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noise",[36],{"id":37,"data":38,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":40},"4d6da48f-08d0-4426-9a17-7df5860e6c60",{"type":26,"title":39},"The Current Climate Crisis",[41,60,74,90],{"id":42,"data":43,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":47},"72ec27ab-50e7-4413-8788-f21c590f048a",{"type":25,"title":44,"markdownContent":45,"audioMediaId":46},"The situation today","“It’s now or never, if we want to limit global warming to 1.5°C (2.7°F); without immediate and deep emissions reductions across all sectors, it will be impossible”\n\n ![Graph](image://c862c762-e3bd-448b-aa19-72239bb2938c \"The Yangtze river drought of 2022\")\n\nThis was the UN’s bleak analysis of the state of climate change in November 2022. Such statements might once have seemed alarmist, but for most of us, they’ve started to feel like a weekly occurrence.\n\nClimate change – once a slightly unbelievable future problem – has become an all-too-real concern for all of us. It’s difficult to open your front door without being confronted with it – whether from an advert on the side of the bus, or the fact that you’re wearing a t-shirt in winter.\n\n\n\n\n","1bf34e2a-1226-431b-8d92-44f37d27a845",[48],{"id":49,"data":50,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"2439703b-e8db-4dbb-85e0-ffe85cbbbbdc",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":52,"multiChoiceCorrect":54,"multiChoiceIncorrect":56},11,[53],"In 2022 the UN said it was 'now or never', to limit global warming to what level?",[55],"1.5°C",[57,58,59],"2.5°C","1°C","2°C",{"id":61,"data":62,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":66},"092d3317-c0a7-4fb8-82bd-7b208e646f5e",{"type":25,"title":63,"markdownContent":64,"audioMediaId":65},"The fundamentals","It’s a good thing that climate change has gained this presence in our lives – it is an unignorable problem.\n\nBut there’s also a risk to this. Many of us have become desensitized – so bombarded with different messages about the climate that we forget exactly what this threat is, and how we should approach solving it. \n\n ![Graph](image://0cbacaf5-012f-45ac-bdf6-c49f94b71400 \"We've become used to urgent climate messages\")\n\nClimate change is first and foremost a scientific process – it’s easy to forget that, when so much of our experience of it comes from commercials and headlines.\n\nIn light of this it’s never been more important to understand the science behind climate change, and its potential solutions.\n\n","d2e5e556-1fb3-441c-b79a-7bd8f07f3d1a",[67],{"id":68,"data":69,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"31739f95-0fe4-44f3-bbc4-44ff618b0d8f",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":70,"clozeWords":72},[71],"The risk from relying too heavily on commercials and headlines is that we lose sight of the science",[73],"science",{"id":75,"data":76,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":80},"f504e647-d041-430d-b6c7-14176229cf1a",{"type":25,"title":77,"markdownContent":78,"audioMediaId":79},"What we get wrong about climate change","The biggest misconception many people have about climate change is that it’s a single problem.\n\nIn reality, the battle to save the climate is being fought on many disparate fronts. The issue of plastic pollution is different from the issue of deforestation, which is different from the issue of greenhouse gas emissions. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://b09aa6c8-ea71-41b9-8ec1-8443d1540450 \"A concrete production plant\")\n\n\nEven within the issue of greenhouse gasses, there are many different battles to be won – the fight against methane emissions from livestock requires a different approach from the need to reduce carbon dioxide from concrete production.\n\nIn order to truly grasp the structural scale and complexity of the problem faced with climate change, it’s important to understand the discrete issues that contribute to it.","68c146c3-e09e-4d4b-b8b8-bb6c35365d46",[81],{"id":82,"data":83,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"efc431de-15c3-4fd1-b925-e7ea85e7d7d1",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":84,"binaryCorrect":86,"binaryIncorrect":88},[85],"Which of these is a more accurate description of climate change?",[87],"A collection of battles",[89],"A single problem",{"id":91,"data":92,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25},"6fd93bbd-1135-4853-9427-cca83bd46b07",{"type":25,"title":93,"markdownContent":94,"audioMediaId":95},"Why this matters","Anyone who’s opened a newspaper in the last five years will have noticed a gradual increase in the urgency of the debate. \n\nFrom celebrities, to students, to CEOs, there are a lot of voices struggling to be heard in the climate discussion. The way to cut through this noise is to understand the phenomenon itself.\n\nIt’s worth taking the time to truly understand the fundamentals that inform this debate. This is the science of climate change – and it may just be the most important issue of any of our lifetimes. \n","825ba3df-57e5-420d-ba78-517a92d1b2c9",{"id":97,"data":98,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"orbs":101},"e6c68a36-6bea-4038-8b72-932cb90642ce",{"type":27,"title":99,"tagline":100},"What is Climate Change?","What is climate change and what causes it? An introduction to the global crisis.",[102,199,263],{"id":103,"data":104,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":106},"0344f506-d0a8-4be8-a1fd-a6fdef8309b0",{"type":26,"title":105},"Understanding Climate Change",[107,130,146,169,185],{"id":108,"data":109,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":113},"f7a9fb25-6383-4e7a-b6c2-882243969fdb",{"type":25,"title":110,"markdownContent":111,"audioMediaId":112},"Introduction to climate change","Climate change is the crisis of our times. The strange weather patterns, rising sea levels, ocean acidification, species extinction, and the melting of glaciers are all linked to global warming and climate change. \n\n ![Graph](image://9b36fb10-64b3-40d9-ab11-61f32fb6aad4 \"Many global systems are being destabilized by climate change\")\n\nAlthough we are not at the point of no return yet, we’ve reached a point where the implications of climate change can no longer be ignored and serious actions are required. Though humans are the main cause for climate change, we can also be the solution. \n\nThis is why countries around the globe are holding hands to find solutions and remediation strategies to combat climate change. The world has recently shifted gears to look at alternative low carbon energy solutions to provide a ‘clean’ sustainable future. But will this be enough to save our planet?  And will we be able to right the wrongs of fossil fuels that we, as humans, have been depending on for the past few hundred years? Let’s find out! \n\n\n","6027598f-9407-4a8b-bdaf-f40ace65e716",[114,121],{"id":115,"data":116,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"d663b8b3-f4a8-4dc7-a904-22ba33a13c11",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":117,"activeRecallAnswers":119},[118],"What kind of energy is the world increasingly seeking out to prevent climate change?",[120],"Low-carbon energy",{"id":122,"data":123,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"e9f60804-85a6-4082-84c7-4010db884de6",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":124,"clozeWords":126},[125],"While it is clear that humans are the leading cause of climate change resulting in rising sea levels, strange weather patterns, and species extinction, we can also be the solution",[127,128,129],"climate change","weather","extinction",{"id":131,"data":132,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":136},"bb81c518-7480-40fc-949e-2f442aa59231",{"type":25,"title":133,"markdownContent":134,"audioMediaId":135},"The difference between climate and the weather","Weather and climate are sometimes wrongly used as interchangeable terms. So, let’s cut out the confusion and distinguish between them. Both weather and climate describe events taking place in our atmosphere. More specifically, these are events affecting the lowest layer of the atmosphere, called the troposphere.\n\n ![Graph](image://24b8a681-fc1c-4482-90c7-60c73a0a91bf \"Global temperatures since 1880\")\n\nThe main differences between weather and climate basically come down to the measure of time. Weather is a term that is used for a specific location on a small time scale, being hours, days or even weeks, and it has a degree of variability. Think of weather forecasts, where the weather is sometimes predicted days or even weeks ahead of time and, as the time progresses, the forecast changes and gets more accurate. There are even forecasts for certain hours during the day and these can include the temperature prediction as well as whether it will rain, be windy, sunny, or cloudy.  \n\nClimate, on the other hand, is the long-term average of these short-term weather patterns. For example, the climate involves looking at the average rainfall or temperature per year or per decade. \n","c8dc96b5-72cd-49d0-a2ca-3c1e41f87488",[137],{"id":138,"data":139,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"de98c35b-28a0-4f3c-acb1-891e57471ac9",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":140,"binaryCorrect":142,"binaryIncorrect":144},[141],"While both of the following involve events in the troposphere, which refers to long-term events, including average temperatures over years and decades?",[143],"Climate",[145],"Weather",{"id":147,"data":148,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":152},"5c33a58e-0ec7-4a20-8fa1-eba80925353b",{"type":25,"title":149,"markdownContent":150,"audioMediaId":151},"Global warming vs. climate change","If you believe that ‘global warming’ and ‘climate change’ are the same thing, think again. These terms are often used interchangeably, but they are really separate things. Global warming is a term used to describe the increase in average global temperature over time.\n\n Climate change, on the other hand, describes how weather patterns will be affected around the globe, mostly due to this global average temperature increase. These changes could be manifested as changes in climate averages as well as changes in extremes of temperatures, meaning hot days will get hotter and cold days will get even colder. The degree of these changes will vary from region to region.   \n\n ![Graph](image://2394765a-63ff-4395-9d2c-16afb18516be \"Rising temperatures are melting the ice caps\")\n\nExamples of climate changes include changes to the water cycle, ice cover on land and in the polar oceans, and extreme weather conditions. Climate change can also occur naturally as a result of changes in sunlight, the growth of mountains, and the movement of the continents across the earth over a long time interval.\n\n","85bde6fd-9cfa-4e12-8573-2b37e1568ae9",[153,160],{"id":154,"data":155,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"0f55025f-2d7f-495f-b5b2-12c09d002a96",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":156,"activeRecallAnswers":158},[157],"'Global warming' refers to increasing average global temperatures, so what exactly is 'climate change'?",[159],"Changing weather patterns around the world impacting the water cycle, ice cover, and extreme weather conditions",{"id":161,"data":162,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"f70497ef-7356-4418-9b8d-fb32b82305c5",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":163,"clozeWords":165},[164],"Climate change occurs naturally in response to continental drift, changes in sunlight, and the growth of mountains but is typically over larger timescales",[166,167,168],"continental","mountains","timescales",{"id":170,"data":171,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":175},"c4c8e4b0-0d26-4a6a-a578-14809a9e5ad6",{"type":25,"title":172,"markdownContent":173,"audioMediaId":174},"The natural greenhouse gas effect","The Earth’s climate depends on the functioning of a natural ‘greenhouse effect,’ which functions similar to a greenhouse, hence the name. Heat-trapping gasses like water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, and nitrous oxide form a blanket-like layer over the earth and serve the same purpose as glass in a greenhouse; to trap heat. \n\nAs incoming radiation from the sun is absorbed and re-emitted back from the Earth’s surface as infrared energy, greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere prevent some of this heat from escaping into space, instead reflecting the energy back to further warm the Earth’s surface.\n\n ![Graph](image://6634af6f-3e90-442c-9331-74f54f88190f \"A map of the causes and effects of climate change\")\n\nIncreasing or decreasing amounts of greenhouse gasses within the atmosphere act to either hold in or release more of the heat from the sun. Without this natural greenhouse effect, the average surface temperature of the Earth would be about 15-16°C below zero. This means that the natural greenhouse gas effect is not only good, but necessary to sustain life on Earth. \n\nHowever, human activities have been releasing additional greenhouse gasses, intensifying the natural greenhouse effect, thereby changing the Earth’s climate. This is where the problem comes in. Changing the climate can have some serious repercussions; not only for humans, but for every living thing on our planet. \n","e63ac98a-b6c2-4a0a-885c-b3761666b86a",[176],{"id":177,"data":178,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"d82c235c-cb48-41b3-98d6-c3ce74a5d7a1",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":179,"binaryCorrect":181,"binaryIncorrect":183},[180],"Greenhouse gases warm our planet by doing what to the energy escaping from the Earth back into space?",[182],"Reflecting it",[184],"Magnifying it",{"id":186,"data":187,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":191},"f4e6933a-6ea5-4043-a4b7-23ad44966cd4",{"type":25,"title":188,"markdownContent":189,"audioMediaId":190},"Climate drivers and climate change","The Earth’s temperature is determined by a balance of energy entering and exiting the earth’s atmosphere. When the Earth absorbs energy from the sun, an equal amount of energy must eventually be emitted back into space, according to the basic laws of thermodynamics. \n\nNow, in the same way that a pushing force will cause an object to move, climate forcing factors, which are sometimes also called climate drivers, will cause a change in the climate system. If the forcings result in incoming energy being greater than the outgoing energy, the planet will warm. Conversely, if the outgoing energy is more than the incoming energy, the planet will cool. \n\n ![Graph](image://abc00849-e601-45fe-8454-7bc2c0b8473e \"Volcanoes are a natural climate driver\")\n\nNatural climate drivers include changes in the sun’s energy output, changes in Earth’s orbit, and large volcanic eruptions that put light-reflecting particles into the upper atmosphere. Human-caused climate drivers include emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse gasses, and changes in land use that cause land to reflect more or less sunlight energy. Since 1750, human-caused climate drivers have been increasing, and their effect has come to dominate all natural climate drivers.\n","5b346fee-5236-4d7d-a75f-776204655ebd",[192],{"id":193,"data":194,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"927a4274-83f3-45f9-9e59-ac75dba6f9a8",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":195,"activeRecallAnswers":197},[196],"What happens to the planet when 'climate drivers' result in incoming energy being greater than outgoing energy?",[198],"It heats up",{"id":200,"data":201,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":203},"4c6007c7-995e-4099-b634-ae89b1a53739",{"type":26,"title":202},"Natural and Human Influences",[204,231,249],{"id":205,"data":206,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":210},"f47e2994-e92c-4046-a8d3-9295e75a7333",{"type":25,"title":207,"markdownContent":208,"audioMediaId":209},"Natural contributors to climate change","Geological records indicate that there have been slow changes in the Earth’s climate due to natural factors with astronomical, oceanic, and tectonic factors all contributing. The astronomical impacts are caused by variations in the sun's strength, meteorite impacts, and changes in the Earth's orbit. The oceanic impacts are caused by ocean currents and oceanic carbon dioxide levels. Other factors like plate tectonics, volcanic eruptions, changes in land cover, and the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere also influence the Earth’s climate. The effects of each of these factors are complex, because a change in any one of these can lead to enhanced or reduced changes in the others.\n\nFor example, oceans can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. However, when the carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere increase, the temperature rises – less energy is able to escape back into space. This results in warmer ocean temperatures, which leads to less carbon dioxide absorption by the oceans because warm ocean waters are not as effective in carbon dioxide removal. This is due to decreasing solubility of gases with increasing temperature. This means that cold ocean waters will take up more carbon dioxide and less will be escaping into the air.\n\nLess carbon dioxide absorption by oceans means that there's more atmospheric carbon dioxide, which, in turn, causes the temperature to rise again. And so the cycle continues. \n\nThis is an example of a process called ‘feedback’ which is the Earth’s response to climate forcings. Positive feedback accelerates temperature rise, whereas negative feedback slows it down. In short, if the temperature starts increasing or decreasing, it will increase or decrease by an even faster rate.\n\n","f64c9c41-8bf9-4733-84b3-fa68861a0550",[211,220],{"id":212,"data":213,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"5418306a-1e81-4239-8461-9eaa68c34ee7",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":214,"binaryCorrect":216,"binaryIncorrect":218},[215],"When carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere rise, so do ocean temperatures meaning that they are less effective at what?",[217],"Carbon dioxide removal",[219],"Generating hydroelectric power",{"id":221,"data":222,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"ef140413-b5a0-4006-aedf-162bd8c69b4f",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":223,"multiChoiceCorrect":225,"multiChoiceIncorrect":227},[224],"Levels of which gas in the ocean can lead to feedback loops in the Earth's climate?",[226],"Carbon dioxide",[228,229,230],"Oxygen","Nitrogen","Hydrogen",{"id":232,"data":233,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":237},"f7aaaf65-5fe7-4809-a03b-a2d4f98ca16d",{"type":25,"title":234,"markdownContent":235,"audioMediaId":236},"Human influence on climate: carbon dioxide and fossil fuels ","The Earth’s climate is influenced by human activities, along with natural forcings. Individually, neither natural forcings nor anthropogenic forcings can fully explain the warming experienced since 1850. Scientists have found that the rate of climate change that we are experiencing today can only be explained by taking both these sources into account.\n\nWhile natural forcings do have an impact on climate change, experts have come to the conclusion that human activities have had the largest impact on the rate of climate change since the 1950s, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (IPCC’s) report. \n\n ![Graph](image://dd59708a-892f-4a08-abe8-6823f61d585d \"How human influence has warmed the climate\")\n\nEver since the industrial revolution, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been increasing due to clearing forests, burning fossil fuels, and the increase of various other greenhouse gas emissions. In fact, for the past 50 years, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been the biggest source of global warming.\n\nAll this can be directly attributed to human industry, and, while we’ve progressed a lot as a species since the industrial revolution, that progress has clearly come at a cost to our environment.\n\n","a6e35f62-1276-48e8-a0b2-d65326f86d80",[238],{"id":239,"data":240,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"4eccfdb5-14ae-43af-b3ff-24c974ea4025",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":241,"multiChoiceCorrect":243,"multiChoiceIncorrect":245},[242],"According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), human activities have most negatively impacted the environment since?",[244],"1950s",[246,247,248],"1730s","1920s","2000s",{"id":250,"data":251,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":255},"8c5aff71-47f8-4b66-bbbc-2a5f4ff15381",{"type":25,"title":252,"markdownContent":253,"audioMediaId":254},"Carbon-eating and carbon-releasing systems explained","Within the Earth's many climate systems and subsystems, there are factors that directly and indirectly affect the overall stability of the global climate and our temperature. Some climate systems and subsystems have ‘carbon-eating’ or ‘carbon-releasing’ qualities which have an influence on the global climate. Collectively, these systems are also sometimes referred to as heat-controlling systems.\n\nWhen a system has a carbon-eating quality, it means that it takes carbon out of the atmosphere, which ultimately helps to reduce global warming to some extent. If something has a carbon-releasing quality, it means that carbon is released into the atmosphere, which causes an increase in global warming. All of these systems are interrelated and affect one another. \n","fcc554ed-db7e-496b-b163-25980c602b7a",[256],{"id":257,"data":258,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"4e446a3f-74d6-43ee-8309-f4874da33859",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":259,"activeRecallAnswers":261},[260],"Multiple factors influence the global climate's stability, yet the Earth's temperate, carbon-eating systems are particularly important as they?",[262],"Take carbon out of the atmosphere and reduce global warming",{"id":264,"data":265,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":267},"bf59731a-5efd-4d00-880e-4165ce8068d7",{"type":26,"title":266},"Earth's Heat-Controlling Systems",[268,292],{"id":269,"data":270,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":274},"189ae814-c89d-443c-9476-a7bb598eec2c",{"type":25,"title":271,"markdownContent":272,"audioMediaId":273},"The earth’s heat-controlling systems and subsystems: plants and oceans","The Earth has many heat-controlling systems that are used to either reduce or increase the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. Some of these systems include plants or forests, ocean plankton and currents, ground soil, and volcanic eruptions. \n\nPlants help to balance the greenhouse effect because they consume carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. All plants, from trees to plankton found in the sea, use the energy of sunlight, and through the process of photosynthesis they consume carbon dioxide found in the air. When it gets too warm, trees will take less carbon out of the air and, when trees die, their stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere. \n\n ![Graph](image://c8e3cbd7-8a83-4e34-a21a-c1db11ad88a9 \"Photosynthesis is a natural mitigator of climate change\")\n\nThe ocean also absorbs about 27% of excess carbon dioxide in the air. Unfortunately, the increased carbon dioxide in the ocean changes the water, making it more acidic - specifically carbonic acid. This is called ocean acidification. Also, when too much carbon is absorbed, the oceans begin the process of emitting carbon back into the atmosphere. This will cause temperatures to rise.\n\n","748fb8c6-b0ef-4192-9236-337e1ebecdfa",[275,284],{"id":276,"data":277,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"79a91c8c-fece-4686-8379-9e4b97a690bc",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":278,"multiChoiceCorrect":280,"multiChoiceIncorrect":281},[279],"Plants help to reduce the Greenhouse Effect by taking in carbon dioxide and giving off what?",[228],[282,229,283],"Water vapor","Methane",{"id":285,"data":286,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"9b7a029d-22b8-4d0b-8243-37ea85b80b63",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":287,"clozeWords":289},[288],"The ocean can absorb up to about 27% of excess carbon dioxide, but after that, it becomes too acidic",[290,291],"ocean","acidic",{"id":293,"data":294,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25},"e54af726-4d48-42b0-8ac3-2973ae3fc339",{"type":25,"title":295,"markdownContent":296,"audioMediaId":297},"The earth’s heat-controlling systems and subsystems: oceans and volcanoes","More acidic ocean water can be harmful to ocean creatures, such as certain shellfish and coral. A study shows that more acidic waters make it difficult for plankton to absorb nutrients, rendering them vulnerable to disease and toxins. This means that the acidity will eventually kill some, or all, of the carbon-eating and oxygen-producing plankton. \n\nWarming oceans can also be harmful to these organisms and are the main reason behind coral bleaching, a phenomenon where stress causes coral to expel the algae which they need for food and survival. Stress from heating oceans can cause this to occur, and can eventually lead to the death of a coral reef.\n\n ![Graph](image://4a3550ba-9691-4594-a110-d2a7812483dd \"Plankton are at risk from acidification of our oceans\")\n\nAnother factor that can cause a cooling effect, believe it or not, is volcanoes. More specifically, the eruptions of supervolcanoes can cool the earth. Although volcanoes are known to release greenhouse gasses like methane and carbon dioxide into the air during eruptions, one of their less-talked about effects on climate is actually a cooling effect caused by particles, or ash, released into the air. \n\nThe volcanic ash and droplets of sulfuric acid raises the Earth's albedo, which can be defined as the proportion of light reflected from the Earth’s surface. This increases the reflection of solar radiation, after a large, particularly explosive volcanic eruption. Such an eruption could actually cool the planet and can lead to what’s known as a volcanic winter. This can lead to air temperature declines of up to 10°C in the first year after the eruption, and 3-5°C for up to 10 years after the eruption. \n\n\n\n","eb400575-6bb6-4fcd-96ce-87f6299ce2a6",{"id":299,"data":300,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"orbs":303},"d66c3773-e31b-4b72-bfaa-a9410b428a3d",{"type":27,"title":301,"tagline":302},"The Effects of Climate Change","The evidence of climate change, and its predicted future effects, is alarming. Find out what the implications of climate change are in this tile.",[304,370],{"id":305,"data":306,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":308},"ef097abe-7c81-4a12-96c1-5f21421c316a",{"type":26,"title":307},"Impact of Climate Change on Physical and Biological Systems",[309,324,347],{"id":310,"data":311,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":315},"ed42d718-9897-425f-bab8-b75469930db2",{"type":25,"title":312,"markdownContent":313,"audioMediaId":314},"Impact of climate change on physical systems","The evidence of global warming can be clearly seen in the world around us. According to statistics, the 7 hottest years since 1880 have all occurred between 2014 and 2020. The global average temperature in 2020 was 0.98°C higher than the late 1800s. This doesn’t sound like a massive difference, but a 1 degree difference is enough to severely destabilize global ecosystems.\n\n ![Graph](image://c8392ff8-99d4-49f6-88d2-cadd7dcd5407 \"Droughts are a major risk of climate change\")\n\nWith the increase in global temperatures, there is a risk of the polar ice caps melting, and we are already seeing this. In the 20th century, the global average sea level has risen between 17 and 21 cm.\n\nThis shows the scale of the threat that we are under, as the systems that we rely on for food and wellbeing are under threat. If the trend is not stopped, future generations will suffer greatly due to the severe effects.\n\n","53860e8b-268d-4bd4-bea6-e2d55ae56aa7",[316],{"id":317,"data":318,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"9d99b2f3-000e-4c7f-bced-aeef1c1f319f",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":319,"clozeWords":321},[320],"The effects of global warming are found in our average temperatures. Between 2014 and 2020, we experienced the seven hottest years since the 1880s.",[322,323],"average temperatures","1880s",{"id":325,"data":326,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":330},"db9e5df7-70ac-47ad-9e41-565469535fe9",{"type":25,"title":327,"markdownContent":328,"audioMediaId":329},"Impact on biological systems","Changes in climate have a direct effect on biological systems. The increase in global temperatures results in extreme weather conditions like super storms, floods, and droughts, which, in turn, results in loss or changes in habitats for plantlife and animal species. Warming also affects the biological timing (phenology) and geographic range of both animal and plant communities. Increases in migration of species have been observed, which results in altered biological communities and functioning of ecosystems. \n\n ![Graph](image://aef9e9b8-44ed-4263-bf9a-31a35c3af0e4 \"Many plant ecosystems will be altered by climate change\")\n\nClimate change can also affect survival and reproduction. Where some species might benefit including pests, fungi, or diseases, other species might become extinct. Predator and prey interactions might also be affected by these shifts. \n\nWhat’s more, seasons are also affected by the warming effect. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the average growing season on the American mainland has lengthened by nearly 2 weeks.\n","53a0bee2-3417-4c26-b884-48ba51a65d89",[331,340],{"id":332,"data":333,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"5ad5ab3b-55a2-44ac-abbc-8e43cf3fb88a",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":334,"binaryCorrect":336,"binaryIncorrect":338},[335],"Climate change is having a significant impact on biological systems. What has happened to the average growing season on the American mainland?",[337],"It has lengthened by two weeks",[339],"It has shortened by two weeks",{"id":341,"data":342,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"d8966196-36bc-4c9c-8308-ab690c073790",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":343,"activeRecallAnswers":345},[344],"While some animals risk becoming extinct as a result of losing habitats due to climate change, some species might benefit, including what?",[346],"Diseases, pests, and fungi",{"id":348,"data":349,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":353},"c6495ede-c954-4294-926e-bde000f7cfe6",{"type":25,"title":350,"markdownContent":351,"audioMediaId":352},"Climate change predictions: daily temperatures and oceans","Since the 1970s, average global temperatures have been increasing at a rate of 0.13°C per decade, which is almost twice as fast as the rate over the preceding 50 years, which was around 0.07°C per decade.\n\n ![Graph](image://e17ed231-91a1-4183-8a1e-7db3b29d2fcf \"IPCC estimate for future temperatute increases in 1999\")\n\nAccording to IPCC reports, global temperatures are predicted to continue rising dramatically over the next 80 years, at an even faster rate than thus far. This will not only result in higher average daytime temperatures, but will also increase the frequency and magnitude of extremely hot days.  \n\nWarmer oceans will result in melting glaciers and ice sheets, which will lead to a rise in water levels. Simulations predict a rise in sea levels of between 26 and 77 cm for a 1°C increase in the average temperature. This puts some cities in danger of sinking into the sea, among them such  heavily populated cities as Mumbai, Shanghai, New York , Bangkok, and Miami. With a population of 10 million, Jakarta is considered to be ‘the fastest-sinking city in the world’ and, according to predictions, it will be entirely underwater by 2050.\n\n","208e5b47-29f6-4831-879c-68e43fc2eca8",[354,361],{"id":355,"data":356,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"265a615a-a539-421e-8dde-48fed33aaf2a",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":357,"binaryCorrect":359,"binaryIncorrect":360},[358],"Computer simulations suggest sea levels could rise anywhere between 26 and 77cm as a result of what increase in average temperatures?",[58],[59],{"id":362,"data":363,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"64125229-b743-482c-baca-f02d81cb48ae",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":364,"clozeWords":366},[365],"Average global temperatures are increasing at an alarming 0.13°C per decade, potentially affecting the frequency and magnitude of extremely hot days",[367,368,369],"decade","frequency"," hot",{"id":371,"data":372,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":374},"c4cd5110-0e5a-4e44-a8b3-3f5884d309f7",{"type":26,"title":373},"Oceanic Changes and Buffer Capacity",[375,390,417,430],{"id":376,"data":377,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":381},"52a89fdb-9cc0-4fae-b85d-3a0b17978a17",{"type":25,"title":378,"markdownContent":379,"audioMediaId":380},"The ocean’s buffer capacity","Just like with human bodies, oceans have a natural buffering capacity. A buffer resists changes in acidity when adding an acid or an alkali by converting those substances. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://495cdce1-6542-461c-9853-108c7a56defb \"The ocean has a natural buffering capacity\")\n\n\nThe buffer effect of the ocean is good news, because a constant pH is important for marine life. Seawater contains ions, such as chloride and sodium from salt, as well as calcium, hydrogen carbonate and carbonate ions that are essential for living organisms that produce calcium carbonate skeletons. \n\nAll of these ions are part of the buffering process. \n\nThe oceans’ natural buffer is the carbonate/hydrogen carbonate system. This maintains pH between 8.1 and 8.3, in a series of equilibrium reactions. This chemical equilibrium between various chemical forms of carbon and hydrogen ions, or protons, forms a buffering system that is the most important factor controlling the pH of seawater.\n","907fb27c-8683-42cc-89ef-aca651eded04",[382],{"id":383,"data":384,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"d41d6eb1-95cf-466f-ae23-431c3a660405",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":385,"activeRecallAnswers":387},[386],"What does the ocean's natural buffering capacity resist, and why is it important?",[388,389],"Changes in acidity","a constant pH is vital for marine life",{"id":391,"data":392,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":396},"d4432011-967b-4695-b3ff-163a06b15cd3",{"type":25,"title":393,"markdownContent":394,"audioMediaId":395},"Ocean acidification explained","There are a lot of things happening in the oceans, including changes to the chemical environment – this has an impact on the pH of the seawater. One example is carbon dioxide, which reacts with seawater to form carbonic acid, a weak acid that breaks, or ‘dissociates,’ into hydrogen ions (H+) and bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). This causes the acidity of seawater to increase. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://913962c7-2875-4fec-8322-ca3653679e16 \"More acidic oceans can be harmful to organisms such as coral\")\n\n\nBut why?\n\nLe Chatelier's principle states that, if a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the conditions, the position of equilibrium shifts to counteract the change to achieve a new equilibrium. According to this principle, an increase in concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide will cause the equilibrium to move to the right, meaning that seawater becomes more acidic. \n\nA pH below 7 means that a substance is acidic, while a pH above 7 indicates that it is basic. A pH of exactly 7 is neutral. \nThe oceans’ surface has already become more acidic by a pH of approximately 0.1 in the last 200 years. And, according to predictions, acidity is likely to  increase by a further 0.3-0.6 by the end of the century, depending on the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere. \n","81ab4242-dc39-45fc-b242-8f7823cd7763",[397,408],{"id":398,"data":399,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"35a35fc0-b52b-4015-80fa-c91ab3e6e4b5",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":400,"multiChoiceCorrect":402,"multiChoiceIncorrect":404},[401],"When carbon dioxide reacts with seawater, what does it produce that is harmful to sea life?",[403],"Carbonic acid",[405,406,407],"Nitric acid","Sulfuric acid","Hydrochloric Acid",{"id":409,"data":410,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"af8a6ad7-b927-4037-ba5d-87ee6e4ab07f",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":411,"binaryCorrect":413,"binaryIncorrect":415},[412],"What principle states that if a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the conditions, the position of equilibrium shifts to counteract the change?",[414],"Le Chatelier's principle",[416],"Le Corbusier's principle",{"id":418,"data":419,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":423},"6fc2ab63-c2d2-42bf-8e8f-7c9037d05a8a",{"type":25,"title":420,"markdownContent":421,"audioMediaId":422},"The implications of climate change","Climate change will undoubtedly have some implications on our society and the environment. Though the impacts of climate change will vary regionally, they are very likely to impose costs that will increase with global temperatures.\n\nIt is also likely that a combination of climate change and other disturbances will exceed many ecosystems’ capacities for resilience. This could result in outcomes like species extinction, food insecurity, and human activity constraints. With an increase of the average global temperature of 2°C, almost every summer will be warmer than the hottest 5% of recent summers.\n\n ![Graph](image://23dc3c34-5f3e-49e4-993d-ce86e2e686e1 \"Insect populations could be severely damaged\")\n\n\nWith increased temperatures, changes in precipitation and climate variability would alter geographic ranges and seasonality of diseases spread by organisms like mosquitoes, for example.\n\nIt’s also likely that food will become scarce. Although higher carbon dioxide concentrations and slight temperature increases can boost crop yields, the negative effects of warming on plant health and soil moisture will lead to lower yields at higher temperatures. \n","78df4e2b-9653-4e34-9bfe-b1729d98b57b",[424],{"id":425,"data":426,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"f2e48e13-fd0d-4fb2-83e8-3f6029729fb9",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":427,"activeRecallAnswers":429},[428],"What level of global temperature rise would mean that almost every summer will be warmer than the hottest 5% of recent summers?",[59],{"id":431,"data":432,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":436},"e894d69d-025a-43b2-bfd8-2dc7c503f3c7",{"type":25,"title":433,"markdownContent":434,"audioMediaId":435},"The economic, political, and social effects of climate change","Climate change has already, and will continue to challenge society with undeniable social, political, and economic effects. And all these challenges are interrelated. \n\nThe economic influence of global warming is primarily through damage to property and infrastructure, loss of productivity, mass migration, and security threats. Other economic and societal challenges that cities around the globe face due to climate change include energy shortages and losses to industry. Rising temperatures and increased frequency of extreme weather events will also put severe pressure on food availability, stability, access, and use. \n\nThe main political challenge regarding climate change, however, lies in that the public is largely divided when it comes to taking a stance against climate change drivers. No progress can be made if governments and communities around the world are not in agreement with regard to combating climate change. This is because our world climate is interdependent: it is impossible to stop climate change in England if France is still burning fossil fuels, for example. Climate change is a global threat and can only be addressed by a global response. ","cadcee57-d6f1-4d26-a0a8-8562da491254",[437,446],{"id":438,"data":439,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"30b6a60e-94be-44ec-9b1c-5de2ade2d139",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":440,"binaryCorrect":442,"binaryIncorrect":444},[441],"While often divided on its response to climate change, the public must be coordinated and recognize that they must address the threat at what level?",[443],"Global",[445],"Grassroots",{"id":447,"data":448,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"55cd97ee-49d9-448e-9737-93879f4628e4",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":449,"clozeWords":451},[450],"The effects of climate change are already far-reaching, causing political, economic, and social damage and instability",[452,453,454],"political","social","instability",{"id":456,"data":457,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"orbs":460},"9122688d-6b12-4d94-b994-74027d8f4765",{"type":27,"title":458,"tagline":459},"All About Greenhouse Gasses","The predicted future effects of climate change are alarming. Find out what the implications of climate change are in this tile.",[461,538,606],{"id":462,"data":463,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":465},"47f4174c-cfa1-4243-8e48-642da2c30488",{"type":26,"title":464},"Different Greenhouse Gases",[466,496,512],{"id":467,"data":468,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":472},"4b939b6b-9dbf-470b-b016-8b3f88e22b85",{"type":25,"title":469,"markdownContent":470,"audioMediaId":471},"Different greenhouse gasses","There are 10 primary greenhouse gasses and, of these, only water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O) occur naturally. The other 6 are only present in the atmosphere due to industrial processes.\n\nThe largest greenhouse gas by volume is actually the one most people tend to overlook: water vapor. The concentration of water vapor in the atmosphere can vary significantly and depends on the temperature and other meteorological conditions and not directly upon human activities.  \n\nThe biggest anthropogenic, or human-induced, greenhouse gas is carbon dioxide, which accounts for about 76% of humanity’s contribution to the greenhouse effect. \n\n ![Graph](image://c2e64f29-60d6-416a-97cf-3ff25333bdad \"GWP of different greenhouse gasses\")\n\nGlobal Warming Potential (GWP) is a measure used to indicate a gas’ potential to trap the Earth’s heat. Carbon dioxide is used as the reference gas and has a GWP of 1. \n\nGreenhouse gas emissions are typically discussed in terms of mass of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e), which are calculated by multiplying the mass of emissions by the gas’s GWP.\n\n","40d2915f-1332-4086-8107-8e730447f1aa",[473,480,487],{"id":474,"data":475,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"16cae6b0-f241-4820-9f9c-824a057889ad",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":476,"binaryCorrect":478,"binaryIncorrect":479},[477],"Which gas accounts for about 76% of humanity's contribution to the greenhouse effect?",[226],[229],{"id":481,"data":482,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"549e15de-c2e8-44a4-a6cd-189eccb48dca",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":483,"activeRecallAnswers":485},[484],"Tracking global temperatures is crucial for measuring progress with climate change, but what else can we monitor?",[486],"Carbon dioxide concentration in parts per million",{"id":488,"data":489,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"a6dff9e1-4bc7-4550-870a-0bb12b058c48",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":490,"multiChoiceCorrect":492,"multiChoiceIncorrect":494},[491],"The greatest concentration of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere is, in fact, what?",[493],"Water vapour",[226,283,495],"Nitrous oxide",{"id":497,"data":498,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":502},"c28e1a1d-a04e-499d-a5c4-1ab8a03a0814",{"type":25,"title":499,"markdownContent":500,"audioMediaId":501},"What’s in the air?","The atmosphere contains many gasses, most of which are in small amounts, including some pollutants and greenhouse gasses. The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is nitrogen (roughly 78%), with oxygen second (almost 21%), and argon third (about 0.9%).  A mixture of trace gasses accounts for the other 0.1%, including the greenhouse gasses carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. \n\n\nConcentrations of these greenhouse gasses are measured in parts per million (ppm), parts per billion (ppb), or parts per trillion (ppt) by volume. In other words, a concentration of 1 ppb for a given gas means there is 1 molecule of that gas in every 1 billion molecules of air.\n\n ![Graph](image://b519a19c-8dc1-4bce-a769-a8677372dd5d \"The makeup of our atmosphere\")\n\nTiny solid or liquid particles known as aerosols, which are produced both naturally and by human activities, are also present in variable amounts, along with human-produced industrial pollutants and natural and human-produced sulfur compounds.\n\nSince 1750, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased by 148%, 260%, and 123%, respectively, to levels that are unprecedented in the past 800,000 years.\n\n\n","a22f029b-68d3-4bd4-ba67-24843fec5a9d",[503],{"id":504,"data":505,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"2eb0e8e7-b638-4291-9ef5-29823a4076c3",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":506,"binaryCorrect":508,"binaryIncorrect":510},[507],"What is the split between nitrogen and oxygen in the atmosphere?",[509],"78% nitrogen and almost 21% oxygen",[511],"31% nitrogen and almost 69% oxygen",{"id":513,"data":514,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":518},"d3745864-c8e4-49b6-9e79-a62779ca11de",{"type":25,"title":515,"markdownContent":516,"audioMediaId":517},"Sources of greenhouse gas emissions","Greenhouse gasses enter the atmosphere in different ways. Anthropogenic carbon dioxide is emitted primarily from fossil fuel combustion for electricity generation, transportation, and industrial and household uses. Iron, steel, cement, and production of petroleum-based resources are other significant sources of carbon dioxide emissions.\n\n\n\nBoth methane and nitrous oxide are emitted from natural and anthropogenic sources. Approximately 40% of methane is emitted into the atmosphere by natural sources like wetlands and termites, and about 60% comes from anthropogenic sources such as ruminants, rice agriculture, fossil fuel exploitation, landfills, and biomass burning. Nitrous oxide is released into the atmosphere from both natural sources and anthropogenic sources, including oceans, soils, biomass burning, fertilizer use, and various industrial processes. Fertilizer alone accounts for 75% of anthropogenic nitrous oxide emissions. \n\nHydrofluorocarbons are the fastest growing greenhouse gasses and are used in refrigeration, cooling, or as solvents in place of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons.\n\n","ea486206-7b6a-4335-b2a0-ce13636d2534",[519,529],{"id":520,"data":521,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"67d85776-7acf-40e4-87c2-64fff3c0f75f",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":522,"activeRecallAnswers":524},[523],"40% of methane comes from natural sources such as wetlands and termites, but where does the other 60% come from?",[525,526,527,528],"It includes sources such as cattle","Fossil fuels","Biomass burning","and landfills",{"id":530,"data":531,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"aaad0bc2-1a85-4a35-bbb4-79d34d6c7b8a",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":532,"binaryCorrect":534,"binaryIncorrect":536},[533],"What is the fastest growing greenhouse gas – used to replace ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons from cooling and refrigeration?",[535],"Hydrofluorocarbons",[537],"Organofluorines",{"id":539,"data":540,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":542},"66c44723-3ed5-4268-93b0-0c8cdc3f6d1c",{"type":26,"title":541},"Measuring and Tracking Carbon Dioxide",[543,568,583],{"id":544,"data":545,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":549},"4282091e-dc9b-48f5-8295-5534d35890d1",{"type":25,"title":546,"markdownContent":547,"audioMediaId":548},"How are the levels of carbon dioxide measured and tracked","Atmospheric carbon from fossil fuel burning is currently the main human-caused factor in the escalating global warming. The level of carbon in our atmosphere is tracked using what is called the Keeling curve, which measures atmospheric carbon in parts per million (ppm). The Keeling curve forms part of the Scripps Carbon Dioxide program, which is run in parallel with other programs that measure changes in atmospheric oxygen and argon abundances. \n\nEach year, many measurements are taken at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, to determine the parts per million (ppm). Weekly, monthly, yearly, per decade, or extended Keeling curves are available and on record. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, around 1880, before fossil fuel burning, the atmospheric carbon ppm level was around 280 ppm. Here is the current Keeling curve graph for where we are today:\n\n ![Graph](image://7ad56c03-4f46-4abc-a84a-3028d623223c \"Monthly carbon dioxide concentration\")\n\nAs of Jan of 2022, the carbon levels were around 420 ppm. \n\n","50f2c03c-2df7-4460-9288-081ae55227ab",[550,561],{"id":551,"data":552,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"4082d1f4-da0f-42bc-bccd-0ad8de02059b",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":553,"multiChoiceCorrect":555,"multiChoiceIncorrect":557},[554],"The main human-caused factor in global warming is atmospheric carbon from what?",[556],"Burning fossil fuels",[558,559,560],"Driving cars","Aerosol usage","Deforestation",{"id":562,"data":563,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"eb457e52-1d01-4f80-8130-9b49c1237b9f",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":564,"activeRecallAnswers":566},[565],"The Keeling Curve forms part of the Scripps Carbon Dioxide program that tracks what in the atmosphere?",[567],"Carbon dioxide in parts per million",{"id":569,"data":570,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":574},"37c4ea0c-f4c1-442d-b17a-22ae8d2b2cf5",{"type":25,"title":571,"markdownContent":572,"audioMediaId":573},"How long do greenhouse gasses remain in the atmosphere?","The IPCC defines a gas’s lifetime as the amount of the gas in the atmosphere divided by the rate at which it is removed from the atmosphere. However, the calculation of a gas’ lifetime is not as simple because not all gasses are removed by just one, or mainly one, process. \n\nIronically, carbon dioxide, being the most important greenhouse gas related to global warming, is the hardest to pin down. When carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere, about 75% of it will dissolve into the ocean over a few decades. The other 25% is neutralized by a variety of longer-term geological processes, which can take thousands of years.\n\nHere’s a table showing a selection of greenhouse gasses, their global warming potential (GWP), and their lifetimes:\n\n ![Graph](image://bc8f33b5-b93b-4417-8832-06b3356bd96e \" \")\n\nMethane is naturally removed from the atmosphere by both chemical and biological processes, including reaction with atmospheric hydroxyl (OH) and chlorine, and by methane-consuming bacteria, called methanotrophs, in soil and water. Methane has an atmospheric lifetime of 12 years. Nitrous oxide is destroyed by photolytic reactions, chemical reactions involving photons or light and has a lifetime of around 114 years. \n","fc807de8-9254-455d-bb03-d158c3486e21",[575],{"id":576,"data":577,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"20c790ce-bed1-44c1-8555-e87cad8573de",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":578,"multiChoiceCorrect":580,"multiChoiceIncorrect":581},[579],"Gases are removed from the atmosphere by a combination of processes. Which one has a lifetime of around 114 years?",[495],[582,226,283],"Hydrofluorocarbon-23",{"id":584,"data":585,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":589},"51c5ebcc-b71b-48aa-ba96-e3a493a8bce2",{"type":25,"title":586,"markdownContent":587,"audioMediaId":588},"Global emissions and trends","In 2019, the global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions totaled 52.4 billion tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) resulting in an increase of 0.57 billion tons CO2e. CO2e describes the global warming potential of all greenhouse gasses. In other words, the impact of different greenhouse gasses is expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide that would result in the same amount of warming.\n \nSince 1990, annual anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have increased by 59% with an average increase in emissions of 0.4 billion tons CO2e per year from 1970-2000. What’s more, carbon emissions in 2021 grew to their highest ever level, as the world rebounded from the effects of the Covid-19 restrictions.\n\nGlobal electricity generation from coal rose to an all-time high in 2021, which is a worrying trend, as coal is one of the biggest contributors to carbon emissions in the energy sector. Luckily the massive push for low-carbon energy is also gaining momentum. In 2021, renewable and nuclear energy accounted for 39.5% of energy generation worldwide, and looks set to continue growing.\n\n ![Graph](image://a3d092ff-c879-42a3-9cbd-bf96d8bde914 \"The share of global energy produced by different sources over time\")\n\n","c57a379a-d1f4-45c2-a8d4-6ab9f35bf6b1",[590,599],{"id":591,"data":592,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"16e67a8b-6b31-4b95-a0f5-91bc9bd2485e",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":593,"binaryCorrect":595,"binaryIncorrect":597},[594],"Carbon emissions grew to their highest ever levels in 2021 following what global event?",[596],"Movement restrictions for Covid-19 being lifted",[598],"Cop25",{"id":600,"data":601,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"5112ed48-47c5-4d66-831d-a4fc65bbf2cf",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":602,"activeRecallAnswers":604},[603],"In 2021, what growing trend accounted for 39.5% of energy generation worldwide?",[605],"Renewable and nuclear energy",{"id":607,"data":608,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":610},"fcfecce0-e7cb-4a28-9faa-60cb85108fda",{"type":26,"title":609},"Global Climate Change Policies and Trends",[611,637,652,668],{"id":612,"data":613,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":617},"09aeb91a-0dd7-4e7e-bc93-31c2ccd875a9",{"type":25,"title":614,"markdownContent":615,"audioMediaId":616},"Current global climate change policies","According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), to keep global warming below 2°C, emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gasses must be halved by 2050 compared to their 1990 levels.  Developed countries are expected to reduce more – between 80 and 95% by 2050. Advanced developing countries with large emissions like China, India, and Brazil, will also have to limit their emission growth. \n\nDifferent countries have different climate change policies in place. The European Union, for example, has adapted programs that are aimed at reducing emissions. These include the increased use of renewable energy, improved energy efficiency of buildings and industrial sectors, and the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions from new cars, among others. \n\n ![Graph](image://9ddedcc7-976c-4323-8e8c-2cef546a82c1 \"The UN General Assembly is a world leader in organizing action on climate change\")\n\nThe Sustainable Energy Development Goals (SDGs) have also been adapted by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in 2015, and provide a powerful framework for international cooperation toward a sustainable future. SDG 7 states 3 main targets: ensuring affordable, reliable and universal access to modern energy services; increasing the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix by 2030; and doubling the rate of global energy efficiency. \n\n","d47ba4ad-3de7-4b3d-9529-e4f7764e066b",[618,630],{"id":619,"data":620,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"4efd5e3f-bee2-4894-9aff-4b5eff3caaab",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":621,"multiChoiceCorrect":623,"multiChoiceIncorrect":625},[622],"To keep global warming below 2°C by 2050, carbon dioxide and greenhouse gas emissions must be...?",[624],"Halved",[626,627,628,629],"Zeroed","Quartered","Maintained","Doubled",{"id":631,"data":632,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"8c26eb3f-5cd0-4075-9e00-292a25a08a72",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":633,"clozeWords":635},[634],"The UN's Sustainable Energy Development Goals have three main targets: reliable and accessible modern energy; increased use of renewables; and a doubling in global energy efficiency",[636],"efficiency",{"id":638,"data":639,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":643},"7bd22710-ba4b-4aaa-bb8d-a4b83ea6d8bb",{"type":25,"title":640,"markdownContent":641,"audioMediaId":642},"Future scenarios and targets ","The Paris Agreement sets out the aim to reduce warming to well below 2°C. The graphs obtained from the website ‘Our World in Data’ show that current policies to reduce, or at least slow down growth in, carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions will have some impact on reducing future warming.\n\n ![Graph](image://0bad5e20-9bbd-4666-9cba-47fe00d39361 \"Global greenhouse emissions and warming scenarios\")\n\nThis chart maps out future greenhouse gas emissions scenarios under a range of assumptions: if no climate policies were implemented; if current policies continued; if all countries achieved their current future pledges for emission reductions; and necessary pathways which are compatible with limiting warming to 1.5°C or 2°C of warming in this century. \n\nFrom the chart, we can see that current climate and energy policies would reduce warming relative to a world with no climate policies in place, but they still fall short of the target, which is to limit warming to well below 2°C. \n\n","f2e00566-10f2-4f08-8b31-e712e28d6327",[644],{"id":645,"data":646,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"75ab7ba6-f318-4085-9f74-e5c75ec6ea80",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":647,"activeRecallAnswers":649},[648],"What was the Paris Agreement, and what did it set out to do?",[650,651],"A legally binding international treaty","Avoid dangerous climate change by limiting global warming to below 2°C",{"id":653,"data":654,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":658},"665b7918-997b-4223-8da7-c67755f9ee12",{"type":25,"title":655,"markdownContent":656,"audioMediaId":657},"Hitting the target: close, but not good enough","If countries achieved their current ‘pledges,’ there would be an improvement even greater than the target of limiting warming to 2.1°C. In this regard, it is evident that the world is making progress. However, our aim is to limit warming to well below 2°C and we, therefore, will fall short of meeting these targets by 2100. \n\nRobbie Andrew, senior researcher at the Center for International Climate Research (CICERO), mapped out the necessary global emissions reduction scenarios that will be necessary to reduce global warming to 1.5°C and 2°C. Based on the combined findings in the IPCC’s special Report on 1.5 °C and Michael Raupach’s work, published in Nature Climate Change, the mitigation curves suggest that rapid urgent reductions in emissions are necessary to achieve either target. The longer we delay a peak in emissions, the more drastic these reductions would need to be. \n\nThe image below shows the current pledge status of the different countries across the globe. \n\n ![Graph](image://866387e3-4480-4fe3-9eea-d805ebf0ce42 \"Status of net-zero targets around the world\")\n\n","eccdb95a-9d85-4d85-8cc9-66cefabccad6",[659],{"id":660,"data":661,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"2f909134-6cb2-4482-a11e-8bfde42c2b52",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":662,"binaryCorrect":664,"binaryIncorrect":666},[663],"While the world is making progress in cutting global emissions, we will fail to meet legally binding targets without what?",[665],"Rapid urgent reductions",[667],"More realistic targets beyond 1.5°C  or 2°C",{"id":669,"data":670,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25},"b6f4dfb2-482b-42de-a578-e8211ee44715",{"type":25,"title":671,"markdownContent":672,"audioMediaId":673},"How will we know if we are making progress in reducing global warming?","Now that we know the importance of reducing our carbon footprint and combating climate change, how will we know if we’ve made progress or have reached the set targets? \n\nWell, besides tracking the average global temperature rise and reducing levels to below 2°C, as stipulated in the Paris Agreement, there are at least 2 other ways to measure whether we are making honest progress in reducing global warming. The first measure is to monitor the average annual increase in carbon ppm levels, which is currently at about 3 ppm per year. If we make progress, these levels will either start to drop, remaining at the current level, or, at the very least, rise at a slower rate. \n\nAnother measure to track progress in global warming is the Keeling graph, which is a graph that shows the ongoing change in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere. Current carbon levels are around 417 ppm. If these levels are lowered to around 325-350 ppm, we’ve made significant progress. \n","12048dbf-c092-4edc-801e-d52fd1349693",{"id":675,"data":676,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"orbs":679},"98be085a-2004-4a05-95b5-c341cfcebfaa",{"type":27,"title":677,"tagline":678},"Understanding Carbon Footprints","Want to know how your household could contribute to mitigating climate change? Let’s take a look at your carbon footprint. ",[680,750,803],{"id":681,"data":682,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":683},"21c1d212-505b-4daa-9ad9-cae3868ecf4f",{"type":26,"title":677},[684,707,734],{"id":685,"data":686,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":690},"9b83d41b-87e9-453c-9789-c0f0fe034f84",{"type":25,"title":687,"markdownContent":688,"audioMediaId":689},"What is a carbon footprint?","Carbon footprint is a measure of the total amount of greenhouse gasses a person has caused, directly or indirectly. This is a very popular way of quantifying the effect that individuals have on climate change, and gives people a clear target for improvement.\n\nCarbon footprint is measured in the amount of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e) produced. This means that all other greenhouse gasses are measured against carbon dioxide in terms of their potential to trap the planet’s heat over a period of time. This is known as a gas’s Global Warming Potential (GWP), where carbon dioxide has a GWP of 1. By multiplying a gas’s total emissions by its GWP, we get a nice frame of reference with which to measure and discuss an individual, company, or industry’s effect on climate change.\n\nAn average person has a carbon footprint of 7 metric tons of carbon dioxide per year.  However, the true amount can vary wildly from person to person, depending on everything from the cars you drive to the food you eat.\n\n","3184c66c-c338-4e83-ab21-5bcbe9adda76",[691,698],{"id":692,"data":693,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"0f50ec18-34d0-49cd-930b-cfadf30d481c",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":694,"activeRecallAnswers":696},[695],"We've all heard about our 'carbon footprint,' but what do we really mean when we use it?",[697],"A measure of the greenhouse gases someone causes – directly or indirectly",{"id":699,"data":700,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"a6ffc2dc-2148-4697-af14-9dd3ee242aed",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":701,"binaryCorrect":703,"binaryIncorrect":705},[702],"While it can vary widely, depending on how we live, the average person has an annual carbon footprint of how many tons of carbon dioxide?",[704],"Seven tons",[706],"Fifteen tons",{"id":708,"data":709,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":713},"4a376182-d2ba-43d5-9f15-6eede87dfd1d",{"type":25,"title":710,"markdownContent":711,"audioMediaId":712},"How food hurts the planet","Food is one of the main sources of greenhouse gas emissions for individuals, and can contribute to between 10% and 30% of a household’s emissions. Most of the emissions caused by food come at the production stage, with 68% of total emissions happening during production.\n\nIf you want to lower your carbon footprint, it might be time to let go of meat. Meat generally has the highest amount of greenhouse gas emissions per calorie. Even worse for steak lovers, beef in particular has a very large carbon footprint, 7.2 times larger than that of chicken.\n\n ![Graph](image://bef1c23f-5abd-4aa4-80f8-fe679f9f0810 \"Greenhouse gas contributions by food type in an average diet.\")\n\nVegetables and plant-based foods generally have much lower carbon footprints, and switching to vegetarian meals for 1 day per week can reduce your carbon footprint the equivalent of driving more than 1800 kilometers.\n\n","2e0043ee-b208-4416-a6e3-1a0e0048306b",[714,723],{"id":715,"data":716,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"0e57050f-141c-4c16-a4bb-08d57be80067",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":717,"binaryCorrect":719,"binaryIncorrect":721},[718],"Meat typically has the highest amount of greenhouse emissions per calorie. Which of the following is the worst?",[720],"Beef",[722],"Chicken",{"id":724,"data":725,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"d4127c5a-e3c8-4580-b6e2-4bf6e485b817",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":726,"multiChoiceCorrect":728,"multiChoiceIncorrect":730},[727],"What is one of the most significant sources of greenhouse gases, contributing between 10 and 30% of emissions per household?",[729],"Food",[731,732,733],"Travel to work","Online ordering","Foreign holidays",{"id":735,"data":736,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":740},"3e330c43-e952-46e9-aefd-83ce0e9f9102",{"type":25,"title":737,"markdownContent":738,"audioMediaId":739},"How your household is contributing to climate change","Your household carbon footprint is calculated from everything you need to keep your household running. Think about the electricity you use or gas for heating and cooking.\n\nHow much electricity you use has a big impact on your carbon footprint, but how that electricity is produced also plays a big role.  For example, in the US, for each kWh of electricity produced with coal, around 2.2 pounds of CO2e is produced, whereas a kWh of electricity produced with natural gas produces around 0.9 pounds CO2e. Renewable energy sources such as solar, hydro-electric, and nuclear energy produce zero CO2e, although they do produce carbon emissions in the building of these power stations and the components used for generating electricity.\n\n![Graph](image://364d9e5f-a826-41f7-b7b7-d0c021b56e03 \"Wind power produces zero CO2 emissions\")\n\nThere has been a giant push toward renewable energy in the last few decades, with countries like Iceland, Paraguay, and Albania already on 100% renewable energy.","c313362e-4674-4a3d-97c7-9eac7301813b",[741],{"id":742,"data":743,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"0412ae19-d006-4004-b07b-b02ac03a77c0",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":744,"activeRecallAnswers":746},[745],"Where your electricity comes from significantly impacts your household's carbon footprint. Some countries have already switched to 100% renewables, including …?",[747,748,749],"Iceland","Paraguay"," and, Albania ",{"id":751,"data":752,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":754},"ac7692e7-3f4e-4bef-ad49-1f6cb6309a34",{"type":26,"title":753},"Transportation and Climate Change",[755,779],{"id":756,"data":757,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":761},"8aae1019-cee7-43fd-af3a-485e9e24245b",{"type":25,"title":758,"markdownContent":759,"audioMediaId":760},"A movement against movement","Transportation has a very obvious effect on your carbon footprint. What you drive, and how you drive, makes a big difference on the amount of greenhouse gas emissions you produce.  An average petrol car produces 192 grams of CO2e per kilometer. By carpooling with one other person, that amount gets cut in half to 96 grams, and the effect compounds the more passengers you add. Electric vehicles are almost always a more environmentally-friendly choice, but this depends on the source of electricity in your area. If you live in a country with a lot of ‘green’ energy, an electric vehicle can drastically cut down on CO2e emissions.\n\n ![Graph](image://9e22896f-acd4-4ee7-8131-6f559fdfaf67 \"Transportation greenhouse gasses in 2019\")\n\nSimilarly, a long-haul economy flight produces 150 grams of CO2e per kilometer, while the same flight flying in first class would produce 599 grams. This is mostly due to the extra space per passenger, which means that fewer  people can share the space and the emissions produced.\n\nYour best options for low-emission transportation are walking, using a bicycle, or taking the train, if possible.\n","2402c8d2-59ac-49a1-8b16-9a8024ca4e4c",[762,770],{"id":763,"data":764,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"16deba3f-1197-4ad0-ac6f-bab6957eb5bd",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":765,"clozeWords":767},[766],"As an economy passenger on a long-haul flight you may be producing 150 grams of CO2e per kilometer, yet that's not as bad as first class at 599 grams",[768,769],"economy","CO2e",{"id":771,"data":772,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"d4885831-9cea-42db-aac5-b155b89ee4b2",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":773,"activeRecallAnswers":775},[774],"Which three modes of transport are excellent for low carbon emissions?",[776,777,778],"Walking","Cycling","Taking the train",{"id":780,"data":781,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":785},"a473ed39-850b-436e-a454-32298bb533bf",{"type":25,"title":782,"markdownContent":783,"audioMediaId":784},"Big corps vs. earth","The industrial sector has one of the largest carbon footprints compared to other sources.  This sector releases an enormous amount of emissions in the manufacturing of various goods, mining of valuable minerals, and construction of buildings and infrastructure, among others.  The industrial sector also consumes an enormous amount of electricity, which indirectly causes greenhouse gas emissions when that electricity is generated.\n\n\n\nIf you combine these direct and indirect emissions, the industrial sector is responsible for 29.6% of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States, making it the largest contributor to emissions in the country.\n\n ![Graph](image://bed489b5-fb12-4b30-ade1-ee98f2186650 \"The industrial sector requires huge amounts of energy\")\n\nThere are different ways that industrial companies can attempt to reduce their carbon footprint. Carbon capture methods to capture and store carbon emissions safely are used to lower emissions in many sectors. Self-generation of electricity through renewable, sustainable methods allows companies to offset emissions where ‘green’ electricity generation is not available. Switching to more environmentally-friendly processes or consumable materials where possible also lowers emissions; 3D printing and additive manufacturing are a few processes that are showing great promise in lowering carbon footprints in the manufacturing sector.\n\n","99fd0d05-d8b2-4070-9e41-5ce4520095b3",[786,795],{"id":787,"data":788,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"2ec56cc4-aae5-48b8-bc85-911449bd7632",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":789,"activeRecallAnswers":791},[790],"What can industrial companies do more of to help reduce their carbon footprints?",[792,793,794],"Carbon capture","Use 'green electricity'","Switch to environmentally-friendly processes",{"id":796,"data":797,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"ca9842bb-ed08-49fc-8861-e83bd0ec047a",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":798,"clozeWords":800},[799],"Big industry is particularly bad for carbon emissions; the worst include manufacturing goods, mining for minerals, and construction",[801,802],"carbon emissions","manufacturing",{"id":804,"data":805,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":807},"6f1f19a6-5605-46b5-9500-5e8719ae49af",{"type":26,"title":806},"Calculating and Reducing Carbon Footprints",[808,824],{"id":809,"data":810,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":814},"815dac8d-2e29-45cc-b323-7ff8229582d1",{"type":25,"title":811,"markdownContent":812,"audioMediaId":813},"How to calculate your carbon footprint","There are ways to manually determine your own or even your entire household’s carbon footprint with mathematical equations. There are also many different carbon footprint calculators available online that can be used to automatically calculate your footprint. With these, you answer a bunch of questions on your daily life, your habits and routines, and you get an estimate of what your personal carbon footprint is. Some calculators also show you how you compare against others. You can use this to find ways to reduce your carbon footprint, and to see where your biggest sources of emissions are. \n\nYou can find these calculators at websites such as Footprint Calculator or the Environmental Protection Agency’s website, among others. \n","641d8650-fa41-4e46-b396-57ce6237d83f",[815],{"id":816,"data":817,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"20358abb-496f-425d-8702-2888837b07ae",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":818,"binaryCorrect":820,"binaryIncorrect":822},[819],"What's the easiest way to calculate your entire household's carbon footprint? ",[821],"Use a carbon footprint calculator",[823],"Contact the owners of the companies you use ",{"id":825,"data":826,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":830},"2e0bb4a9-7309-40f1-b098-0c9d7cc8c824",{"type":25,"title":827,"markdownContent":828,"audioMediaId":829},"Ways to reduce your carbon footprint ","There are many ways to reduce your carbon footprint across different areas of your day-to-day life.  By carpooling, ride-sharing, or using public transport, you can drastically reduce your carbon footprint for every trip you take. Opting to fly in economy class instead of business class also reduces your footprint by a significant amount, as economy class uses the available space much more efficiently.  Think of it the same way as carpooling. By using the available space in an aircraft more efficiently, you are sharing the total emissions with more people, thus lowering the emissions per person.\n\n ![Graph](image://7ca11109-6e98-4107-852e-ed9d834b0303 \"A seasonal plant-based diet usually produces far lower emissions\")\n\nIn the home, by unplugging electrical devices which aren’t in use, you save energy that the device would use in standby mode, reducing total emissions. Transitioning to energy-efficient lighting, using cold water to wash clothes, and turning down the temperature on your water heater all helps to lower your energy bill, which, in turn, lowers your carbon footprint.\n\nSwitching to more vegetarian options help reduce emissions associated with livestock agriculture. Eating local, seasonal foods also helps by cutting down on transportation and preservation methods such as refrigeration.\n","d79f37bb-d540-4223-a65d-43355f0dcc01",[831,840],{"id":832,"data":833,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"bc98663a-bf89-4545-bdf6-824852aaeb25",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":834,"clozeWords":836},[835],"Changing eating habits, such as enjoying more vegetarian meals, buying local, and eating seasonal foods, all help reduce your carbon footprint",[837,838,839],"eating habits","vegetarian meals","seasonal foods",{"id":841,"data":842,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"d2597be4-5c7b-4bc9-bcb2-17792c103ded",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":843,"multiChoiceCorrect":845,"multiChoiceIncorrect":847},[844],"What is an excellent way of drastically reducing carbon emissions if you must travel to work by car?",[846],"Carpooling",[848,849,850],"Driving more slowly","Taking shortcuts","Using a smaller car",{"id":852,"data":853,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"orbs":856},"79748b0d-bbc1-4573-a135-0d8729d7e209",{"type":27,"title":854,"tagline":855},"A Timeline of Global Efforts Against Climate Change","What have we done to combat climate change, and how has the world responded to the crisis? All the main points of the global fight against this crisis.  ",[857],{"id":858,"data":859,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":861},"5f262546-ff61-41e2-83d3-e72dc2182c2f",{"type":26,"title":860},"The Evolution of Climate Initiatives",[862,883,899,922,944,971],{"id":863,"data":864,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":868},"80169965-0ebe-43a9-8bfc-d2d6e9578a88",{"type":25,"title":865,"markdownContent":866,"audioMediaId":867},"The 1980s","1980 marked the first global attempts against climate change. Prior to this, there was no real combined global effort to fight against the effects of climate change. However, in 1980, the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) was established, which gave a critical boost to climate science, especially in simulating oceanic and atmospheric events. \n\n ![Graph](image://565f0ff3-31af-4302-bbf2-0da14463762e \"The WCRP is a leading climate research institution\")\n\nIn 1988, the United Nations (UN) set up the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) with the specific role to prepare and publish accurate up-to-date reports on the current state of climate change. The IPCC was created to fill a gap; in the 1970s, when climate science started to mature, it became necessary to share knowledge across borders in order to understand the causes, challenges, and consequences of climate changes. This is the core reason why the IPCC was and is still necessary. \n\n","95bf37f9-4a67-4ac5-a5b7-05f22c022924",[869,876],{"id":870,"data":871,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"26594470-445c-46c0-9894-a9cce7f956c3",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":872,"activeRecallAnswers":874},[873],"The 1980s marked the beginning of a global effort to address climate change with the creation of what initiative?",[875],"The World Climate Research Programme",{"id":877,"data":878,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"989c18ed-85eb-4b01-b700-4cf1e3a3da95",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":879,"activeRecallAnswers":881},[880],"What was the aim of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change when the United Nations set it up in 1988?",[882],"To share up-to-date reports on the current state of climate change across borders",{"id":884,"data":885,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":889},"4e863dfc-70a5-45a2-bbf9-a5a180d70b56",{"type":25,"title":886,"markdownContent":887,"audioMediaId":888},"The 1990s","In June 1992, at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, the international community kicked off the fight against climate change at the second Earth Summit. After the conference, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which acknowledges mankind’s role in global warming, was signed by 166 countries. A Conference of the Parties (COP) is held each year to bring together all of the countries that have ratified the Convention, with a total of 197 countries in 2021.\n\n ![Graph](image://7e285fb2-6643-40fc-97c9-a5cdf925bbe4 \"Rio de Janeiro\")\n\nIn December, 1997, the international emissions reduction Agreement was adopted at the third Conference of the Parties, in Kyoto, Japan. However, this Agreement did not come into effect until February 2005. The aim was set to reduce emissions of 6 greenhouse gasses by 5.2% versus 1990 levels, between 2008 and 2012. The onus was put on developed countries to take the lead in reducing emissions and has since resulted in various global initiatives.\n\n","1fd3bcad-fab2-4132-8238-6e37ac0505f4",[890],{"id":891,"data":892,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"dd317f3f-7e6c-46f5-bac5-64f55f90e9e8",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":893,"binaryCorrect":895,"binaryIncorrect":897},[894],"An agreement was reached in 1997 in Kyoto, Japan, to reduce emissions in developed countries. And yet when did it eventually come into effect?",[896],"2005",[898],"2010",{"id":900,"data":901,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":905},"764b8ec8-f591-4e85-8948-77542bec4958",{"type":25,"title":902,"markdownContent":903,"audioMediaId":904},"The 2000s ","January 2005 marks the start of the European Union’s emission trading system. Countries that form part of the European Union took the initiative to set up their own ‘carbon exchange.’ The scheme allocates a set amount of emission grants to companies responsible for high carbon emission levels. \n \n![Graph](image://c96e276b-711e-4d26-b0cb-e93bd5c1f883 \"The EU started an emissions trading program in the 2000s\")\n\n\n\nIf a company exceeds their allowed emission levels, they face fines and penalties from the EU. To counteract this, companies can buy allowances from other companies that do not require them. This incentivizes companies to lower their overall emissions, as their level of emissions are linked to an actual dollar and cent amount. Through this scheme, the EU also gets to set a limit on total emissions because, theoretically, the amount of emissions would never exceed the total amount that they’ve allocated through their emission grants.\n\nIn December of 2009, the UNFCCC parties met in Copenhagen to forge a new agreement to succeed the Kyoto Protocol. This conference is oftentimes considered as a failure, but it did manage to officially define the maximum acceptable increase in global temperature as 2°C above pre-industrial levels. Nonetheless, participants were not able to establish a binding agreement on the reduction targets of global greenhouse gas emissions. \n","49642776-0a66-4484-b08f-0f5dc00d6eba",[906,913],{"id":907,"data":908,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"37fb51ab-5112-4128-8cc6-9f829d2d826a",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":909,"activeRecallAnswers":911},[910],"The European Union's emission trading system offers a 'carbon exchange' where companies get rewarded for what?",[912],"Lowering their overall carbon emissions",{"id":914,"data":915,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"84378411-822e-4b6d-9038-46a7641c43ad",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":916,"binaryCorrect":918,"binaryIncorrect":920},[917],"The 2009 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in Copenhagen is sometimes regarded as a failure. And yet, what did it successfully define?",[919],"An acceptable maximum increase in global temperature as 2°C above pre-industrial levels ",[921],"Acceptable target for  global temperature as 2°C below those of the 1950s",{"id":923,"data":924,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":928},"20b1e2d1-4890-473d-8d4f-0a693011ba75",{"type":25,"title":925,"markdownContent":926,"audioMediaId":927},"The 2010s: The IPCC and the Paris agreement","To aid developing countries in adopting initiatives to combat climate change and deforestation, a Green Climate Fund, endowed with $100 billion per year from 2020, was agreed upon and established by the parties at the U.N. Climate Change Conference in Cancun, Mexico. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://386ac439-4d67-46ee-9c89-2da35b841cc7 \"The Paris Agreement was a watershed in the climate movement\")\n\n\n\nThis was followed by a huge breakthrough in strategies to combat climate change in 2015. For the first time in history, at the COP 21 summit in Paris, a compromise was found that every country in the world agreed to. The resulting Paris Agreement sets a global goal of limiting global warming to ‘well below’ 2°C in this century. The onus is put on developed countries to assist developing countries to meet these targets by providing financial and technological support. The accord also stresses the responsibility of states, cities, regions, businesses, and individuals in making this transition. \n","555c1910-1bf6-49a2-9064-ebd5905abd34",[929,937],{"id":930,"data":931,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"4603943c-81af-4a68-8a61-d346d63f0bff",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":932,"clozeWords":934},[933],"The UN Climate Change Conference in Cancun, Mexico, agreed on a budget of $100 billion a year from 2020 to combat climate change and deforestation",[935,936],"100","deforestation",{"id":938,"data":939,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"6a288138-98c3-436b-859e-dc29b92d1572",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":940,"activeRecallAnswers":942},[941],"The COP21 summit in 2015 led to what was called the 'Paris Agreement' where all countries agreed to …?",[943],"The goal of limiting global warming to well below 2°C",{"id":945,"data":946,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":950},"af41edc8-8f8a-486c-a91d-eaa4a281c399",{"type":25,"title":947,"markdownContent":948,"audioMediaId":949},"The 2010s: The European Green Deal","The European Green Deal was adopted by the European Council in December 2019. The primary aim is to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050; that is, to ensure that the European Union (EU) does not emit more greenhouse gasses than it can absorb, known as ‘net-zero emissions.’ To make this objective legally binding, the European Climate Law was proposed. This law also sets a new, more ambitious net greenhouse gas emissions reduction target of at least 55% by 2030, compared to 1990 levels.\n\nAccording to the European Green Deal, their decarbonization targets can only be met by reducing emissions in all sectors – from industry and energy, to transport and farming. The EU also actively engages and supports its international partners on climate action, in particular through the UN Framework Convention of Climate Change (UNFCCC) and its Paris Agreement. \n\nChina made a similar pledge shortly after the Green Deal was announced. They pledged to have emissions ‘peak’ before 2030 and to achieve carbon neutrality by 2060. The United States, which had withdrawn from international efforts under Donald Trump’s presidency, recommitted again early in 2021 following the election of Joe Biden.\n","dc475305-b256-4169-a51d-8e7a2e722a2d",[951,962],{"id":952,"data":953,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"7f55899c-7496-4689-9d01-ced59b00c126",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":954,"multiChoiceCorrect":956,"multiChoiceIncorrect":958},[955],"The European Union adopted the European Green Deal in 2019, committing to carbon neutrality by when?",[957],"2050",[959,960,961],"2040","2080","End of the century ",{"id":963,"data":964,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"e6a24f7f-fa5a-4224-9cac-ec7d98245d8c",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":965,"binaryCorrect":967,"binaryIncorrect":969},[966],"Following the election of which president did the United States commit to international efforts to reach carbon neutrality? ",[968],"Joe Biden",[970],"Donald Trump",{"id":972,"data":973,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":977},"6f40d94f-98a3-4e22-b65b-f54fbccbba9f",{"type":25,"title":974,"markdownContent":975,"audioMediaId":976},"Global renewable energy transition","Despite the fact that the energy policies of many countries are not properly aligned to the global climate goals, the Conference of Parties (COP21) in Paris indicated that most countries are willing to alleviate their carbon footprint. To achieve the ambitious targets set by the Paris Agreement, renewable energy will undoubtedly play a key role and become the main energy source across the globe.\n\nGermany, being a bellwether, has taken the lead in their renewable energy transition known as the Energiewende. Furthermore, according to the Renewables 2018 Global Status Report, complete renewable electricity targets by 2045-2050 have been set by California, Hawaii, Vietnam, Bangladesh, Barbados, Colombia, Cambodia, Ethiopia, Ghana, and Mongolia. Some countries, such as Costa Rica and Norway, already supply almost all of their electricity from renewable energy sources - predominantly hydropower. This is because hydropower provides low-cost electricity and good durability over time. It is also very efficient, with 90% of the water's energy converted into electricity.  Construction costs can also be mitigated by using existing structures like bridges, tunnels, and dams. \n\nCompanies that are involved in similar renewable trends include IKEA, BMW, Walmart, and technology companies such as Apple, Google, Sony, Facebook, and eBay, amongst several others. \n","4ef930e3-4a64-424f-b2dd-762e69c0f3c9",[978],{"id":979,"data":980,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"61022c14-d312-4866-820d-01d966204410",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":981,"clozeWords":983},[982],"Many of the world's countries are not fully aligned with global climate goals, and yet, almost all are willing to reduce their carbon footprint ",[984,985],"climate goals","carbon footprint",{"id":987,"data":988,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"orbs":991},"26b6d7bc-1f71-4bb1-b32a-da4f81a81f6d",{"type":27,"title":989,"tagline":990},"Renewable Energy to Combat Climate Change","What is renewable energy and can it really save our planet? A comprehensive beginner-friendly guide about renewable energy. ",[992,1061,1127,1180],{"id":993,"data":994,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":996},"e83a4b9d-855e-48a6-b2e0-3c970df97dcb",{"type":26,"title":995},"Current Energy Challenges",[997,1027,1043],{"id":998,"data":999,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1003},"77df7e6e-ff2c-4c5f-a3b8-5068a5212b34",{"type":25,"title":1000,"markdownContent":1001,"audioMediaId":1002},"Current Energy Dilemma: Fossil Fuels","Humanity is facing a global energy crisis, which revolves around fossil fuel dependency. Fossil fuels—including coal, oil, and natural gas—have been powering economies for over 150 years, and currently supply more than 80% of the world’s energy. You might ask, why is this a problem? Well, fossil fuels have been established to be the dominant cause for global warming, according to the IPCC. \n\n ![Graph](image://f7634dbc-7ac0-4e2c-b11a-02e854031355 \"Global primary energy consumption by source\")\n\nAccording to the IPCC 2014 report, energy-related carbon dioxide emissions comprise two-thirds of all greenhouse gasses. The global total energy-related carbon dioxide emissions reached a total of 33 billion tons in 2021. Also, carbon dioxide emissions grow as the global energy demand grows and, according to trends in global energy use, the estimated percentage of emitted carbon dioxide would increase at least 1.7% per year until 2030, with an approximated 38 billion tons in 2030. \n\n ![Graph](image://3f05242b-5fa2-43a6-9cfe-5611406326c2 \"Global direct primary energy consumption\")\n\nFossil fuels also don’t have unlimited supply capacity. Scientists have estimated that oil will last up to 50 years, natural gas up to 53 years, and coal up to 114 years. It is predicted that fossil fuels will be depleted in this century. With this background, it is easy to see why we are in need of low carbon energy alternatives. \n","bbc004cc-ed19-4160-abfa-7d67cdab53e2",[1004,1011,1020],{"id":1005,"data":1006,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"71bb52b2-8917-4ecc-ab57-8217a080324b",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1007,"activeRecallAnswers":1009},[1008],"Fossil fuels are bad for the climate, but also unviable for what other reason?",[1010],"Oil, coal, and gas are likely to run out before the end of this century",{"id":1012,"data":1013,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"ddfdd0c3-8a17-4b91-bd8a-16c69bc4d01b",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1014,"binaryCorrect":1016,"binaryIncorrect":1018},[1015],"Fossil fuels have been providing energy to economies for more than 150 years, and still supply how much of the world's energy?",[1017],"More than 80%",[1019],"Around 50%",{"id":1021,"data":1022,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"f12cbaa7-6c9c-47aa-b938-1f333888026c",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1023,"activeRecallAnswers":1025},[1024],"Old wind farms are being upgraded with what to generate more electricity?",[1026],"Higher turbine towers and longer blades",{"id":1028,"data":1029,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1033},"4094589c-d17e-43de-bf6b-50eef684eced",{"type":25,"title":1030,"markdownContent":1031,"audioMediaId":1032},"How is electricity generated?","Renewable energy is picking up a lot of steam as one of the main avenues of combating climate change. But how does electricity generation work, and why is renewable energy better for the environment?\n\n ![Graph](image://64a42836-de7b-43ee-8f2e-89a8fa88af8a \"Geothermal energy heats water by pumping it deep into the ground\")\n\nElectricity can be generated in multiple ways, but the most common method for generating electricity on a large-scale is with some form of turbine generator in which the turbine’s blade spins due to some external source, such as steam generated by burning fossil fuels and heating water, or by water flowing across the turbine blades, causing it to spin. This spinning turbine is attached to a generator, which transforms the kinetic energy into electrical energy.\n\nBurning fossil fuels produces harmful emissions, but, if you can get the turbine to spin by some other method, you can still generate electricity without those emissions. With many renewable energy forms, fossil fuel is the only element that is replaced. Geothermal energy is an example where heat from the earth is used to generate steam, which causes turbines to spin.  With wind turbines, the heat generation step is removed completely, and the wind directly rotates the turbines.","bc5b9ed5-18ba-4e64-ba30-62998a5bce6a",[1034],{"id":1035,"data":1036,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"71a4565a-43c0-4633-925b-419b509fb3ca",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1037,"clozeWords":1039},[1038],"While spinning turbines to generate electricity traditionally relied on fossil fuels, renewable energy can do so using the power of wind or geothermal energy",[1040,1041,1042],"turbines","wind","geothermal",{"id":1044,"data":1045,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1049},"6d8cb1c5-08cc-4d9f-958a-e83b2cb8199d",{"type":25,"title":1046,"markdownContent":1047,"audioMediaId":1048},"What is Renewable Energy: The Different Types","Renewable energy is a form of energy that is available in our natural environment and can be replenished repeatedly. There are various types of renewable energy sources that can be used to generate power, with some of the major forms including solar, wind, hydro-energy from flowing water, geothermal energy from heat inside the earth, and tidal energy. \n\n ![Graph](image://080b71fb-57ac-41ea-add9-71d879bbc7ad \"A hydroelectric generator\")\n\nRenewable energy can be divided into 2 primary categories, variable renewable energy and controllable renewable energy. The main difference between the 2  lies in their consistency and reliability. Variable renewable energy sources, which  include wind, solar, tidal, and hydroelectric power, produce energy intermittently instead of on demand, which makes their availability difficult to predict. Unlike variable renewable energy, controllable renewable energy can be dispatched and includes energy sources like hydroelectricity from dams, biomass, or relatively constant sources, such as geothermal power.\n","7449f16f-d395-4ffc-b216-84f79bfe4890",[1050],{"id":1051,"data":1052,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"bd156244-3ef0-459f-95bd-19bc1c0b59cd",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1053,"multiChoiceCorrect":1055,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1057},[1054],"Some renewable energy is described as 'variable,' including wind and tide. Other sources such as dams or burning biomass are referred to as constant or ...?",[1056],"Controllable",[1058,1059,1060],"Manageable","Fixed","Restricted",{"id":1062,"data":1063,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":1065},"cabeccb7-f0bc-498e-9ad8-0edf3e1ded30",{"type":26,"title":1064},"Renewable Energy Mechanisms",[1066,1080,1103],{"id":1067,"data":1068,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1072},"e476ae02-4c04-4326-b8d1-f3879643ed91",{"type":25,"title":1069,"markdownContent":1070,"audioMediaId":1071},"How do wind turbines work?","Wind energy is captured through devices called wind turbines, which work on a simple principle: instead of using electricity to make wind—like a fan—wind turbines use wind to make electricity. When the wind turns the propeller-like blades of a wind turbine it spins a small generator inside the turbine, to produce electricity. \n\nTo put the size of these incredible machines into perspective, the average rotor diameter for a wind turbine in 2020 was about 125 meters (410 feet) –  longer than a football field. The larger the turbine, the more power can be produced and the more cost effective it will be. This is because larger rotor diameters allow wind turbines to sweep more area, capture more wind, and produce more electricity.\n\n ![Graph](image://dc8fad80-f280-4eb6-ba78-18f8cbcbaf7e \"Windfarms are built in flat, spacious areas\")\n\nTo produce enough electricity, wind farms with a large number of wind turbines are built,  usually in flat, open areas where the wind blows at least 14 miles per hour. A wind farm can have as few as 5 wind turbines, whereas large wind farms can have up to several thousand. \n\n","7231c538-9e1f-4f60-956c-6741d967b706",[1073],{"id":1074,"data":1075,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"73ecdd2d-4750-4934-8f95-34f1a65d88c2",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1076,"clozeWords":1078},[1077],"Rotors on a wind turbine are usually about 125 meters long. When wind speeds reach at least 14 miles per hour, they turn the turbine to generate electricity",[1079],"125",{"id":1081,"data":1082,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1086},"de711239-afd4-4d9b-8597-35d4c19ffaf8",{"type":25,"title":1083,"markdownContent":1084,"audioMediaId":1085},"How Does Solar Power Work?","Solar power works via 1 of 2 mechanisms: photovoltaic (PV) panels, or solar-thermal concentration.\n\n\n\nThe one you are probably more familiar with is PV, or solar panels as they are commonly called. With solar panels, photovoltaic cells absorb sunlight, and convert it into electricity.  This is done by special semiconductors in the PV cell. Essentially, when light energy from the sun strikes a photovoltaic solar cell, it energizes the cell and causes electrons to separate from atoms within the semiconductor wafer. The loose electrons are then set into motion by the electric field surrounding the wafer, and this motion creates an electrical current. The electricity is then transported to the inverter, which transforms the electrical current into a usable format. Solar panel installations are becoming an ever-increasing sight, as it is a relatively cheap and simple way to generate energy without relying on the electrical grid.\n\n ![Graph](image://d9f4456b-b648-4839-9283-4efd658d7d7c \"A solar-powered home\")\n\n\nSolar-thermal concentration is more commonly found on an industrial scale in power plants.  This works by using an array of mirrors to concentrate the sun’s rays onto solar collectors. This generates heat, which is then used to produce electricity via traditional turbines or steam generators.\n\nThis is very similar to coal or geothermal energy, with the source of heat being the main differentiator between the 3. Coal energy uses heat from burning coal, whereas geothermal energy harnesses heat from the earth.\n","f314c8fd-65f0-48fc-9263-20f215dd880b",[1087,1094],{"id":1088,"data":1089,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"cb40c16d-2d77-466a-99fa-d334778dd9ad",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1090,"activeRecallAnswers":1092},[1091],"Solar-thermal concentration works like geothermal energy, but how?",[1093],"An array of mirrors concentrates the Sun's rays to heat up collectors that power turbines",{"id":1095,"data":1096,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"f3604a59-755c-45e8-80a0-907b19c476ed",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1097,"binaryCorrect":1099,"binaryIncorrect":1101},[1098],"Photovoltaic (solar) panels contain what to absorb sunlight and turn it into electricity?",[1100],"Semiconductors",[1102],"Inductors",{"id":1104,"data":1105,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1109},"f404d551-4042-41dc-9fb3-582d0e56c313",{"type":25,"title":1106,"markdownContent":1107,"audioMediaId":1108},"How Does Hydroelectricity Work?","Worldwide, hydroelectricity is the largest source of renewable energy generation. In 2020, hydroelectricity generated more electricity than all other renewable energy sources combined.\n\n\n\nHydroelectricity is a method using the flow of water to generate electricity.  Dams, or other purpose-built structures, use the flow of water to turn turbines, which generate electricity.  The amount of electricity produced depends on 2 factors: the flow of water, and the elevation change between 2 points. The bigger the flow of water and change in elevation, the larger the kinetic energy of the water, and the higher the rate of electricity production.\n\n ![Graph](image://ec58e79e-53f2-4071-8a9f-212992726d00 \"A hydroelectric generator\")\n\n\nHydroelectricity is also utilized in pumped-storage systems. How it works is that there are 2 reservoirs at different elevations. In times where excess electricity is generated, water is pumped from the lower reservoir to the higher. When that electricity is needed, the water flows back to the lower reservoir through hydroelectric generators. This means that these are effectively ‘water batteries,’ and is an amazing way of having a large, predictable amount of stored electricity which can be used to generate electricity on demand. \n","cdebbd25-7f75-4e04-8907-e55c66cf26cb",[1110,1119],{"id":1111,"data":1112,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"68da7726-b0c7-4ba5-813f-626b61ee4106",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1113,"binaryCorrect":1115,"binaryIncorrect":1117},[1114],"Hydroelectricity is great when the water is flowing, but how do you create 'water batteries'?",[1116],"Pump water up to a higher reservoir using any excess electricity",[1118],"Electrically charge the water for later use",{"id":1120,"data":1121,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"f32d3ef4-80f0-44ef-9bdc-916851692abe",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1122,"activeRecallAnswers":1124},[1123],"Hydroelectricity is the largest source of renewable energy generation and depends on two factors...?",[1125,1126],"The volume of water flow","Size of the elevation change when water is delivered",{"id":1128,"data":1129,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":1131},"51ad6c60-efef-43d3-a2fa-d0379402163d",{"type":26,"title":1130},"Renewable Energy Benefits and Challenges",[1132,1147,1164],{"id":1133,"data":1134,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1138},"deb51241-dac3-4bf3-a859-ca39dfc037d1",{"type":25,"title":1135,"markdownContent":1136,"audioMediaId":1137},"The Advantages of Renewable Energy","There are a lot of advantages associated with renewable energy. To start off, renewable energy cannot be depleted and is, therefore, sustainable. This is probably the most important difference between renewables and fossil fuels. Though renewable energy sources are not equally spread, it is possible to implement smart widespread energy networks for a sustainable energy supply. Renewable energy is also environmentally friendly because renewable energy will result in less air pollution and less greenhouse gas emission compared to fossil fuels. If the air is less polluted it would have a direct effect on some health conditions related to polluted air, like asthma. \n\nTurning to renewable energy, it has the potential to stabilize the global energy market as renewables only require initial investment costs. Renewable energy could also have a positive impact on the economy through job creation and relieving poverty, especially in developing nations.\n\n","e225d1de-1211-4989-96ba-ecb1dfe76118",[1139],{"id":1140,"data":1141,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"97039a95-8b78-4467-aa76-bcb3e439028c",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1142,"clozeWords":1144},[1143],"Renewable energy has the potential to stabilize the energy market as most of the costs are upfront rather than ongoing  ",[1145,1146],"stabilize","upfront ",{"id":1148,"data":1149,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1153},"e0256b5a-190c-4b34-a442-1d5382bf26ad",{"type":25,"title":1150,"markdownContent":1151,"audioMediaId":1152},"The Challenges of Renewable Energy","Although renewable energy is considered to be the most promising solution to reduce carbon dioxide and other anthropogenic greenhouse gasses, it does have limitations and challenges with the biggest being its variable availability. Variable renewable energy, such as sun and wind, poses risks to the stability of the global energy grid.  Another key challenge to renewables is location. Firstly, renewable energy plants require large areas and secondly renewable energy is not equally spread across the globe and might simply not be available in certain regions. In addition, it is not only dependent on geographical location, but also depends on the weather and climate. \n\nAnother big hurdle with regard to implementing renewable energy is the high initial cost of installation and scalability. This cost is more of an issue for developing countries and could more easily be overcome by developed countries. In terms of the scale, a lot of renewables are required relative to burning 1 kilogram of coal. In addition to this, storage systems of the generated energy are expensive and represent a real challenge. \n\n","671e1558-6861-4f6b-bee3-902979b47d28",[1154],{"id":1155,"data":1156,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"8a1b9a00-0e42-4714-a0a2-04facd51f297",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1157,"activeRecallAnswers":1159},[1158],"What are the biggest challenges of using renewable energy to reduce carbon emissions?",[1160,1161,1162,1163],"Energy from the Sun and wind are variable","Renewable energy may not be available in all locations","High upfront costs for developing countries","Storing excess energy",{"id":1165,"data":1166,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1170},"a33bba8b-0e55-42e4-8a05-3256b56f9f64",{"type":25,"title":1167,"markdownContent":1168,"audioMediaId":1169},"Renewable Energy Statistics Across the Globe ","In the first quarter of 2020, global use of renewable energy in all sectors increased by about 1.5% relative to the same time interval in 2019. Also, the share of renewables in global electricity generation jumped to nearly 28% in the first quarter of 2020 from 26% in the same time interval in 2019. \n\nThis increase in renewables came mainly at the cost of coal and gas, though those sources still represent close to 60% of global electricity supply. In the first 3 months of 2020, variable renewable energy, more specifically solar PV and wind power, reached 9% of generation, which is up from 8% in 2019.\n\nThe graph below shows the distribution of renewable energy generation across the globe by source. \n\n ![Graph](image://1165dd95-1fa9-4dee-b503-e09301cd1c6a \"World growth in renewable energy generation\")\n\n","f592c209-928a-49dc-888c-43c2d7ec79fc",[1171],{"id":1172,"data":1173,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"1cc098c4-e279-41a4-bd38-368864126bb2",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1174,"binaryCorrect":1176,"binaryIncorrect":1178},[1175],"The contribution of renewable energy to global electricity production reached almost what percentage in the first quarter of 2020?",[1177],"28%",[1179],"48%",{"id":1181,"data":1182,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":1184},"a71dc43d-0340-49a1-8a9d-29d5bb8b04be",{"type":26,"title":1183},"Advances in Renewable Energy",[1185,1200,1214,1230],{"id":1186,"data":1187,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1191},"467c5c5d-f135-47a6-88ef-d191f318af6d",{"type":25,"title":1188,"markdownContent":1189,"audioMediaId":1190},"Advances in Renewable Energy: Solar and Wind","There are now so many ways we can create renewable energy; technology is constantly developing and now we are seeing solar roads and roof tiles, which feature integrated solar panels to generate electricity, solar power phone chargers and battery packs, and many other applications. \n\n\n\nOld renewable technologies, like old wind farms, are being replaced with new advanced and more powerful versions to ensure better efficiency. This involves replacing turbines with higher wind turbine towers with longer blades, which increases capacity and electricity generated per turbine. This also reduces costs on a per megawatt (MW) basis. Currently, the longest wind turbine features a 107 m blade and 220 m rotor. \n\n ![Graph](image://36354051-aa89-4c30-ad15-d5aca39f87b7 \"Solar windows\")\n\nIn terms of solar energy, several city and province level governments have been pushing regulations to mandate a certain amount of roof space and other parts of a building to be used for solar power installations. New and advanced solar applications are also coming into play, such as solar roadways, solar windows, space-based solar power, and hybrid power plants. While solar roadways are specifically engineered solar panels on which one can drive or walk, solar windows are engineered see-through windows that are used on the side of buildings to capture sunlight to generate electricity. Space-based solar power is essentially satellites in the Earth’s orbit that are used to capture the sun’s radiation and convert it into electricity.   \n\n","07ea933e-b138-499c-86f5-92286b4c2ef7",[1192],{"id":1193,"data":1194,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"09ba0ca3-d055-4ca5-8bc8-9579f90760ab",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1195,"clozeWords":1197},[1196],"Advances in renewables technology have led to roadways with solar panels that can be walked or driven on and buildings with see-through solar windows",[1198,1199],"roadways","see-through",{"id":1201,"data":1202,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1206},"8280bff0-e556-40f6-b827-4604d2e11cdc",{"type":25,"title":1203,"markdownContent":1204,"audioMediaId":1205},"Advances in Renewable Energy Technology","The rising share of renewable energy sources has necessitated the need for adoption of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) technology. Variable renewable energy sources like wind and solar power have significant peaks that require energy storage for smooth power outputs. Hydrogen serves as the leading lowest-cost alternative for energy storage of large quantities of renewables over days, weeks, and even months. The storage of hydrogen fuel can take place for long periods, and in quantities limited only by the size of storage facilities.\n\n ![Graph](image://010a40ea-2e34-4f22-a97f-8a97baa5f810 \"Wind power requires batteries for storage, which can be inefficient\")\n\nModern technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) are also being adopted by the power industry. AI and ML have an important role in improving energy demand predictions, generation predictions from non-dispatchable resources like wind and solar as well as wholesale price predictions. \n","46d4ae23-6c65-4d1b-9707-3b316e8440dd",[1207],{"id":1208,"data":1209,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"fa0637b8-bf81-4650-ab45-308823b4d41c",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1210,"activeRecallAnswers":1212},[1211],"Why are electricity storage systems and batteries so essential when using renewable technology?",[1213],"To smooth power output from the peaks and troughs of solar and wind energy supplies",{"id":1215,"data":1216,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1220},"33a011c7-0fc9-48d1-ae40-1e1c2a07a2b1",{"type":25,"title":1217,"markdownContent":1218,"audioMediaId":1219},"Cost Competitive Renewables","Until very recently, electricity generation from solar and wind has not been cost competitive compared with other leading methods of electricity generation, like fossil fuels. However, according to the latest report from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), the cost of renewable energy is rapidly decreasing and is now cost competitive with fossil fuels. In fact, according to Francesco La Camero, Director-General of IRENA, renewables are by far the cheapest form of power today. \n\nThe organization, involving >150 member countries, states that the cost of generating power from onshore wind has decreased by approximately 5%, offshore wind by 13% and solar PV by 13% compared to 2020.  \n\nAccording to IRENA, two-thirds or 163 gigawatts (GW) of newly installed renewable power in 2021 had lower costs than the world’s cheapest coal-fired option in the G20,  an intergovernmental forum which consists of 19 countries and the European Union (EU). IRENA estimates that, given the current high fossil fuel prices, the renewable power added in 2021 will save  around $55 billion from global energy generation costs in 2022.\n","667239a9-61e1-4efe-8b3c-3fa7bd732932",[1221],{"id":1222,"data":1223,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"d86fa0c0-56d8-427f-8023-a3ecd3f3e0a2",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1224,"binaryCorrect":1226,"binaryIncorrect":1228},[1225],"What has changed to make renewable energy competitive with electricity generation from fossil fuels?",[1227],"The falling costs of renewable energy",[1229],"The rising costs of fossil fuels",{"id":1231,"data":1232,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1236},"b54ab652-39aa-4a72-9eaa-a99c805bc961",{"type":25,"title":1233,"markdownContent":1234,"audioMediaId":1235},"The Future of Renewable Energy","Despite rising costs for the materials that are used to produce solar panels and wind turbines, additions of new renewable power capacity are predicted to rise to a record high of 290 gigawatts (GW) in 2021, surpassing the previous all-time high in 2020, according to the International Energy Agency’s ( IEA) annual Renewables Market Report.\n\n ![Graph](image://6a185fcd-4ada-4957-81ee-29bf7bf2cc6f \"Around the world, governments are waking up to renewables\")\n\nAccording to the IEA, forecasts indicate that, by 2026, global renewable electricity capacity is expected to rise more than 60% from 2020 levels to over 4,800 GW – equivalent to the current total global power capacity of fossil fuels and nuclear combined. What’s more, renewables are expected to account for up to 95% of the increase in global power capacity through 2026, with solar PV alone providing more than half. The amount of renewable capacity added over the period of 2021 to 2026 is expected to be 50% higher than that of 2015 to 2020. This is driven by growing support from government policies and more ambitious clean energy goals announced before and during the COP26 Climate Change Conference which was held at Glasgow in 2021.\n\n","381affbb-ee61-4de1-b901-cdeb84133d5d",[1237],{"id":1238,"data":1239,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"e48b016d-db3a-47bd-8a71-12f636f2fc25",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1240,"activeRecallAnswers":1242},[1241],"Despite rising material costs, the use of renewable power sources is set to increase dramatically as a result of goals set at...?",[1243],"The 2021 COP26 Climate Change Conference in Glasgow",{"id":1245,"data":1246,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"orbs":1249},"269b3b6a-9c9b-4782-bef6-d50844825395",{"type":27,"title":1247,"tagline":1248},"Carbon Capture, Storage and Utilization Technologies","Can you really capture carbon dioxide and remove it from the atmosphere? An informative piece on what carbon capture, storage, and utilization is and its use in combating climate change. ",[1250,1386,1446],{"id":1251,"data":1252,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":1254},"2a4811a6-c2e4-484a-8e36-94735d93aa62",{"type":26,"title":1253},"Understanding Carbon Capture and Storage",[1255,1300,1324,1349,1363],{"id":1256,"data":1257,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1261},"67198c59-e442-4129-941f-cbd7094502d5",{"type":25,"title":1258,"markdownContent":1259,"audioMediaId":1260},"What is carbon capture and storage? How does it work?","Simply put, carbon capture and storage, or CCS for short, is the capture and storage of carbon dioxide before it gets released into the atmosphere. CCS has significant potential to reduce carbon dioxide emission of the industrial sector and energy systems. The technology is capable of capturing up to 90% of carbon dioxide emissions released from fossil fuel burning during electricity production and industrial processes such as steel or cement production.\n\nCCS involves 3 steps: capturing the carbon dioxide produced by power generation or industrial activity; transporting it from where it was produced; and storing it deep underground in geological formations. \n\n ![Graph](image://8b47f35d-6345-4950-b17e-e221719da115 \"A typical carbon capture process\")\n\nDuring the capturing phase, carbon dioxide should first be separated from other gasses produced in industrial processes. This is followed by a compression step, where the carbon dioxide is compressed and deeply chilled into a fluid. By compressing gas into a liquid, its volume is decreased exponentially, making it much more effective to transport. The carbon dioxide is then transported through ship, road transportation or in a pipeline and, as a final step, the carbon dioxide is stored, for example, by injecting it into rock formations for long-term storage. \n\n","95751080-fe50-4b69-aee2-fa61a0428b9b",[1262,1271,1282,1289],{"id":1263,"data":1264,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"25ba2cff-f43f-48ec-8f45-251c7e86ecfc",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1265,"activeRecallAnswers":1267},[1266],"What three steps in carbon capture significantly reduce carbon dioxide emissions from industry and energy suppliers?",[1268,1269,1270],"Capturing the carbon dioxide","Transporting it from where it was produced","Storing it deep underground",{"id":1272,"data":1273,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"5af802e8-9fca-48f6-b66f-5a7a0e75130e",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1274,"multiChoiceCorrect":1276,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1278},[1275],"What percentage of carbon dioxide emissions released from fossil fuels is CCS technology currently capable of capturing?",[1277],"90%",[1279,1280,1281],"80%","70%","95%",{"id":1283,"data":1284,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"7440e1cd-a183-4886-b72a-8e6df944be80",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1285,"activeRecallAnswers":1287},[1286],"The three steps of carbon capture and storage are: capturing the carbon dioxide; transporting it from where it was produced; and what?",[1288],"Storing it deep underground in geological formations",{"id":1290,"data":1291,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"edb75a13-aefc-4404-8266-5fd16aac2e58",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1292,"multiChoiceCorrect":1294,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1296},[1293],"What happens to carbon dioxide to reduce its volume and make it easier to transport?",[1295],"Turned into a liquid",[1297,1298,1299],"Rapidly cooled","Heated gently","Mixed with other less harmful gases",{"id":1301,"data":1302,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1306},"cb2be669-1d73-4238-a074-ce394eb97a07",{"type":25,"title":1303,"markdownContent":1304,"audioMediaId":1305},"Different carbon capture and storage methods","Carbon Capture and Storage is  sometimes also referred to as carbon capture and sequestration or carbon control and sequestration. Carbon capture at the source can be achieved through a variety of methods, the main ones being post combustion, pre-combustion, and oxy-fuel combustion. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://db5fee0e-9099-44ef-989d-f9341dc9b460 \"Post-combustion carbon capture\")\n\nPost-combustion carbon capture is the primary method used in existing power plants and involves separating carbon dioxide from the exhaust of combustion processes. For pre-combustion capture technologies, there are commercially available technologies used by industrial facilities.\n\nHowever, for power plants, pre-combustion capture is still in the early stages of development. With post-combustion, carbon dioxide is separated and captured from the flue gasses that result from the combustion of fossil fuel. For oxy-fuel combustion, fuel is burned in a nearly pure-oxygen environment, rather than regular air. This results in a more concentrated stream of carbon dioxide emissions, making it easier, and cheaper, to capture.\n\nPost-combustion and oxy-fuel technologies can be retrofitted to old plants, meaning that existing power stations can be turned into carbon capturing assets. Pre-combustion, on the other hand, would involve large modifications to existing power stations and can, therefore, only be applied to newly built power plants.\n\n","0e13fb47-59da-4ea1-87ca-4b4729adf724",[1307,1316],{"id":1308,"data":1309,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"26da3e97-8d8c-472b-bc05-99a59f221030",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1310,"binaryCorrect":1312,"binaryIncorrect":1314},[1311],"What carbon capture involves burning fuel in a nearly pure oxygen environment instead of regular air?",[1313],"Oxy-fuel combustion ",[1315],"Pre-combustion",{"id":1317,"data":1318,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"90efdbd0-982a-4141-b4c6-3710f7d6c7e2",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1319,"clozeWords":1321},[1320],"Post-combustion carbon capture is used in existing power plants to separate carbon dioxide from flue gases produced by fossil fuels",[1322,1323],"power plants","flue gases",{"id":1325,"data":1326,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1330},"ce8feb5b-66f2-4a96-9449-42f07d992d36",{"type":25,"title":1327,"markdownContent":1328,"audioMediaId":1329},"Carbon dioxide storage options","A number of methods have already been explored for the permanent storage of carbon dioxide, including geological storage, mineral-based storage, ocean-based storage, or by using carbon dioxide degrading algae or bacteria to break down the carbon dioxide. Out of the methods mentioned, geological storage is currently the most promising due to the previous experience by the oil and gas industry. This method of storage involves storing carbon dioxide either in gas or liquid form by injecting it into depleted oil and gas reservoirs, unmineable coal seams, or saline aquifers at depths between 800 and 1000 m.\n\nMineral-based storage involves reacting carbon dioxide with metal oxides such as magnesium and calcium oxides, to form carbonates. Carbonation, also known as ‘mineral sequestration.’ can be considered as both a storage and utilization option, depending on the application of the carbonates. If the carbonates are used as material in the construction industry, for example, it is no longer considered a storage option and forms part of carbon capture and utilization (CCU) technologies.  \n\nOcean-based storage of carbon dioxide has been made illegal under the London and OSPAR conventions, since this type of storage could greatly increase ocean acidification.\n","dc22b727-02e4-4443-b8ce-33e0e0452176",[1331,1342],{"id":1332,"data":1333,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"4232c127-1032-48ae-9d79-313ace611afa",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1334,"multiChoiceCorrect":1336,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1338},[1335],"Several methods have been trialed for the permanent storage of carbon dioxide; which one is the most popular?",[1337],"Geological storage",[1339,1340,1341],"Mineral-based storage","Ocean-based storage","Algae and bacterial storage",{"id":1343,"data":1344,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"636ac16c-355b-475b-bcc3-df65769d2d77",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1345,"activeRecallAnswers":1347},[1346],"Why was ocean-based storage, or sequestration, of carbon dioxide made illegal under the London and OSPAR convention?",[1348],"It has the potential to increase ocean acidification",{"id":1350,"data":1351,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1355},"55dc253d-4294-4af3-9ccb-40ef2e124e4f",{"type":25,"title":1352,"markdownContent":1353,"audioMediaId":1354},"What is carbon capture and utilization?","In some cases, captured carbon dioxide can be used to produce manufactured goods or as materials for industrial and other processes, rather than being stored underground. This is known as carbon capture and utilization (CCU) technologies. The biggest advantage CCU has over CCS is that utilization of carbon dioxide is normally a profitable activity as products can be sold. This also eliminates the need for adequate carbon storage solutions. \n\nDifferent carbon dioxide uses will lead to different levels of emissions reductions and the ultimate effects on climate change will depend on whether these uses lead to permanent sequestration of the carbon dioxide or not. In some uses, for example, in soda carbonation, carbon dioxide is released immediately upon opening and is, therefore, not considered an acceptable utilization option.  \n","687a9bc6-4ea4-4714-b987-178146ca8f61",[1356],{"id":1357,"data":1358,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"6c2b1c1c-1b37-4802-9cc9-01739b96db5e",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1359,"activeRecallAnswers":1361},[1360],"Rather than dump carbon underground, CCU technologies offer an alternative. What does it stand for?",[1362],"Carbon Capture and Utilization",{"id":1364,"data":1365,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1369},"cea944d1-6221-4a6e-81e5-e91504a083a7",{"type":25,"title":1366,"markdownContent":1367,"audioMediaId":1368},"Different carbon capture and utilization methods","Carbon dioxide can be utilized in different ways, among them direct utilization of carbon dioxide, enhanced oil and coal-bed methane recovery, conversion of carbon dioxide into chemicals and fuels, mineral carbonation, and biofuels from microalgae. \n\nThe direct utilization of carbon dioxide mainly involves the application of carbon dioxide in the food and drink industry, where carbon dioxide can be used as a carbonating agent, preservative, packaging gas and as a solvent for the extraction of flavors and in the decaffeination process. Other use cases include the pharmaceutical industry where carbon dioxide can be used as a respiratory stimulant or as an intermediate in the synthesis of drugs.\n\n ![Graph](image://f14014ec-624a-417d-b2d6-905f7de3bae7 \"Carbonated drinks are one use for carbon dioxide\")\n\nEnhanced oil and coal-bed methane recovery are also considered direct utilization of carbon dioxide where it is used to extract crude oil from an oil field or natural gas from unmineable coal deposits. Another way to utilize carbon dioxide is by converting it into useful fuels or chemicals, such as methane, methanol, syngas, urea, and formic acid. However, some of these processes can, in themselves, have some environmental impacts. \n\nCarbonated minerals are also a valuable product that can be produced from carbon dioxide and can be used in the construction industry. Lastly, carbon dioxide can be used to cultivate microalgae used for the production of biofuels. \n","6e53303a-fdc7-4bc5-aa11-6e63c1987bec",[1370,1377],{"id":1371,"data":1372,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"04c42069-184e-468a-9158-19d3ce9edc67",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1373,"clozeWords":1375},[1374],"One of the most promising re-uses of captured carbon dioxide involves cultivating microalgae in biofuel production",[1376],"microalgae",{"id":1378,"data":1379,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"aa051069-a74c-44ad-8457-bbfe7cf977c8",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1380,"binaryCorrect":1382,"binaryIncorrect":1384},[1381],"What is the issue with repurposing waste carbon dioxide for the food and drinks industry?",[1383],"It is immediately released upon opening packaging",[1385],"It leaves a bad aftertaste",{"id":1387,"data":1388,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":1390},"eb486868-a773-4f50-9160-6fc2a9c8fa7d",{"type":26,"title":1389},"Challenges and Benefits of CCSU",[1391,1405,1429],{"id":1392,"data":1393,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1397},"920a039f-4dc2-4d22-8cba-c003b83a2f45",{"type":25,"title":1394,"markdownContent":1395,"audioMediaId":1396},"Carbon capture, utilization, and storage to combat climate change","The IPCC highlighted that, if we are to achieve the ambitions of the Paris Agreement and limit future temperature increases to 1.5°C, we must do more than just increasing efforts to reduce emissions – we also need to deploy technologies to remove carbon from the atmosphere. This is where carbon capture, storage, and utilization comes in, which can play an important role in tackling global warming.\n\n ![Graph](image://6aa02329-d84f-4717-86c1-c701734e7f2b \"A carbon capture device\")\n\nThe advantages of carbon capture and storage, with regard to combating climate change, are twofold. It has the ability to avoid carbon dioxide emissions at the source and enable large-scale decreases to carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere through carbon dioxide removal technologies. Both of these play an essential part of the solution. If carbon capture, utilization, and storage methods do not form part of the strategy to reduce carbon dioxide emissions, radical changes will be required in human behavior to reach the ambitions set out by the Paris Agreement. Simply put, reducing carbon dioxide emissions won’t be enough. \n","28acaba7-0385-4a71-a30c-06f41b217b9b",[1398],{"id":1399,"data":1400,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"a82022cb-7561-4db4-971a-55996484c969",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1401,"activeRecallAnswers":1403},[1402],"To limit future temperature increases to 1.5°C, we must do more than reduce emissions – we must do what?",[1404],"Use technology to remove existing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere",{"id":1406,"data":1407,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1411},"2503a0f7-b7a3-484d-a122-f2622c38f78f",{"type":25,"title":1408,"markdownContent":1409,"audioMediaId":1410},"Challenges of carbon capture, storage, and utilization","Although there are many benefits in using carbon capture, utilization, and storage technologies to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere, there are also several issues related to the technology and its implementation that still need to be addressed. \n\nTo start with, these technologies have a high cost of implementation. Significant investment is needed for the high cost of equipment and materials to store carbon dioxide, and to build infrastructure to transport and then store it.  \n\n ![Graph](image://f2aed26e-b37e-4770-a558-8ab2f53adda0 \"Post-combustion carbon capture\")\n\nAlthough the availability of geological storage is not considered a barrier in the short to medium term, there are uncertainties with regard to the long-term ability of storage sites. It is also estimated that not all countries will have enough carbon dioxide storage capacity to properly implement the technology. Potential leakage in high concentration can also cause problems for human health, making this largely unsuitable for areas with high political instability or tectonic activity. Each carbon dioxide source must be connected to an appropriate storage site via a pipeline, which can make carbon capture, utilization, and storage implementation more difficult and expensive in areas that have no geological formations suitable for storage.\n\n","2b7a9ab2-e8b3-401e-ac2d-0c68c1d385a6",[1412,1420],{"id":1413,"data":1414,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"1260f9ed-54bb-42f3-819f-be93619c0462",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1415,"clozeWords":1417},[1416],"One of the most significant issues with carbon capture, utilization, and storage technologies involves the high cost of equipment to transport and store it",[1418,1419],"carbon capture","transport",{"id":1421,"data":1422,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"cc75ae00-aae1-4c4b-bdb5-b0a65019a895",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1423,"binaryCorrect":1425,"binaryIncorrect":1427},[1424],"Geological storage of carbon dioxide involves pipelines that are not only expensive, but they also risk damaging human health due to their potential for …? ",[1426],"Leaks",[1428],"Explosion",{"id":1430,"data":1431,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1435},"4f8de8c7-ccdf-4dde-b67a-6039f8333f7e",{"type":25,"title":1432,"markdownContent":1433,"audioMediaId":1434},"Current status of carbon capture, storage, and utilization","Carbon capture and storage is growing more rapidly than ever. Between 2020 and 2021, the potential capacity of carbon capture projects in development grew by almost 50%, a massive increase in a single year. However, to limit global warming to 2°C requires installed carbon capture and storage capacity to increase from around 40 Megatons per year (Mtpa) today to over 5,600 Mtpa by 2050. This translates to between $655 billion and $1,280 billion in capital investments that are needed by 2050. Rapid growth of supporting infrastructure is required by 2030 to bring more projects into the development pipeline and get them operating by 2050. \n \nThe graph below indicates the capacity of CCS facilities that are under various stages of development. The graph excludes facilities that have not yet announced their capacity. \n\n ![Graph](image://7881f337-1394-407e-b819-101bc712481a \"Capacity of CCS Facilities in Development\")\n\n","72dec6fa-7d80-42aa-a6dd-f8d2354e4515",[1436],{"id":1437,"data":1438,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"7abd550a-6c78-4c5d-9782-0399fba91216",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1439,"multiChoiceCorrect":1441,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1442},[1440],"Between 2020 and 2021, which important carbon reduction technology grew in capacity by almost 50%? ",[792],[1443,1444,1445],"Carbon utilization","Carbon emissions reduction","Carbon repurposing",{"id":1447,"data":1448,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":1450},"d6c5d2c1-5476-4ea1-8b6a-6a6cf68df4bb",{"type":26,"title":1449},"Global CCSU Developments",[1451,1473],{"id":1452,"data":1453,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1457},"b39d7d6e-8671-400c-86c8-d4175bd06649",{"type":25,"title":1454,"markdownContent":1455,"audioMediaId":1456},"Global carbon capture and storage facilities","In 2020, 26 commercial CCS plants were in operation throughout the world, capturing 40 million tons of carbon, or 0.11% of total yearly global emissions. The number of CCS plants is expected to increase as the technology continues to improve. However, increasing carbon capture and storage does not mean industries should continue burning fossil fuels unabated—fossil fuels also release other harmful pollutants. \n\n ![Graph](image://11278a2f-039e-452a-81b7-2cdbc22ebe2b \"Current and planned CCS facilities\")\n\nInstead, carbon capture and storage can be used to help avoid the worst effects of climate change. According to the Global CCS Institute’s 2021 Status Report, plants in operation or under construction have the current capacity to capture 40 million metric tons of carbon dioxide per year. In 2021, 102 CCS facilities were in advanced and early stages of development. Combined with facilities already under construction or in operation, these facilities could capture 149.3 million metric tons of carbon dioxide per year.\n\n","6a32d08e-5f51-40ed-a81e-a51ae8c7647b",[1458,1466],{"id":1459,"data":1460,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"34bee757-974e-450b-87ff-fb5936c5b4e5",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1461,"clozeWords":1463},[1462],"In 2020, there were 26 commercial carbon capture and storage facilities; by 2021, that had increased to 102, potentially capturing 149.3 million tons of carbon dioxide annually",[1464,1465],"storage facilities","carbon dioxide",{"id":1467,"data":1468,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"ed3d01ec-49c9-4b1e-9e8b-4ef155d20485",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1469,"activeRecallAnswers":1471},[1470],"Carbon capture and storage are essential for meeting climate change goals, yet what else must still happen?",[1472],"We must stop burning fossil fuels",{"id":1474,"data":1475,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25},"f17da96c-3630-41fc-bc98-476eebabf12b",{"type":25,"title":1476,"markdownContent":1477,"audioMediaId":1478},"Carbon capture and storage policies","In order to accelerate the development of carbon capture and storage technologies, policies are required that increase demand and reduce costs. Several policies have the potential to reduce costs of the technology which will encourage research, development, and deployment. These include carbon pricing policies, public investment and subsidies, and clean energy standards that credit companies generating electricity or other energy sources using CCS. \n\nCarbon pricing policies are used in several countries or subnational jurisdictions, like states or provinces, around the globe. It works by charging emitters for the tons of emissions of carbon dioxide for which they are responsible.\n\nIn the United States, multiple policies have been put in place to encourage carbon capture and storage, such as tax credits, which provides an incentive for capturing carbon dioxide and storing it. The Bipartisan Infrastructure Law was passed in 2021, with the aim of promoting and aiding carbon capture projects. The law cuts through some of the red tape for building the infrastructure necessary for carbon capture, storage, and utilization, as well as allocating funding towards pipeline construction.\n","3b00023f-3d50-493e-9bf5-39d552d486a7",{"id":1480,"data":1481,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"orbs":1484},"2c42adae-8659-4a5e-afa5-8b22ccb63756",{"type":27,"title":1482,"tagline":1483},"Hydrogen Energy","Do you know that many consider hydrogen the fuel of the future? What are the key features of hydrogen, especially its use in a low-carbon energy system called the Hydrogen Economy?   ",[1485,1593,1682],{"id":1486,"data":1487,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":1489},"82fc02cb-6a78-40bd-8937-b2eb3f159717",{"type":26,"title":1488},"The Role of Hydrogen in Energy Transition",[1490,1522,1536,1561,1575],{"id":1491,"data":1492,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1496},"ff4d7263-6092-416e-afc2-02b54c15ff49",{"type":25,"title":1493,"markdownContent":1494,"audioMediaId":1495},"Why hydrogen?","Hydrogen has been gaining global attention as a clean alternative energy source. Many have deemed hydrogen the fuel of the future. Proponents of so-called green hydrogen, meaning hydrogen that is generated through renewable energy, believe it could help end our dependence on fossil fuels and aid the transition to a net-zero world. \n \nGreen hydrogen can help lower the carbon footprint of heavy-polluting industries such as steel and cement, and can enter our daily lives in the form of hydrogen fuel cell trucks and cars. \n\n ![Graph](image://1f4ae323-0924-44a7-85b7-62a6476e54cf \"Green hydrogen could be a clean fuel for cars\")\n \nAlongside green hydrogen, emissions can be significantly reduced by using blue hydrogen, which is made from natural gas or coal but incorporates carbon dioxide capture in its production. By using blue and green hydrogen in conjunction with one another, hydrogen has the potential to meet the global energy demand. Though hydrogen has been hyped as the fuel of the future before, its technology has since been improved and new possibilities are now being realized. With global efforts, hydrogen might just be the answer we’ve all been looking for.","c8897e9c-4341-4831-af06-f3779d953fc5",[1497,1504,1513],{"id":1498,"data":1499,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"bbd97655-c45f-49c4-aa5a-f7134f20e658",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1500,"activeRecallAnswers":1502},[1501],"What type of energy has been gaining in popularity as a clean energy source, and may even end our dependence on fossil fuels?",[1503],"Green hydrogen",{"id":1505,"data":1506,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"d094aef7-88f9-4f27-8a03-748af8434c0e",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1507,"binaryCorrect":1509,"binaryIncorrect":1511},[1508],"'Blue hydrogen' is made from natural gas or coal, so what is climate friendly about it?",[1510],"Carbon dioxide is captured during its production",[1512],"Less carbon dioxide is given off during its production",{"id":1514,"data":1515,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"fa17e486-bbcb-4425-8939-6bb41c322aa2",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1516,"binaryCorrect":1518,"binaryIncorrect":1520},[1517],"How is blue hydrogen different from green hydrogen?",[1519],"Blue hydrogen incorporates carbon dioxide capture",[1521],"Blue hydrogen is obtained from water",{"id":1523,"data":1524,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1528},"29ed75be-4a72-492d-ba76-ecfbdfa10d02",{"type":25,"title":1525,"markdownContent":1526,"audioMediaId":1527},"What has hydrogen been used for in the past?","Similar to the second simplest element, helium, hydrogen is great at lifting things like balloons. In fact, hydrogen is better at lifting things than helium. This is why hydrogen was thought to be an excellent method for air transportation. In the early 1900s, large airships that used hydrogen as their lifting gas were a popular form of air travel. But it wasn’t long before tragedy struck and the short lived hydrogen-filled airship craze came to a complete stop in 1937 when the German Airship, Hindenburg, caught fire and exploded at Lakehurst, New Jersey, killing 36 people.  \n\n ![Graph](image://63b652b3-7d9b-47f1-af39-82d3fea17cee \"The Hindenberg Disaster proved that hydrogen was a dangerous choice\")\n\nAirship designers knew that hydrogen is flammable and that helium was a safer choice. However, helium was rare and expensive. And so they decided to go with the cheaper but less safe option. After the Hindenburg disaster, hydrogen was quickly abandoned as a lifting gas. At the same time, airplanes were becoming more common.\n","e39b1181-c933-4a22-a2a7-895b26564293",[1529],{"id":1530,"data":1531,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"df20371a-a8e0-496f-b257-f27481e15c7f",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1532,"activeRecallAnswers":1534},[1533],"Hydrogen was used for lifting heavy things until abandoned when what famous disaster struck in 1937?",[1535],"The German airship, the Hindenburg exploded",{"id":1537,"data":1538,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1542},"610b51f9-9a92-4798-be95-f65d2bd4ad10",{"type":25,"title":1539,"markdownContent":1540,"audioMediaId":1541},"Hydrogen facts","Hydrogen is the lightest element and has the highest heating value, which is the amount of heat produced by the complete combustion of a unit quantity of fuel, per mass of all chemical fuels. Hydrogen is also the most abundant element in the universe and is, therefore, a suitable candidate to address the increasing energy demand all across the globe. \n\n ![Graph](image://989b2289-2b03-4515-88cb-69c1c65be2dd \"The chemical symbol for hydrogen\")\n\nHowever, although hydrogen is abundantly available, it does not naturally exist in its pure elemental form (H2). Instead hydrogen is bound to other molecules like hydrocarbons, which are chains of hydrogen and carbon molecules. This means that hydrogen first needs to be produced before it can be used as an energy carrier. \n\nHydrogen can be produced from a variety of sources, including biomass, fossil fuels, and water. Globally, approximately 53 million metric tons of hydrogen are produced annually. However, one of the major drawbacks of hydrogen is that 95% of it is currently being produced from fossil fuels. Hydrogen produced from fossil fuels is called gray hydrogen, because, during its production, a significant amount of carbon dioxide is being released into the atmosphere. ","6452295b-738d-4391-8e18-9eb6ed9ecba0",[1543,1552],{"id":1544,"data":1545,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"2b434844-6b22-4aeb-a56b-a70c520d666b",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1546,"clozeWords":1548},[1547],"Hydrogen is the lightest element, has the highest heating value, and is the most abundant element in the universe",[1549,1550,1551],"lightest","heating","abundant ",{"id":1553,"data":1554,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"87fc3f04-8c28-4f2f-b55c-a1a424b69733",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1555,"binaryCorrect":1557,"binaryIncorrect":1559},[1556],"While bound to other molecules, hydrogen is abundantly available and even found in...?",[1558],"Water",[1560],"Nuclear waste",{"id":1562,"data":1563,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1567},"8dbbdd6a-d1d9-48a7-94ee-01fca6b5d4ee",{"type":25,"title":1564,"markdownContent":1565,"audioMediaId":1566},"How is hydrogen produced?","To produce hydrogen, it should be separated from the other elements in the molecules that contain the hydrogen atoms. There are many different sources of hydrogen and also several ways to produce it to use as a fuel. Currently, the 2 most common hydrogen production methods are steam-methane reforming and electrolysis.  \n\nWith steam-methane reforming, high-temperature steam at 700-1000°C and pressures of 3-25 bar reacts with methane in the presence of a catalyst to produce hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. Electrolysis, on the other hand, is a process that uses electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. On a large, commercial scale, electrolysis might be called power-to-gas, where power is electricity and hydrogen is gas. \n\nElectrolysis itself does not produce any byproducts or emissions other than hydrogen and oxygen, but the electricity used for electrolysis can come from renewable sources, nuclear energy, or fossil fuels. If the electricity for electrolysis is produced from fossil fuels like coal, natural gas, and petroleum, or from the combustion of biomass, then the associated environmental effects and carbon dioxide emissions are indirectly related to that hydrogen.\n","a62c025f-23cd-4d5a-b818-6d7b3f9ab526",[1568],{"id":1569,"data":1570,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"337b7df1-43f0-4c6d-89fb-b943518b8d2a",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1571,"clozeWords":1573},[1572],"Energy is required to generate high temperatures and pressures to produce hydrogen from methane, or from water via electrolysis",[1574],"electrolysis",{"id":1576,"data":1577,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1581},"42432391-2c5d-4002-8917-25a3f906df64",{"type":25,"title":1578,"markdownContent":1579,"audioMediaId":1580},"Know your hydrogen by color","Did you know that you get different types of hydrogen? This is because hydrogen is categorized or defined by the energy sources for its production. A color code is assigned to label the different types of hydrogen by source. This helps to distinguish between ‘good’ hydrogen that was produced in an environmentally friendly manner and ‘bad’ hydrogen associated with a lot of carbon emissions. \n\nThe colors used to classify hydrogen are green, brown, gray, blue, and pink hydrogen. Let’s start with hydrogen produced using renewable energy. This type of hydrogen might be referred to as renewable hydrogen or green hydrogen, due to it being environmentally friendly. Hydrogen produced from coal, on the other hand, is called brown hydrogen, and hydrogen produced from natural gas or petroleum might be referred to as gray hydrogen. If brown or gray hydrogen production is used in conjunction with carbon capture and storage it is classified as blue hydrogen. Finally, hydrogen produced with nuclear energy can either be referred to as pink hydrogen or clean hydrogen. \n","78d967e3-2670-48c4-81c9-8493a0c4fb31",[1582],{"id":1583,"data":1584,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"28e0aa5f-4170-453a-812c-6922aabb96e7",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1585,"multiChoiceCorrect":1587,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1589},[1586],"Hydrogen produced from renewable energy is referred to as 'green,' from coal 'brown,' and natural gas or petroleum 'grey.' But what about hydrogen produced from nuclear energy?",[1588],"Pink",[1590,1591,1592],"White","Purple","Black",{"id":1594,"data":1595,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":1597},"37f8fbef-6205-4f41-94a1-474bd3fe1dd2",{"type":26,"title":1596},"Hydrogen Production and Technologies",[1598,1623,1639,1653,1676],{"id":1599,"data":1600,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1604},"09900233-c921-4158-bb7c-9fb3ae2037f5",{"type":25,"title":1601,"markdownContent":1602,"audioMediaId":1603},"Hydrogen as a clean energy carrier","Hydrogen is considered an energy carrier. But what exactly does this mean? An energy carrier is a substance (fuel) or sometimes an energy system that contains energy which can later be converted to other forms such as mechanical work, heat, or to operate chemical or physical processes. In other words, an energy carrier does not produce energy; it simply contains it. \n\nHydrogen is considered an energy carrier because it can be converted from electrical power to chemical energy and back with devices such as electrolyzers and fuel cells. On top of being an energy carrier, hydrogen is also classified as ‘clean’ or ‘green’ because it can be produced using renewable energy. Though hydrogen can also be produced from non-renewables as well, its full potential is only realized when renewable energy is used. What’s more, hydrogen can be produced from water with oxygen being the only by-product. This means that hydrogen can be produced without any harmful emissions, making it an environmentally friendly energy alternative.  \n","e2faf31b-d363-4d76-a8d9-76633aaceb5d",[1605,1614],{"id":1606,"data":1607,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"4752b570-95d6-4c45-94a8-01af6ddc1e5e",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1608,"binaryCorrect":1610,"binaryIncorrect":1612},[1609],"Hydrogen contains energy that can be later converted to other forms such as mechanical work. What is it sometimes described as?",[1611],"An energy carrier",[1613],"An energy supplier",{"id":1615,"data":1616,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"9b5e9a04-8a9c-4009-9199-6b9a72aecf8f",{"type":51,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1617,"multiChoiceCorrect":1619,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1620},[1618],"When hydrogen is produced from water, what is its only by-product?",[228],[1621,229,1622],"Carbon","Argon",{"id":1624,"data":1625,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1629},"8f0dbddd-a12a-4712-b498-e118f21b7a00",{"type":25,"title":1626,"markdownContent":1627,"audioMediaId":1628},"Fuel cells and electrolyzers","Fuel cells and electrolyzers are technologies that could enable a functional hydrogen economy. Both fuel cells and electrolyzers are considered electrochemical devices, meaning they are used to interconvert between chemical and electrical energy. Fuel cells are used to generate electricity. In essence, a chemical reaction is used to produce an electric current. With hydrogen fuel cells this is done by converting hydrogen gas and oxygen into water and heat as by-products.\n \n![Graph](image://1af23961-0566-4fdc-a05a-4e32b45efb50 \"Fuel cell electrolysis\")\n\nElectrolyzers, on the other hand, do the opposite. Here, hydrogen is generated by applying an electrical current to the cell. Water is fed into the electrolyzer as a feed stream and is then split into hydrogen and oxygen. To generate green hydrogen, renewable energy is used to power this reaction. To date, electrolysis is the only advanced large-scale process where hydrogen can be produced from renewable energy. \n\n","f597c041-a030-40fc-bfa9-21382b6eb8c0",[1630],{"id":1631,"data":1632,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"958894a2-9dd8-40fb-922f-b098bc41cf6a",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1633,"binaryCorrect":1635,"binaryIncorrect":1637},[1634],"Electrolyzers are the opposite of hydrogen fuel cells. Water is supplied in what state to produce hydrogen and oxygen?",[1636],"Steam",[1638],"Liquid",{"id":1640,"data":1641,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1645},"0c818f5a-5510-4202-817a-3917ac359042",{"type":25,"title":1642,"markdownContent":1643,"audioMediaId":1644},"A hydrogen economy","We’ve established that the consumption of fossil fuels as well as the depletion thereof has immense effects on the environment. This has stimulated global interest in an alternative sustainable energy system. The requirements of the new energy systems are as follows: it should be able to balance energy supply and demand, it should be environmentally friendly, ensure energy security, and it should be economically viable. According to some researchers, a hydrogen-based system is considered a highly promising candidate among other alternative solutions.\n \nBecause hydrogen has the ability to supply energy to all sectors of the economy, including transport, buildings and household electricity, and energy for industrial sectors, a low-carbon energy system, called the Hydrogen Economy, was already proposed in 1972. This system includes the integration of hydrogen storage, production, distribution, transportation, and application. There are, however, some challenges that have prevented the widespread application of a hydrogen economy. \n","76df7f6b-c96b-48b0-bde1-899139af3cf9",[1646],{"id":1647,"data":1648,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"ebcf724e-cb23-4cb0-917f-37bb42bd2e33",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1649,"activeRecallAnswers":1651},[1650],"The Hydrogen Economy was proposed as far back as 1972, but what does it need?",[1652],"A low carbon energy supplier that integrates production, storage, transportation, distribution, and application",{"id":1654,"data":1655,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1659},"f1ff372f-8cc6-4aca-915c-ea831fc22eb4",{"type":25,"title":1656,"markdownContent":1657,"audioMediaId":1658},"The challenges of hydrogen","Before a hydrogen economy can be fully realized, there are some challenges that should first be addressed. Steven Chu, winner of the 1997 Nobel prize in Physics, and the president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science stated that “In order to get significant hydrogen deployment, you need four  significant technological breakthroughs” in the areas of efficient production, storage, distribution infrastructure, and conversion via fuel cells.  Other challenges include safety concerns and purity requirements of hydrogen, especially when used for fuel cells, which require a purity of 99.997%. Besides being mainly fossil fuel-based, current hydrogen production processes are accompanied by various impurities that could damage fuel cells. These impurities are, therefore, not compatible for fuel cell applications. The hydrogen streams should, therefore, be purified, which only adds to the cost of hydrogen production. \n\n ![Graph](image://4a5c5b50-700b-4f88-9f10-7cb38e8cf58a \"A hydrogen fuel cell for cars\")\n\nThe main challenge, however, is adequate and safe hydrogen storage and transportation. Because hydrogen’s volumetric density is so low, it requires a lot of energy input to be stored as a compressed gas. Energy efficiency is also a great challenge for all hydrogen storage options. \n\nOne of the biggest challenges of hydrogen is the safety hazards that uncontrolled hydrogen can cause: hydrogen is extremely flammable and can cause massive explosions.\n","d067a3e7-c4ff-4feb-9643-82238fe26b1a",[1660,1667],{"id":1661,"data":1662,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"037d7ced-3ff4-404d-9bb2-7d8e9856bc03",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1663,"clozeWords":1665},[1664],"While an economy based on hydrogen would help us meet climate targets, we must take safety concerns and purity requirements into account",[1666],"purity",{"id":1668,"data":1669,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"a657bc37-0ecf-47d3-9d6b-0027f0fb450f",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1670,"binaryCorrect":1672,"binaryIncorrect":1674},[1671],"What happens to hydrogen batteries if purity levels of over 99.99% are not maintained?",[1673],"Fuel cells can be damaged",[1675],"Fuel cells are likely to explode",{"id":1677,"data":1678,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25},"9c676aeb-f617-4c47-acbb-0b8fba62fec1",{"type":25,"title":1679,"markdownContent":1680,"audioMediaId":1681},"Hydrogen and renewable energy","One of the major challenges with renewable energy is that it is unpredictable and variable. Variable renewable energy, also called intermittent renewable energy, includes renewable energy such as wind and solar that has a lot of fluctuations and times of limited supply. This includes, for example, times where there is no wind blowing or when the sun does not shine, for example at night or on a cloudy day. \n\n ![Graph](image://e591393e-3163-45d8-b1cd-bf17a0f0dcc4 \"Solar energy is variable\")\n\nThe solution to this problem is as simple as energy storage - storing energy in times where there’s an oversupply of renewable energy and using the stored energy in times of limited supply. However, traditionally, renewable energy cannot be stored on a large scale. This is where hydrogen comes in. Hydrogen, generated through electrolysis, where water is split into hydrogen and oxygen by applying an electrical current, can be used to effectively store energy to address the variability limitation of renewable energy. Hydrogen is part of an industrial concept known as the power-to-gas (P2G) technology, which is a power grid balancing mechanism used to capture and store surplus energy to use at times of low supply. Power-to-gas is the conversion of electrical energy, or electricity, into chemical energy, in this case a gas, through water electrolysis.\n\n\n\n","295fc9a8-83d0-4f8a-8848-9aba67bb0c3e",{"id":1683,"data":1684,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"pages":1686},"c2c23638-2920-4341-a9f5-a7c37a0c005a",{"type":26,"title":1685},"Hydrogen in Transportation and Industry",[1687,1701],{"id":1688,"data":1689,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1693},"d0c14f59-f408-4a7c-8198-b95a8fcdc3ac",{"type":25,"title":1690,"markdownContent":1691,"audioMediaId":1692},"Hydrogen technologies ","There have already been significant technological advances in the hydrogen transportation industry. In 2021, hydrogen refueling stations reached a record high of 142 that went into operation worldwide. Of these, 37 stations were opened in Europe (as part of the Hydrogen Mobility Europe), 89 in Asia, and 13 in North America. Hydrogen refueling is now possible in 33 countries. Toyota, Hyundai, and Honda hydrogen cars are already available in Japan, Germany, South Korea, and California. Cities in China have also converted their entire bus fleets to hydrogen-powered buses.\n\n \n \nIn terms of other transportation methods, integrated hydrogen fuel cell systems are available for ships and development of the first hydrogen-powered passenger aircraft, Element One, is also underway through an aviation company in Singapore, HES Energy System. The first prototype is expected in 2025. \n\n ![Graph](image://61ae1073-d55a-4bba-affa-e2c755b4af61 \"A hydrogen-powered aircraft\")\n\nIn terms of space travel, a helium/hydrogen recovery system has been built for NASA. Hydrogen has also been used as rocket propellant for some time now.  \n\nFurthermore, several companies around the globe have been working to advance hydrogen technologies, including HyET Hydrogen, Fuel Cell Technologies, FuelCell Energy, Shell, Hydrogenious Technologies, and Xergy Inc., to name a few.  \n\n","c71b7388-5af4-4d21-a0b1-0002aa48187a",[1694],{"id":1695,"data":1696,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"ca6ef9b7-022f-4807-a109-8935e351d853",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1697,"activeRecallAnswers":1699},[1698],"Research and development are looking into using hydrogen in various forms of transport. What is 'Element one'?",[1700],"The world's first hydrogen-powered passenger aircraft",{"id":1702,"data":1703,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":28,"version":25,"reviews":1707},"350bea93-7842-4961-adc4-15b78b4de905",{"type":25,"title":1704,"markdownContent":1705,"audioMediaId":1706},"Hydrogen vs. electric vehicles","Which is better, electric or hydrogen vehicles? The simple answer is that it depends. Battery electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles have similar propulsion systems – both store energy to power an electric motor. However, with hydrogen vehicles, energy stored as hydrogen is converted to electricity through a fuel cell, rather than being stored in a rechargeable battery.\n\n ![Graph](image://131676a6-bc4a-4d64-9b21-779994c895ed \"A hydrogen-powered lorry\")\n \nHydrogen cars tend to be more expensive than battery electric cars and can currently be difficult to fuel. This is because hydrogen is expensive, and there are generally not as many refueling stations as recharging points. The advantages of hydrogen, on the other hand, include shorter refueling times and an often larger tank range.\n \nA different picture is also painted when the size of the vehicle is increased. As vehicles get bigger, it becomes harder to electrify them, with increasingly large batteries needed. This makes electricity challenging for large vehicles like buses and trucks, and hydrogen is, therefore favored, in these cases. \n","8613c401-e41e-48c0-9432-3b35662ca0e2",[1708,1715],{"id":1709,"data":1710,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"1d47e220-afc8-430a-a0e7-3d6e32e687ae",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1711,"clozeWords":1713},[1712],"Larger vehicles such as buses and lorries are harder to electrify and are therefore better suited to hydrogen power",[1714],"lorries",{"id":1716,"data":1717,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":28},"af9f6065-c00f-47e1-84f2-75cffd4d4f2e",{"type":51,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1718,"binaryCorrect":1720,"binaryIncorrect":1722},[1719],"Which of these is true?",[1721],"Hydrogen cars tend to be more expensive than electric",[1723],"Electric cars tend to be more expensive than hydrogen",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1725,"height":1725,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1726},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1725,"height":1725,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1728},"\u003Cg fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\">\u003Cpath d=\"M12.586 2.586A2 2 0 0 0 11.172 2H4a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v7.172a2 2 0 0 0 .586 1.414l8.704 8.704a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 3.42 0l6.58-6.58a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 0-3.42z\"/>\u003Ccircle cx=\"7.5\" cy=\"7.5\" r=\".5\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",1778179487671]