then it starts to go up again, yo-yo-ing back and forth.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":599,"children":600},{},[601],{"type":510,"value":602},"We’ll discuss this in more detail later. For now, it’s just important to know that atmospheric temperature gradients — that’s the change in temperature in relation to altitude — aren’t as linear as changes in pressure.",{"title":499,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":604},[],{"id":180,"data":181,"type":25,"version":27,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":183,"introPage":191,"pages":606},[607,654,716,754],{"id":199,"data":200,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":203,"reviews":204,"parsed":608},{"data":609,"body":611,"toc":652},{"title":499,"description":610},"The changing temperature gradients, at different points in the atmosphere, are used by meteorologists to divide the atmosphere into layers.",{"type":502,"children":612},[613,617,622,630,642,647],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":614,"children":615},{},[616],{"type":510,"value":610},{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":618,"children":619},{},[620],{"type":510,"value":621},"You can think of it like a gaseous cake with five main tiers.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":623,"children":624},{},[625],{"type":505,"tag":520,"props":626,"children":629},{"alt":522,"src":627,"title":628},"image://1cfa0d21-3689-4888-bf5b-c9bb2fde80df","Layers of the Earth's atmosphere. William Crochot, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":631,"children":632},{},[633,635,640],{"type":510,"value":634},"The bottom layer of the atmosphere is called the ",{"type":505,"tag":586,"props":636,"children":637},{},[638],{"type":510,"value":639},"troposphere",{"type":510,"value":641},". All the air you breathe? That’s the troposphere. All the weather you experience? That’s the troposphere too.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":643,"children":644},{},[645],{"type":510,"value":646},"This part of the atmosphere has the highest pressure, as it’s right at the bottom of all the other layers. It’s also the densest layer, as the atmospheric pressure squeezes all the particles close together. As for temperature, it drops off as altitude increases.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":648,"children":649},{},[650],{"type":510,"value":651},"Then something strange happens. The temperature levels off, before starting to increase. This change in the direction of the temperature gradient marks the start of the next layer: the stratosphere.",{"title":499,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":653},[],{"id":235,"data":236,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":50,"reviews":239,"parsed":655},{"data":656,"body":658,"toc":714},{"title":499,"description":657},"The stratosphere is the atmospheric layer that starts about 7.5 miles (12 kilometers) above the Earth’s surface and stops about 23.5 miles (38 kilometers) later.",{"type":502,"children":659},[660,672,677,686,691,703],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":661,"children":662},{},[663,665,670],{"type":510,"value":664},"The ",{"type":505,"tag":586,"props":666,"children":667},{},[668],{"type":510,"value":669},"stratosphere",{"type":510,"value":671}," is the atmospheric layer that starts about 7.5 miles (12 kilometers) above the Earth’s surface and stops about 23.5 miles (38 kilometers) later.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":673,"children":674},{},[675],{"type":510,"value":676},"Its most notable feature is the fact that it contains a high concentration of ozone.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":678,"children":679},{},[680,684],{"type":505,"tag":586,"props":681,"children":682},{},[683],{"type":510,"value":269},{"type":510,"value":685}," is a type of gas made of three oxygen atoms, which is great at absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the sun. It’s like a giant blanket sucking up heat — that’s why temperature increases as you get higher and higher in this layer.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":687,"children":688},{},[689],{"type":510,"value":690},"With lower pressure, the air is much thinner up here than it is in the troposphere, and we don’t see any real weather. The odd cloud might stretch into the stratosphere, but most of the action happens down below.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":692,"children":693},{},[694,696,701],{"type":510,"value":695},"Above the stratosphere, temperatures start decreasing again, which marks the next layer: the ",{"type":505,"tag":586,"props":697,"children":698},{},[699],{"type":510,"value":700},"mesosphere",{"type":510,"value":702},".",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":704,"children":705},{},[706,707,712],{"type":510,"value":664},{"type":505,"tag":586,"props":708,"children":709},{},[710],{"type":510,"value":711},"mesosphere is",{"type":510,"value":713}," the atmospheric layer that starts at 31 miles (50 kilometers) and stops after another 19 miles (30 kilometers). There’s less ozone here, which is why the temperature starts to drop off. The highest point of the mesosphere is the coldest place in the atmosphere.",{"title":499,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":715},[],{"id":271,"data":272,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":50,"reviews":275,"parsed":717},{"data":718,"body":720,"toc":752},{"title":499,"description":719},"The next layer is called the thermosphere. It’s the atmospheric layer that starts 50 miles (80 kilometers) from the surface of the Earth and continues upwards for a massive 390 miles (620 kilometers).",{"type":502,"children":721},[722,734,739,747],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":723,"children":724},{},[725,727,732],{"type":510,"value":726},"The next layer is called the ",{"type":505,"tag":586,"props":728,"children":729},{},[730],{"type":510,"value":731},"thermosphere",{"type":510,"value":733},". It’s the atmospheric layer that starts 50 miles (80 kilometers) from the surface of the Earth and continues upwards for a massive 390 miles (620 kilometers).",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":735,"children":736},{},[737],{"type":510,"value":738},"In some places, you might be able to glimpse it. This is where the aurora borealis and aurora australis usually take place.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":740,"children":741},{},[742],{"type":505,"tag":520,"props":743,"children":746},{"alt":522,"src":744,"title":745},"image://1aa585f9-edcd-4e8a-836e-13f2059ab73d","The aurora borealis. NASA, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":748,"children":749},{},[750],{"type":510,"value":751},"Again, it’s differentiated from the layer beneath by the fact that the temperature gradient changes. The temperature starts to climb again because the atoms here are absorbing a lot of high-energy solar radiation. This is the hottest layer in the atmosphere, which is why it’s called the thermosphere.",{"title":499,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":753},[],{"id":305,"data":306,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":309,"parsed":755},{"data":756,"body":758,"toc":789},{"title":499,"description":757},"Last but not least — right at the top of this atmospheric cake — is the exosphere.",{"type":502,"children":759},[760,771,776,784],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":761,"children":762},{},[763,765,770],{"type":510,"value":764},"Last but not least — right at the top of this atmospheric cake — is the ",{"type":505,"tag":586,"props":766,"children":767},{},[768],{"type":510,"value":769},"exosphere",{"type":510,"value":702},{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":772,"children":773},{},[774],{"type":510,"value":775},"It’s the atmospheric layer that starts 440 miles (700 kilometers) up in the air, then continues upwards for a staggering 5760 miles (9300 kilometers).",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":777,"children":778},{},[779],{"type":505,"tag":520,"props":780,"children":783},{"alt":522,"src":781,"title":782},"image://25938e58-c38e-4bc3-b605-c6f806fde9e1","The exosphere. Kevin Gill from Los Angeles, CA, United States, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":785,"children":786},{},[787],{"type":510,"value":788},"Here, the temperature drops again, as the atmosphere starts to merge with outer space. The higher you get, the fewer gases there are, until there’s nothing there at all.",{"title":499,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":790},[],{"id":327,"data":328,"type":25,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":330,"introPage":338,"pages":792},[793,830,880],{"id":346,"data":347,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":350,"parsed":794},{"data":795,"body":797,"toc":828},{"title":499,"description":796},"In the context of meteorology, the most important layer of the atmosphere is the troposphere.",{"type":502,"children":798},[799,803,808,813,818,823],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":800,"children":801},{},[802],{"type":510,"value":796},{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":804,"children":805},{},[806],{"type":510,"value":807},"This is where all the action happens. The air in the troposphere is constantly in motion, like a churning, gaseous sea.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":809,"children":810},{},[811],{"type":510,"value":812},"It mostly comes down to temperature differences. We’ve already discussed the lapse rate in the tropospheres, but this isn’t the only factor that influences the troposphere’s temperature.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":814,"children":815},{},[816],{"type":510,"value":817},"Think about it: the air by the sea is usually cooler than the air a little further inland. The altitude might be the same in both places, but the temperature is still quite different.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":819,"children":820},{},[821],{"type":510,"value":822},"This is because the land has a lower heat capacity than water — that’s the energy it takes to raise a body’s temperature. In other words, it takes less energy to raise the temperature of land than it does to raise the temperature of water. They could both receive the same amount of sunlight, but the land would warm faster, mainly because it’s more dense and opaque.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":824,"children":825},{},[826],{"type":510,"value":827},"And as the land gets warmer, so does the air above it. This leads to local differences in temperature — and these differences lead to some very important side effects.",{"title":499,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":829},[],{"id":359,"data":360,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":363,"parsed":831},{"data":832,"body":834,"toc":878},{"title":499,"description":833},"When air gets hotter, it gets lighter. This causes the air to rise.",{"type":502,"children":835},[836,840,845,850,855,860,865,870],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":837,"children":838},{},[839],{"type":510,"value":833},{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":841,"children":842},{},[843],{"type":510,"value":844},"When air gets cooler, it gets heavier. This causes the air to sink.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":846,"children":847},{},[848],{"type":510,"value":849},"This simple process is an essential part of meteorology. When a patch of air warms up — for example, over a landmass — it rises upwards. At the same time, cooler air from neighboring areas will flow in to replace it.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":851,"children":852},{},[853],{"type":510,"value":854},"We experience this as wind: a flow of air from one part of the atmosphere to the other.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":856,"children":857},{},[858],{"type":510,"value":859},"As that hot patch of air gets higher in altitude, the lapse rate will cool it down again. As it starts to get heavier, it will sink back down again.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":861,"children":862},{},[863],{"type":510,"value":864},"This is why the troposphere is constantly in motion: patches of air are always heating and cooling, rising and falling and flowing.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":866,"children":867},{},[868],{"type":510,"value":869},"In meteorology, a patch of hot, rising air is called a low-pressure system. A patch of cold, sinking air is called a high-pressure system.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":871,"children":872},{},[873],{"type":505,"tag":520,"props":874,"children":877},{"alt":522,"src":875,"title":876},"image://585908a7-bd82-47a7-b3a6-8e8601180d4a","High pressure system. NASA, MODIS Rapid Response System, Public domain/CCO, \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/share-your-work/public-domain/> via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":499,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":879},[],{"id":376,"data":377,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":380,"parsed":881},{"data":882,"body":884,"toc":918},{"title":499,"description":883},"Local movements of air, caused by differences in temperature, are sometimes referred to as microscale wind patterns.",{"type":502,"children":885},[886,890,895,900,908,913],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":887,"children":888},{},[889],{"type":510,"value":883},{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":891,"children":892},{},[893],{"type":510,"value":894},"Sea breezes and land breezes are common examples. During the day, the land heats up faster than the water, and a breeze pulls in from the sea.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":896,"children":897},{},[898],{"type":510,"value":899},"At night, the land cools faster than the water, so a breeze flows back out to the sea.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":901,"children":902},{},[903],{"type":505,"tag":520,"props":904,"children":907},{"alt":522,"src":905,"title":906},"image://e12fc6aa-99c0-4a33-a125-fbad547427b7","Sea and land breezes. Ingwik, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":909,"children":910},{},[911],{"type":510,"value":912},"Mountain breezes are another example. During the day, the air on the sunlit slopes of a mountain heats up, while the shaded valley remains cool. This leads to a breeze flowing up from the valley to the mountain.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":914,"children":915},{},[916],{"type":510,"value":917},"These different breezes are good examples of the interconnectedness between the atmosphere, the troposphere, and the lithosphere. By looking at the distribution of land and water in a specific area, a meteorologist should be able to predict the behavior of microscale winds.",{"title":499,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":919},[],{"id":398,"data":399,"type":25,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":401,"introPage":409,"pages":921},[922,952,982],{"id":417,"data":418,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":421,"parsed":923},{"data":924,"body":926,"toc":950},{"title":499,"description":925},"Along with local temperature differences, like those between sea and land, there are also global differences in atmospheric temperatures. These also have a major impact on the movement of air in the troposphere.",{"type":502,"children":927},[928,932,937,945],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":929,"children":930},{},[931],{"type":510,"value":925},{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":933,"children":934},{},[935],{"type":510,"value":936},"The Sahara Desert and the North Pole are at roughly the same altitude. But is the temperature of the air in the Sahara Desert the same as the air in the Arctic? Of course not.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":938,"children":939},{},[940],{"type":505,"tag":520,"props":941,"children":944},{"alt":522,"src":942,"title":943},"image://69eb3355-2ade-4240-9ea5-8aad884c783f","Global daily temperatures. Robert A. Rohde, CC BY 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":946,"children":947},{},[948],{"type":510,"value":949},"This uneven heating is mainly due to the tilt of the Earth's axis. This tilt means the equator receives more sunlight than the poles, and consequently, the troposphere in equatorial regions will be warmer.",{"title":499,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":951},[],{"id":434,"data":435,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":438,"parsed":953},{"data":954,"body":956,"toc":980},{"title":499,"description":955},"On a global scale, the temperature differences between the equator and the poles lead to massive movements of air. These are referred to as global wind patterns, or atmospheric circulation.",{"type":502,"children":957},[958,970,975],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":959,"children":960},{},[961,963,968],{"type":510,"value":962},"On a global scale, the temperature differences between the equator and the poles lead to massive movements of air. These are referred to as ",{"type":505,"tag":586,"props":964,"children":965},{},[966],{"type":510,"value":967},"global wind patterns",{"type":510,"value":969},", or atmospheric circulation.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":971,"children":972},{},[973],{"type":510,"value":974},"As a general principle, hot air rises at the equator, then flows north and south towards the poles. At the same time, cold air from the poles flows back towards the equator. This happens at a lower elevation than the hot air, and leads to global winds.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":976,"children":977},{},[978],{"type":510,"value":979},"This model was devised by William Hadley, a British meteorologist, in the 1700s. But it doesn’t tell the whole story. Other factors influence global wind patterns. For example, the rotation of the Earth.",{"title":499,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":981},[],{"id":449,"data":450,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":453,"parsed":983},{"data":984,"body":986,"toc":1029},{"title":499,"description":985},"The Coriolis Effect is an important phenomenon that results from the Earth's rotation. It causes moving air to veer to the right in the northern hemisphere and veer to the left in the southern hemisphere.",{"type":502,"children":987},[988,998,1011,1016,1021],{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":989,"children":990},{},[991,992,996],{"type":510,"value":664},{"type":505,"tag":586,"props":993,"children":994},{},[995],{"type":510,"value":472},{"type":510,"value":997}," is an important phenomenon that results from the Earth's rotation. It causes moving air to veer to the right in the northern hemisphere and veer to the left in the southern hemisphere.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":999,"children":1000},{},[1001,1003,1009],{"type":510,"value":1002},"Actually, that isn’t quite accurate. The air is still moving in a straight line, but it ",{"type":505,"tag":1004,"props":1005,"children":1006},"em",{},[1007],{"type":510,"value":1008},"appears",{"type":510,"value":1010}," to be veering because the Earth is rotating underneath it.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":1012,"children":1013},{},[1014],{"type":510,"value":1015},"This is why Hadley’s model of atmospheric circulation isn’t entirely accurate. As well as moving from the equator in the direction of the poles, global winds also veer, or curve, to one side.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":1017,"children":1018},{},[1019],{"type":510,"value":1020},"In the northern hemisphere, they veer west as they travel from the Arctic to the equator, giving an overall southwesterly direction. In the southern hemisphere, they also veer to the west, giving an overall northwesterly direction.",{"type":505,"tag":506,"props":1022,"children":1023},{},[1024],{"type":505,"tag":520,"props":1025,"children":1028},{"alt":522,"src":1026,"title":1027},"image://3cec5025-0302-448c-a9ad-e7cbabf77ac2","Harvesting global winds. Tom Brewster Photography, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":499,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":1030},[],{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1032,"height":1032,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1033},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1032,"height":1032,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1035},"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"M4 5h16M4 12h16M4 19h16\"/>",1778179399737]