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evolutionary purpose","However, some animals can count, like shoaling fish, or solve math problems, like Alex the parrot",1,{"id":35,"data":36,"type":37,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"b87c8aa3-49bc-4000-b4e1-dfbb4f9be7df",{"type":37,"intro":38},10,[39,40],"Are animals capable of solving problems?","Are animals capable of doing math?",[42,78,102],{"id":43,"data":44,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":47},"fc31a98a-2fa5-4571-a787-c9b6d11ce2f1",{"type":33,"markdownContent":45,"audioMediaId":46},"For more than a century, psychologists have studied logical intelligence in other species. Edward Thorndike was one of the first, with his experiments to see whether cats could escape from a simple puzzle-box.\n\nEscaping from a box is an example of **logical problem-solving**: overcoming an obstacle in order to achieve a goal. Modern researchers use similar tests, as well as observing animals solving problems in the wild.\n\nProblem solving is often linked to tool use. As recently as the 1960s, people thought that tools were only used by humans, but this is not the case. Crows make hooks out of twigs, primates use sticks to fish for insects – and there are plenty of other examples of animals using tools to solve a problem.\n\n![Graph](image://81875a15-731e-4953-b436-548ef8e7ccd0 \"Orangutan fishing for ants. Image: Colin Knowles from Vancouver, CC BY-SA 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","4535e09b-917d-4512-8bb4-45a9571b422d",[48,70],{"id":49,"data":50,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"b4974c12-bbc1-4486-95e2-25ef29911db5",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":52,"multiChoiceQuestion":56,"multiChoiceCorrect":58,"multiChoiceIncorrect":60,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":64,"matchPairsPairs":66},11,[53,54,55],"a24def14-abda-49d9-83e0-a84f7c7c4931","f3d0d6cf-0038-4502-b9de-f382bb9727ec","2e257dc6-b84f-47ee-b3d1-faf32c7ea697",[57],"Which of these might a researcher use to study problem solving in animals?",[59],"Puzzle box",[61,62,63],"Radial arm maze","Functional MRI","Mirror",[65],"Match the pairs below:",[67],{"left":68,"right":69,"direction":19},"Puzzle-box","Problem solving",{"id":71,"data":72,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"3461f875-405d-4abf-bfd4-033434d59f33",{"type":51,"reviewType":73,"spacingBehaviour":33,"clozeQuestion":74,"clozeWords":76},4,[75],"As recently as the 1960s, people thought tools were only used by humans, but this is not the case.",[77],"tools",{"id":79,"data":80,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":83},"8e38597c-6098-4f58-a188-389340e55ea2",{"type":33,"markdownContent":81,"audioMediaId":82},"Working out how to escape from a box is a physical kind of problem. But what about abstract problem solving, like **mathematical problems**?\n\nMathematical ability is rare in other species, probably because the evolutionary benefits are limited. It's unclear why humans evolved such impressive numeracy skills, but it may have helped us keep track of resources.\n\nOn a basic level, some shoaling fish can count and compare numbers. When they see two shoals, they will usually join the larger one; there is an evolutionary benefit to comparing the numbers, and joining a stronger group.\n\n![Graph](image://661c61ee-4810-4502-88d4-0376317ceb1d \" \")\n\nAs well as this, a captive parrot named Alex was once taught how to count, and to perform some basic sums. This suggests that his brain was capable of math, although he never would have evolved these skills in the wild.\n\n![Graph](image://6a88c8a8-c59c-4055-93cd-00ba26c83a86 \"African grey parrot. Image: Alex from Ithaca, NY, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","30da86a6-eb70-4faa-a258-8b093681c59f",[84,91],{"id":85,"data":86,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"a4070030-09f9-4d0e-b8dd-c3b017a0ae2d",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":87,"activeRecallAnswers":89},[88],"Why might early humans have evolved numeracy skills, when most other species did not?",[90],"They used numbers to keep track of resources",{"id":92,"data":93,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"9d09e7ec-4af2-494e-ba37-9f8012d8926b",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":94,"multiChoiceCorrect":96,"multiChoiceIncorrect":98,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[95],"What type of animal was Alex, the bird who learned to do math?",[97],"Parrot",[99,100,101],"Crow","Finch","Canary",{"id":103,"data":104,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":107},"393acc70-da30-4698-b81a-933c878d000a",{"type":33,"markdownContent":105,"audioMediaId":106},"A subject of debate, in academic circles, is whether or not two individuals within a single species can be born with different levels of intelligence.\n\nFor example, while Alex the parrot learned basic math, other parrots of the same species have shown no signs of learning. Some chimps use sticks to fish for termites, while others never learn this skill, even with extensive training.\n\nIt's hard to know whether these differences are genetic, or the result of environmental differences. Some studies suggest that cognitive skills are heritable in chimps, but the research is inconclusive. In the coming years, this topic will demand further study.","8ae7bcc9-8daf-4a72-b342-92b7cad000d2",[108,126,133],{"id":109,"data":110,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"7d5744e7-af92-4c79-8291-ff9b07afe3e7",{"type":51,"reviewType":111,"spacingBehaviour":33,"matchPairsQuestion":112,"matchPairsPairs":113,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},6,[65],[114,117,120,123],{"left":115,"right":116,"direction":19},"Crows","Use tools to solve problems",{"left":118,"right":119,"direction":19},"Grass snakes","None of these",{"left":121,"right":122,"direction":19},"Shoaling fish","Count and compare numbers",{"left":124,"right":125,"direction":19},"Alex the parrot","Perform basic sums",{"id":127,"data":128,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"0522d20b-9166-4603-be8d-e5ed9d334180",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":129,"activeRecallAnswers":131},[130],"True or false: two individuals from the same animal species can be born with different levels of intelligence.",[132],"This is still subject to debate",{"id":134,"data":135,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"499e0374-7542-4103-a868-31d45520f978",{"type":51,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":33,"binaryQuestion":136,"binaryCorrect":138,"binaryIncorrect":140},[137],"Some studies suggest that cognitive skills are heritable in which species?",[139],"Chimpanzees",[141],"Gorillas",{"id":143,"data":144,"type":20,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":146,"introPage":153,"pages":159},"7ee11466-b328-4642-944e-25f8b5e6b438",{"type":20,"title":145},"Can animals use tools?",{"id":147,"data":148,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"55ecb6f8-6196-45d7-979c-b830bb993110",{"type":19,"summary":149},[150,151,152],"Primates and crows are skilful tool users, both using tools to forage for food and solve problems","A community of dolphins off the coast of Australia use sponges to protect their noses while foraging","Tool use is only a sign of logical intelligence if the tool use is insightful rather than instinctive",{"id":154,"data":155,"type":37,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"73b67dea-3255-43fe-b762-5ad5ace98548",{"type":37,"intro":156},[157,158],"Which animals are the best at using tools?","What's the difference between instinctive and insightful tool use?",[160,197,221,245,258],{"id":161,"data":162,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":165},"e900bf32-c833-4cd8-81d5-ec8a38edaec6",{"type":33,"markdownContent":163,"audioMediaId":164},"Primates are particularly adept at using tools to solve problems. Chimps use sticks to fish for insects, and make pointed spears to hunt for small animals. Gorillas use logs to test the depth of a river before trying to walk across.\n\n![Graph](image://faab0ca2-30b4-4d2a-9478-0bc8bd079723 \"Gorilla testing water levels. Image: Wild Gorillas Handy with a Stick. PLoS Biology Vol. 3/11/2005, CC BY 2.5 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nPrimates are not the only mammalian tool-users. Dolphins in Australia put sponges on their noses to protect their faces while foraging for food. Mothers teach this skill to calves, making sure the knowledge passes through generations.\n\nThis is an example of **cultural learning**. At some point in the past, a dolphin must have learned to use a sponge, then shared the knowledge with the rest of the group. It has only ever been observed in one pod, which suggests these dolphins want to keep the knowledge to themselves.\n\nTool use has also been observed in other mammals, including bears, honey badgers, pigs and otters.","3dca3fff-e98a-4d07-962a-f0b9a1604671",[166,185],{"id":167,"data":168,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"0b78ec40-9d01-4c6b-8dd4-e9f59be2fca4",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":169,"multiChoiceQuestion":173,"multiChoiceCorrect":175,"multiChoiceIncorrect":177,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":181,"matchPairsPairs":182},[170,171,172],"37caa22e-0da5-4c02-badc-4c165b758ae1","53f26ef9-6129-41e4-94c9-df71b2b33072","5328e427-906b-4b88-8af5-0240fac06ad5",[174],"What do we call it when one animal passes knowledge to another, like the dolphins who teach each other to use sponges?",[176],"Cultural learning",[178,179,180],"Theory of mind","Intraspecific communication","Interspecific communication",[65],[183],{"left":176,"right":184,"direction":19},"One animal passes a piece of knowledge to another animal",{"id":186,"data":187,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"03cc9516-3f61-4dab-81c0-4fb7a1a8d735",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":188,"multiChoiceCorrect":190,"multiChoiceIncorrect":194,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":196,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[189],"Which of these mammals have demonstrated tool use?",[191,192,193],"Primates","Pigs","Otters",[195],"Sheep",true,{"id":198,"data":199,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":202},"a83ee0a4-6a1c-476f-8a51-d392ab83ebe7",{"type":33,"markdownContent":200,"audioMediaId":201},"Alongside mammals, the animal kingdom’s most prolific tool-users are birds. The New Caledonian crow is a striking example, which outperforms chimps in the majority of logical tests.\n\nThese birds craft tools out of leaves and sticks, carefully fashioning them into useful shapes. They invent new tools to combat novel problems, like a hook-shaped tool to reach an insect nest hidden down an awkward bend.\n\nIn laboratory tests, crows have also demonstrated **meta-tool use**: using one tool to obtain a second tool, which then helps them to reach some food. Problem solving using two different tools in two different steps suggests a high capacity for logical reasoning, which few other species are capable of.\n\n![Graph](image://e0173897-77bb-4912-9f7b-8876162f7e51 \"Caledonian crow. Image: Yi-Kai Tea, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nTool use has also been observed in other birds, including parrots, herons, finches and Egyptian vultures.","51309132-6747-4f48-a500-f16ed9186048",[203,210],{"id":204,"data":205,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"08022652-26eb-479d-93d6-6b7f8e0b260f",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":206,"activeRecallAnswers":208},[207],"What is meta-tool use?",[209],"Using one tool to obtain a second tool, which then helps to solve a problem",{"id":211,"data":212,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"a55faf68-c837-4d2d-aaed-a1a6c3247768",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":213,"multiChoiceCorrect":215,"multiChoiceIncorrect":217,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[214],"Which bird has demonstrated meta-tool use?",[216],"New Caledonian crow",[218,219,220],"African grey parrot","Purple heron","Zebra finch",{"id":222,"data":223,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":226},"91bf08ce-ecdd-4af9-8576-63250d4f9ea0",{"type":33,"markdownContent":224,"audioMediaId":225},"In recent years, the logical intelligence of octopuses has gained a lot of attention. Wild individuals have been seen collecting coconut shells, and wielding them like shields or armor.\n\n![Graph](image://bc571610-450f-47f5-ae23-3dc001c2651c \"Octopus using shells. Image: Nick Hobgood, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAt an aquarium in Germany, Otto the octopus learned to throw stones at the sides of his tank, in an effort to break the glass. He also sprayed water to short-circuit a lamp, probably because he didn't like the glare.\n\nSome species of fish can also use tools, like wrasses who use rocks to open clams. Stingrays adjust the shape of their bodies to redirect currents, using the flow of water to extract hard-to-reach pieces of food.","9ab82d19-2dfc-4c37-8590-13bc6c1a934d",[227,238],{"id":228,"data":229,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"88f1c013-7dd9-4352-8ac6-709cf2764c19",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":230,"multiChoiceCorrect":232,"multiChoiceIncorrect":234,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[231],"How did Otto the octopus short-circuit a lamp in his aquarium?",[233],"He sprayed water at it",[235,236,237],"He cut the wires","He threw rocks at it","He unscrewed a bulb",{"id":239,"data":240,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"395d6e6d-28f7-4615-8a0f-be9d8e35a25a",{"type":51,"reviewType":73,"spacingBehaviour":33,"clozeQuestion":241,"clozeWords":243},[242],"Some species of fish can also use tools, like the wrasses who use rocks to open clams.",[244],"wrasses",{"id":246,"data":247,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":250},"b5d13d4b-394b-416c-8cb4-3e6f8aa15e80",{"type":33,"markdownContent":248,"audioMediaId":249},"Tool use has rarely been observed in reptiles, which do not excel when it comes to logical intelligence. But in 2007, one notable exception was observed in India.\n\nA crocodile will hold a pile of twigs at the end of its nose, then lie motionless beneath the water. When a bird tries to collect the sticks, the crocodile attacks. The crocodiles only use this technique during nesting season, when birds are on the lookout for sticks.\n\nFinally, tool use is relatively common in insects. Ants use stones to block the tunnels of rival colonies, while bumblebees in a laboratory test learned to roll a ball to a specific location in order to receive a treat.","ae2fcada-03f2-4ea2-badc-e54a01799d44",[251],{"id":252,"data":253,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"1f3e90f8-8847-4f06-bb5e-3fe49ca09f56",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":254,"activeRecallAnswers":256},[255],"In an example of tool use, how do ants use stones?",[257],"To block the tunnels of rival colonies",{"id":259,"data":260,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":263},"96aa2e01-5913-49a2-876e-fd659990975f",{"type":33,"markdownContent":261,"audioMediaId":262},"Some scientists argue that tool use in other species is not a true indication of logical intelligence. The debate comes down to two interpretations: instinct versus insight.\n\n**Instinctive tool use** is an automatic behavior that a species evolves over millions of years. Crocodiles, for example, do not actively decide to set a trap for birds. This is an innate behavior, which they perform automatically. It does not involve any creative, logical thought.\n\n**Insightful tool use** is when an animal encounters a brand new problem and comes up with a tool to overcome it. Unlike crocodiles, there are a number of birds, primates, and octopuses which have demonstrated insightful tool use. This creativity and flexibility is generally seen as a sign of logical intelligence. These animals are not automata – they're insightfully responding to different challenges, exactly the same as we do.\n\n![Graph](image://e2cdd255-c43f-43bb-adc5-e329acba697c \"Cracking a nut. Image: Haslam M, Gumert MD, Biro D, Carvalho S, Malaivijitnond S (2013), CC BY 2.5 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","ece2bf31-de4c-4680-88aa-f04ffa178d24",[264,280],{"id":265,"data":266,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"8f7c56dc-88e5-4b72-ba59-18edac12046f",{"type":51,"reviewType":111,"spacingBehaviour":33,"matchPairsQuestion":267,"matchPairsPairs":268,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[65],[269,271,274,277],{"left":141,"right":270,"direction":19},"Use logs to test river depth",{"left":272,"right":273,"direction":19},"Dolphins","Use sponges to protect faces",{"left":275,"right":276,"direction":19},"Crocodiles","Use sticks to lure prey",{"left":278,"right":279,"direction":19},"Octopuses","Use shells to protect bodies",{"id":281,"data":282,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"f3decfa1-4f41-40e7-ad7f-74d5f2b318f0",{"type":51,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":33,"binaryQuestion":283,"binaryCorrect":285,"binaryIncorrect":287},[284],"When a crocodile use sticks as a lure for birds, it's an example of what?",[286],"Instinctive tool use",[288],"Insightful tool use",[290,410],{"id":23,"data":24,"type":20,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":26,"introPage":34,"pages":291},[292,337,388],{"id":43,"data":44,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":47,"parsed":293},{"data":294,"body":297,"toc":335},{"title":295,"description":296},"","For more than a century, psychologists have studied logical intelligence in other species. Edward Thorndike was one of the first, with his experiments to see whether cats could escape from a simple puzzle-box.",{"type":298,"children":299},"root",[300,307,320,325],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":303,"children":304},"element","p",{},[305],{"type":306,"value":296},"text",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":308,"children":309},{},[310,312,318],{"type":306,"value":311},"Escaping from a box is an example of ",{"type":301,"tag":313,"props":314,"children":315},"strong",{},[316],{"type":306,"value":317},"logical problem-solving",{"type":306,"value":319},": overcoming an obstacle in order to achieve a goal. Modern researchers use similar tests, as well as observing animals solving problems in the wild.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":321,"children":322},{},[323],{"type":306,"value":324},"Problem solving is often linked to tool use. As recently as the 1960s, people thought that tools were only used by humans, but this is not the case. Crows make hooks out of twigs, primates use sticks to fish for insects – and there are plenty of other examples of animals using tools to solve a problem.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":326,"children":327},{},[328],{"type":301,"tag":329,"props":330,"children":334},"img",{"alt":331,"src":332,"title":333},"Graph","image://81875a15-731e-4953-b436-548ef8e7ccd0","Orangutan fishing for ants. Image: Colin Knowles from Vancouver, CC BY-SA 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":295,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":336},[],{"id":79,"data":80,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":83,"parsed":338},{"data":339,"body":341,"toc":386},{"title":295,"description":340},"Working out how to escape from a box is a physical kind of problem. But what about abstract problem solving, like mathematical problems?",{"type":298,"children":342},[343,355,360,365,373,378],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":344,"children":345},{},[346,348,353],{"type":306,"value":347},"Working out how to escape from a box is a physical kind of problem. But what about abstract problem solving, like ",{"type":301,"tag":313,"props":349,"children":350},{},[351],{"type":306,"value":352},"mathematical problems",{"type":306,"value":354},"?",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":356,"children":357},{},[358],{"type":306,"value":359},"Mathematical ability is rare in other species, probably because the evolutionary benefits are limited. It's unclear why humans evolved such impressive numeracy skills, but it may have helped us keep track of resources.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":361,"children":362},{},[363],{"type":306,"value":364},"On a basic level, some shoaling fish can count and compare numbers. When they see two shoals, they will usually join the larger one; there is an evolutionary benefit to comparing the numbers, and joining a stronger group.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":366,"children":367},{},[368],{"type":301,"tag":329,"props":369,"children":372},{"alt":331,"src":370,"title":371},"image://661c61ee-4810-4502-88d4-0376317ceb1d"," ",[],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":374,"children":375},{},[376],{"type":306,"value":377},"As well as this, a captive parrot named Alex was once taught how to count, and to perform some basic sums. This suggests that his brain was capable of math, although he never would have evolved these skills in the wild.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":379,"children":380},{},[381],{"type":301,"tag":329,"props":382,"children":385},{"alt":331,"src":383,"title":384},"image://6a88c8a8-c59c-4055-93cd-00ba26c83a86","African grey parrot. Image: Alex from Ithaca, NY, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":295,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":387},[],{"id":103,"data":104,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":107,"parsed":389},{"data":390,"body":392,"toc":408},{"title":295,"description":391},"A subject of debate, in academic circles, is whether or not two individuals within a single species can be born with different levels of intelligence.",{"type":298,"children":393},[394,398,403],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":395,"children":396},{},[397],{"type":306,"value":391},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":399,"children":400},{},[401],{"type":306,"value":402},"For example, while Alex the parrot learned basic math, other parrots of the same species have shown no signs of learning. Some chimps use sticks to fish for termites, while others never learn this skill, even with extensive training.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":404,"children":405},{},[406],{"type":306,"value":407},"It's hard to know whether these differences are genetic, or the result of environmental differences. Some studies suggest that cognitive skills are heritable in chimps, but the research is inconclusive. In the coming years, this topic will demand further study.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":409},[],{"id":143,"data":144,"type":20,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":146,"introPage":153,"pages":411},[412,454,496,526,548],{"id":161,"data":162,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":165,"parsed":413},{"data":414,"body":416,"toc":452},{"title":295,"description":415},"Primates are particularly adept at using tools to solve problems. Chimps use sticks to fish for insects, and make pointed spears to hunt for small animals. Gorillas use logs to test the depth of a river before trying to walk across.",{"type":298,"children":417},[418,422,430,435,447],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":419,"children":420},{},[421],{"type":306,"value":415},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":423,"children":424},{},[425],{"type":301,"tag":329,"props":426,"children":429},{"alt":331,"src":427,"title":428},"image://faab0ca2-30b4-4d2a-9478-0bc8bd079723","Gorilla testing water levels. Image: Wild Gorillas Handy with a Stick. PLoS Biology Vol. 3/11/2005, CC BY 2.5 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":431,"children":432},{},[433],{"type":306,"value":434},"Primates are not the only mammalian tool-users. Dolphins in Australia put sponges on their noses to protect their faces while foraging for food. Mothers teach this skill to calves, making sure the knowledge passes through generations.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":436,"children":437},{},[438,440,445],{"type":306,"value":439},"This is an example of ",{"type":301,"tag":313,"props":441,"children":442},{},[443],{"type":306,"value":444},"cultural learning",{"type":306,"value":446},". At some point in the past, a dolphin must have learned to use a sponge, then shared the knowledge with the rest of the group. It has only ever been observed in one pod, which suggests these dolphins want to keep the knowledge to themselves.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":448,"children":449},{},[450],{"type":306,"value":451},"Tool use has also been observed in other mammals, including bears, honey badgers, pigs and otters.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":453},[],{"id":198,"data":199,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":202,"parsed":455},{"data":456,"body":458,"toc":494},{"title":295,"description":457},"Alongside mammals, the animal kingdom’s most prolific tool-users are birds. The New Caledonian crow is a striking example, which outperforms chimps in the majority of logical tests.",{"type":298,"children":459},[460,464,469,481,489],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":461,"children":462},{},[463],{"type":306,"value":457},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":465,"children":466},{},[467],{"type":306,"value":468},"These birds craft tools out of leaves and sticks, carefully fashioning them into useful shapes. They invent new tools to combat novel problems, like a hook-shaped tool to reach an insect nest hidden down an awkward bend.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":470,"children":471},{},[472,474,479],{"type":306,"value":473},"In laboratory tests, crows have also demonstrated ",{"type":301,"tag":313,"props":475,"children":476},{},[477],{"type":306,"value":478},"meta-tool use",{"type":306,"value":480},": using one tool to obtain a second tool, which then helps them to reach some food. Problem solving using two different tools in two different steps suggests a high capacity for logical reasoning, which few other species are capable of.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":482,"children":483},{},[484],{"type":301,"tag":329,"props":485,"children":488},{"alt":331,"src":486,"title":487},"image://e0173897-77bb-4912-9f7b-8876162f7e51","Caledonian crow. Image: Yi-Kai Tea, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":490,"children":491},{},[492],{"type":306,"value":493},"Tool use has also been observed in other birds, including parrots, herons, finches and Egyptian vultures.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":495},[],{"id":222,"data":223,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":226,"parsed":497},{"data":498,"body":500,"toc":524},{"title":295,"description":499},"In recent years, the logical intelligence of octopuses has gained a lot of attention. Wild individuals have been seen collecting coconut shells, and wielding them like shields or armor.",{"type":298,"children":501},[502,506,514,519],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":503,"children":504},{},[505],{"type":306,"value":499},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":507,"children":508},{},[509],{"type":301,"tag":329,"props":510,"children":513},{"alt":331,"src":511,"title":512},"image://bc571610-450f-47f5-ae23-3dc001c2651c","Octopus using shells. Image: Nick Hobgood, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":515,"children":516},{},[517],{"type":306,"value":518},"At an aquarium in Germany, Otto the octopus learned to throw stones at the sides of his tank, in an effort to break the glass. He also sprayed water to short-circuit a lamp, probably because he didn't like the glare.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":520,"children":521},{},[522],{"type":306,"value":523},"Some species of fish can also use tools, like wrasses who use rocks to open clams. Stingrays adjust the shape of their bodies to redirect currents, using the flow of water to extract hard-to-reach pieces of food.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":525},[],{"id":246,"data":247,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":250,"parsed":527},{"data":528,"body":530,"toc":546},{"title":295,"description":529},"Tool use has rarely been observed in reptiles, which do not excel when it comes to logical intelligence. But in 2007, one notable exception was observed in India.",{"type":298,"children":531},[532,536,541],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":533,"children":534},{},[535],{"type":306,"value":529},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":537,"children":538},{},[539],{"type":306,"value":540},"A crocodile will hold a pile of twigs at the end of its nose, then lie motionless beneath the water. When a bird tries to collect the sticks, the crocodile attacks. The crocodiles only use this technique during nesting season, when birds are on the lookout for sticks.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":542,"children":543},{},[544],{"type":306,"value":545},"Finally, tool use is relatively common in insects. Ants use stones to block the tunnels of rival colonies, while bumblebees in a laboratory test learned to roll a ball to a specific location in order to receive a treat.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":547},[],{"id":259,"data":260,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":263,"parsed":549},{"data":550,"body":552,"toc":584},{"title":295,"description":551},"Some scientists argue that tool use in other species is not a true indication of logical intelligence. The debate comes down to two interpretations: instinct versus insight.",{"type":298,"children":553},[554,558,567,576],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":555,"children":556},{},[557],{"type":306,"value":551},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":559,"children":560},{},[561,565],{"type":301,"tag":313,"props":562,"children":563},{},[564],{"type":306,"value":286},{"type":306,"value":566}," is an automatic behavior that a species evolves over millions of years. Crocodiles, for example, do not actively decide to set a trap for birds. This is an innate behavior, which they perform automatically. It does not involve any creative, logical thought.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":568,"children":569},{},[570,574],{"type":301,"tag":313,"props":571,"children":572},{},[573],{"type":306,"value":288},{"type":306,"value":575}," is when an animal encounters a brand new problem and comes up with a tool to overcome it. Unlike crocodiles, there are a number of birds, primates, and octopuses which have demonstrated insightful tool use. This creativity and flexibility is generally seen as a sign of logical intelligence. These animals are not automata – they're insightfully responding to different challenges, exactly the same as we do.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":577,"children":578},{},[579],{"type":301,"tag":329,"props":580,"children":583},{"alt":331,"src":581,"title":582},"image://e2cdd255-c43f-43bb-adc5-e329acba697c","Cracking a nut. Image: Haslam M, Gumert MD, Biro D, Carvalho S, Malaivijitnond S (2013), CC BY 2.5 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":295,"searchDepth":20,"depth":20,"links":585},[],{"left":4,"top":4,"width":587,"height":587,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":588},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":587,"height":587,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":590},"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"M4 5h16M4 12h16M4 19h16\"/>",1778179359825]