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intelligence",3,[35,137],{"id":36,"data":37,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":39,"introPage":46,"pages":53},"fae555a1-57ca-4033-97ed-c251b82d9d8a",{"type":25,"title":38},"Are humans exceptional?",{"id":40,"data":41,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"c50a1b83-a1e1-437a-a30d-c953c61ac8dd",{"type":33,"summary":42},[43,44,45],"Human exceptionalism is the belief that humans are the only intelligent species","In reality, every species has its own type of intelligence which it evolved for a particular niche","In some areas of intelligence, like spatial or emotional, some species actually outperform us",{"id":47,"data":48,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"55407614-b3d6-4ce0-9953-a22e7f7b05b0",{"type":49,"intro":50},10,[51,52],"What does intelligence actually mean?","Are animals smarter than we think?",[54,68,85,100,105],{"id":55,"data":56,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":59},"c302fa16-834b-44cb-a57a-b6ee78b5f603",{"type":24,"markdownContent":57,"audioMediaId":58},"When it comes to questions of intelligence, it is tempting to think that human brains are exceptional. Surely, no animal is as clever as we are. Surely, no animal is capable of thought.\n\nThis belief is known as **human exceptionalism**, and it first dates back to ancient philosophers like Aristotle. It can also be linked to the Judeo-Christian creation story, in which God gave man “dominion” over animals – a clear hierarchy, with humans at the top, and all other species underneath.\n\n![Graph](image://255371fc-6bd7-4253-9123-0033daa94caf \" \")\n\nBut is this hierarchy valid? In recent years, researchers have found that certain animals are a lot more intelligent than people once believed.","2c278369-88fa-49f5-b748-99d1a1469d27",[60],{"id":61,"data":62,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"f4569b03-9213-465c-98e6-9df875b682e0",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":64,"activeRecallAnswers":66},11,[65],"What is human exceptionalism?",[67],"The belief that humans are the only intelligent species",{"id":69,"data":70,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":73},"1d0a997d-7adf-4b07-be14-6bf126b2a8fa",{"type":24,"markdownContent":71,"audioMediaId":72},"When we define ‘intelligence’, we often talk about logic and reason. The Oxford Dictionary describes it as “the ability to think in a logical way,” while Cambridge calls it “the ability to learn, understand, and make judgments or have opinions that are based on reason.”\n\nBut are logic and reason the only way to define intelligence? In the 1980s, Howard Gardner, an American psychologist, put forward the **theory of multiple intelligences**, in which logical-mathematical was only one of many types.\n\nGardner used this theory to explain why a person can struggle with mathematics, but excel in other areas, like learning languages. That person is not unintelligent. They are simply better at one type of intelligence (linguistic) than another (logical-mathematical).","27ea0aa4-0a26-47e3-afc6-cfb636b10b1c",[74],{"id":75,"data":76,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"747678a9-d29a-4130-9096-2c62b478fb3b",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":77,"multiChoiceCorrect":79,"multiChoiceIncorrect":81,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[78],"In the 1980s, which American psychologist put forward the theory of multiple intelligences?",[80],"Howard Gardner",[82,83,84],"B.F. Skinner","Alan Kamil","Temple Grandin",{"id":86,"data":87,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":90},"359da856-a8be-4ccd-8f11-e092a54d99a1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":88,"audioMediaId":89},"In the context of humans, Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences has been criticized. It is based primarily on anecdotal evidence, rather than hard empirical support.\n\nBut when it comes to animals, the idea of multiple intelligence types is becoming more and more established. In 2020, a group of psychologists published a paper on the subject, under the title *There Is Not ‘One Cognition’*.\n\nThis paper explores how different species evolve different brains as a result of **evolutionary pressures**. Just as a giraffe evolved to have a long neck, every animal evolved a unique intelligence to suit its evolutionary niche.\n\n![Graph](image://d0fc6af4-40a6-4c0f-b083-0900f530194d \" \")","346fc3bd-1a72-4ef2-b8d5-5ec9ded34413",[91],{"id":92,"data":93,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"d33b0936-54a8-4718-bede-8ff5276f67c5",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":94,"binaryCorrect":96,"binaryIncorrect":98},[95],"In 2020, a group of psychologists published a paper about animal intelligence. What was it called?",[97],"There Is Not ‘One Cognition’",[99],"There Is Only ‘One Cognition’",{"id":101,"data":102,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25},"0b6b0ddb-3457-4f9f-b81a-6b16b66d0ad9",{"type":24,"markdownContent":103,"audioMediaId":104},"In terms of physical adaptations, it's widely accepted that different species have different strengths. Nobody thinks that a human being is faster than a hare, or stronger than an ox.\n\nThe same approach should be taken in terms of cognition. When a species evolves its own form of intelligence, that intelligence has different strengths and weaknesses. In some areas, it might fall short of humans. But in others, it might surpass us.\n\nIn other words, instead of a linear hierarchy, with humans at the top, intelligence is a tree with different branches. One of these branches is **logical intelligence**, where human brains excel. But in other types of intelligence, like spatial or emotional, some animals actually perform a lot better than we do.","3f5ae914-8cdb-4b3b-916f-b27e86b086c7",{"id":106,"data":107,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":110},"bcf28836-548e-407c-8020-9aa09c9d9e7a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":108,"audioMediaId":109},"An increased awareness of animal intelligence has major implications. For example, if a species is capable of feeling rich emotions and self-awareness, is it ethical to farm that particular species, or to keep it inside a zoo?\n\n![Graph](image://66e18fc6-fa4e-4f2a-9205-53d479802683 \" \")\n\nIn 2009, animal behaviorist Temple Grandin released a book called *Animals Make Us Human*. This book encouraged people to consider the emotional needs of animals, and make sure they never get bored, miserable or stressed.\n\nA better understanding of animal intelligence also changes our perception of ourselves. For thousands of years, we thought we were alone in our intelligence. If other species are capable of thought... does that change what it means to be human?","55bf406c-4245-4ad0-90c2-3af74ca38d39",[111,119,126],{"id":112,"data":113,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"64f67c2e-b71c-4785-bea5-fddf2925e5ca",{"type":63,"reviewType":114,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":115,"clozeWords":117},4,[116],"Different species evolve different brains as a result of evolutionary pressures.",[118],"evolutionary",{"id":120,"data":121,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"23c7b087-ac61-4dad-9438-c58ec6bb0641",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":122,"activeRecallAnswers":124},[123],"Instead of a linear hierarchy, with humans at the top, how should we visualize intelligence?",[125],"A tree with different branches",{"id":127,"data":128,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"b3236111-ec0b-4c5e-9162-5de583d0ac08",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":129,"multiChoiceCorrect":131,"multiChoiceIncorrect":133,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[130],"What does Temple Grandin's 2009 book 'Animals Make Us Human' encourage us to consider?",[132],"The emotional needs of animals",[134,135,136],"The superiority of humans","The superiority of animals","The intellectual needs of animals",{"id":138,"data":139,"type":25,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":141,"introPage":148,"pages":154},"e021ede3-4195-429e-bc81-ea52c636a6a9",{"type":25,"title":140},"Types of intelligence",{"id":142,"data":143,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"637538fe-9592-4a2d-b2b0-0b759c91bb69",{"type":33,"summary":144},[145,146,147],"Logical intelligence lets animals solve problems, while emotional intelligence lets them monitor emotions","Spatial intelligence lets them navigate spaces, while linguistic intelligence lets them generate language","Memory is an ability to retain information, while consciousness is a sense of self-awareness",{"id":149,"data":150,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"24bef1f2-e344-4199-81d4-338ba4d2a38e",{"type":49,"intro":151},[152,153],"What are the six main branches of animal intelligence?","Which species are best at each branch?",[155,181,198,215,232,254],{"id":156,"data":157,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":160},"32f75993-0e1d-4358-89f9-375d9d782458",{"type":24,"markdownContent":158,"audioMediaId":159},"For the purposes of this pathway, we'll be dividing the tree of animal intelligence into six main branches.\n\nThe first is **logical intelligence**. That's the ability to use logic, analysis, and sometimes mathematics, to solve some kind of problem. This type of intelligence comes naturally to humans, and is the area in which our brains are best adapted.\n\nFrom an evolutionary perspective, logical intelligence helps a species to overcome obstacles. They might develop a tool that lets them access a food source, or come up with a trick that lets them escape from a predator.\n\nFor a long time, tool-use was thought to be an exclusively human trait, but in the last few decades, it's been observed in a number of species. None of them can match the logical intelligence of humans, but these animals are capable of problem-solving, and some of them even use math.\n\n![Graph](image://47e55d53-a02c-4b69-b41d-9dd6711f3a35 \"Tool use. Image: Tiago Falótico, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","9bf8df9e-f73d-4743-8e2b-9778606ee900",[161],{"id":162,"data":163,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"a438ec8b-87a2-4d02-b4e3-c22f0eee0277",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":164,"multiChoiceQuestion":168,"multiChoiceCorrect":170,"multiChoiceIncorrect":172,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":176,"matchPairsPairs":178},[165,166,167],"8c6b1d66-b6f2-4d05-9043-20fdac274029","3b1a5417-b7b4-4bf0-960b-c61aee9e8731","e9cd590a-94de-40da-ae79-f0b59aa62e3e",[169],"From an evolutionary perspective, logical intelligence helps a species to:",[171],"Solve problems",[173,174,175],"Form social groups","Navigate spaces","Share information",[177],"Match the pairs below:",[179],{"left":180,"right":171,"direction":33},"Logical intelligence",{"id":182,"data":183,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":186},"84e4078f-7e67-4d5e-b9d0-5ae52dee8a31",{"type":24,"markdownContent":184,"audioMediaId":185},"The second branch is **emotional intelligence**. It's defined by Peter Salovey & John D. Mayer, a pair of American psychologists, as follows: “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions.”\n\nThis form of intelligence evolves in species that live in tight-knit social groups, where individuals who know how to read each other are more likely to survive and thrive. Humans are a good example of this, but they are far from alone.\n\nMagpies appear to hold funerals. Rats can make each other laugh. And there's mounting evidence that the brains of orcas are capable of emotions more rich and complex than anything a human can produce.\n\n![Graph](image://a6c988bc-1ade-42d2-92a4-a692194ea2b3 \" \")","aa24075b-8a2f-41a0-9064-f65a8f69c3eb",[187],{"id":165,"data":188,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":189,"multiChoiceQuestion":190,"multiChoiceCorrect":192,"multiChoiceIncorrect":193,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":194,"matchPairsPairs":195},[162,166,167],[191],"From an evolutionary perspective, emotional intelligence helps a species to:",[173],[171,174,175],[177],[196],{"left":197,"right":173,"direction":33},"Emotional intelligence",{"id":199,"data":200,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":203},"7a674f93-5def-4bd1-b18b-c990a6c47f32",{"type":24,"markdownContent":201,"audioMediaId":202},"The third branch is **spatial intelligence**. That's the ability to think in three dimensions, and to visualize objects from different angles. This type of intelligence is essential for navigation, as well as recognizing shapes and patterns.\n\nThis form of intelligence evolves in species that travel long distances, or negotiate difficult terrain. In terms of spatial intelligence, human brains are unable to compete with thousands of species around the world.\n\nAnimals with high levels of spatial intelligence include birds and insects, which can fly at high speeds and migrate around the globe. Some animal brains can process infrared, and read magnetic fields. All this allows them to navigate spatially in ways that a human cannot match.\n\n![Graph](image://4ff42fe5-89d2-4617-ba5a-1cd14e2e6e40 \"Migrating birds. Image: Pacific Southwest Region USFWS from Sacramento, US, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","febd2f6e-2533-43e2-9c47-8e86ff3356f1",[204],{"id":166,"data":205,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":206,"multiChoiceQuestion":207,"multiChoiceCorrect":209,"multiChoiceIncorrect":210,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":211,"matchPairsPairs":212},[162,165,167],[208],"From an evolutionary perspective, spatial intelligence helps a species to:",[174],[171,173,175],[177],[213],{"left":214,"right":174,"direction":33},"Spatial intelligence",{"id":216,"data":217,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":220},"c2e98475-0423-4736-808d-a7ba0a6eec29",{"type":24,"markdownContent":218,"audioMediaId":219},"The fourth branch is **linguistic intelligence**: the ability to use and understand language. This type of intelligence involves speech comprehension and speech generation, which are slightly different skills.\n\nLike emotional intelligence, linguistic intelligence evolves in social species which benefit from sharing information. They might warn one another that a predator is coming, or describe the location of a food source.\n\nHumans excel at linguistic intelligence, but we're not the only species capable of language. Primates communicate using physical gestures, birds have a range of different songs, and whales speak using complex clicks called coda. Even insects are capable of language: some bees communicate by performing an expressive dance.\n\n![Graph](image://675a33c2-8890-441f-b83e-ffea1acb2339 \"Humpback whale. Image: Robbie Shade, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","05c870c3-ded1-40be-9e5a-d74b81b06b89",[221],{"id":167,"data":222,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":223,"multiChoiceQuestion":224,"multiChoiceCorrect":226,"multiChoiceIncorrect":227,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":228,"matchPairsPairs":229},[162,165,166],[225],"From an evolutionary perspective, linguistic intelligence helps a species to:",[175],[171,173,174],[177],[230],{"left":231,"right":175,"direction":33},"Linguistic intelligence",{"id":233,"data":234,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":237},"ecca0a1a-bae5-407c-8af7-eaa9207b370f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":235,"audioMediaId":236},"**Memory** is the fifth branch of intelligence. It can be divided into a couple of categories: working memory and long-term memory.\n\nWorking memory is the temporary storage of information. It lets us hold a few thoughts in our head for a moment, like the numbers in a sum, while we mentally find an answer. This ability is relatively rare in animals, but it has been observed in some primates and birds.\n\nLong-term memory is when information is stored in the brain for extended periods of time. This is where animals come into their own, like the western scrub jays that can remember the location of hundreds of different food caches – far more than a human could manage.\n\n![Graph](image://a4228deb-3ce2-4521-9534-f74dae18a7b2 \"Western scrub jay. Image: Sarah Stierch, CC BY 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","c9458927-f535-40b4-83b2-4b93687d35d5",[238,247],{"id":239,"data":240,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"6d7e1dcb-95a3-446f-946c-23e1f2eba1e6",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":241,"binaryCorrect":243,"binaryIncorrect":245},[242],"Which type of memory lets an animal temporarily store information in a mental workspace?",[244],"Working memory",[246],"Long-term memory",{"id":248,"data":249,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"a205206b-5a13-4102-9a76-ef6c33451698",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":250,"binaryCorrect":252,"binaryIncorrect":253},[251],"Which type of memory lets an animal store information for an extended period?",[246],[244],{"id":255,"data":256,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":259},"4998675e-7aec-4692-a74d-882d94f0a757",{"type":24,"markdownContent":257,"audioMediaId":258},"Last but not least, the sixth branch of intelligence is **consciousness**. This one is the hardest to define. In 2004, a group of neuroscientists actually concluded: “Consciousness has not yet become a scientific term that can be defined.”\n\nIn general terms, consciousness is usually seen as a state of self-awareness. Not just to think, but to know that we think. Not just to exist, but to know we exist. In evolutionary terms, it helps us to understand our place in society, and to know our own strengths and weaknesses.\n\nIn animals, self-awareness is generally measured using an experiment known as the mirror test. If an animal recognizes its own reflection, it's considered self-aware. A handful of species have passed the mirror test – it's yet another example of some animal species being smarter than we used to believe.","32e701e3-c079-42fb-884f-2d3ca94b13c3",[260,267],{"id":261,"data":262,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"b2842e0a-2c6c-42d2-9634-54f22d9e6587",{"type":63,"reviewType":114,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":263,"clozeWords":265},[264],"In general terms, consciousness is often defined as a state of self-awareness",[266],"self-awareness",{"id":268,"data":269,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"ea970c4f-72b1-477e-a1b8-2419cfa005d3",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":270,"activeRecallAnswers":272},[271],"What experiment is often used to test self-awareness in animals?",[273],"The mirror test",{"id":275,"data":276,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":114,"orbs":279},"f108206a-0de8-4c55-8798-0afdb7418f2a",{"type":26,"title":277,"tagline":278},"Scientific Consensus","How theories of intelligence have changed over time",[280,424],{"id":281,"data":282,"type":25,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":284,"introPage":291,"pages":297},"4c450efd-1acf-430b-854f-988b7638f582",{"type":25,"title":283},"Historical studies",{"id":285,"data":286,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"ee10953d-9ac0-4ca8-9681-ac80f7a71856",{"type":33,"summary":287},[288,289,290],"Aristotle believed animals had intelligence, but in a lower quantity to humans","Descartes thought animals were automata: unintelligent biological machines","Hume argued animals have thought and reason, exactly the same as humans",{"id":292,"data":293,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"f351baf0-9b51-426e-8096-d434848bc0c1",{"type":49,"intro":294},[295,296],"What was Aristotle's view on animal intelligence?","Did later philosophers, like Descartes and Hume, agree?",[298,351,379,407],{"id":299,"data":300,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":303},"00ff45e8-a1ca-4c74-a231-cc69de50f038",{"type":24,"markdownContent":301,"audioMediaId":302},"Humans have studied animal intelligence for thousands of years. In the 4th century BCE, **Aristotle** wrote his famous *History of Animals*, which explored the subject in detail.\n\nAristotle believed that animals possessed a form of basic intelligence. He gave the nest-building abilities of certain birds as an example of “pre-eminent intelligence”.\n\nBut Aristotle believed that this intelligence differed from human intelligence in terms of quantity; humans had more, while animals had less. He called this the *Scala Naturae*, or Ladder of Being – a natural hierarchy of intelligence quantity, with humans at the top and all other species underneath.\n\n![Graph](image://809315b9-22c6-4fa8-bc11-1e388e45af8d \"Scala Naturae. Image: Public domain\")","7a10a37c-eb81-40d5-95b9-157e23d798d1",[304,323,342],{"id":305,"data":306,"type":63,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},"c0d551ea-4670-465f-be88-12e2b255a265",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":307,"multiChoiceQuestion":311,"multiChoiceCorrect":313,"multiChoiceIncorrect":315,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":319,"matchPairsPairs":320},[308,309,310],"801f93d4-b2f9-42ea-9470-d47e92001b4a","94e48a9c-ff38-4377-9935-c67c2c7b15f5","1aea0f39-84ae-4fa4-aa7e-07d90e625e8c",[312],"What did Aristotle believe about animal intelligence?",[314],"Animals have a small quantity of intelligence",[316,317,318],"Animals are mindless automata","Animals have thought and reason","Animal minds are too remote to ever understand",[177],[321],{"left":322,"right":314,"direction":33},"Aristotle",{"id":324,"data":325,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"4f053c19-3de0-453e-a2bf-e0288943d300",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":326,"multiChoiceQuestion":330,"multiChoiceCorrect":332,"multiChoiceIncorrect":334,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":338,"matchPairsPairs":339},[327,328,329],"e206830c-f747-42fd-ac61-02cf8148b470","1c0a461f-5dd5-4f08-9827-1afe9cf5b382","d5d176a4-0733-45ab-bd54-5f41305f02fc",[331],"What is Scala Naturae?",[333],"The idea of an intelligence hierarchy with humans at top",[335,336,337],"The idea that humans have a body and a mind","The idea that we must not anthropomorphize animals","The idea that animals learn through trial and error",[177],[340],{"left":341,"right":333,"direction":33},"Scala Naturae",{"id":343,"data":344,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"c615826e-578b-42ea-b8e5-b7b9c9698224",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":345,"binaryCorrect":347,"binaryIncorrect":349},[346],"What example did Aristotle give of simple, or 'pre-eminent', intelligence?",[348],"Nest-building in birds",[350],"Problem-solving in birds",{"id":352,"data":353,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":356},"e751b804-e4f2-4cd7-a789-6f12a3fdac39",{"type":24,"markdownContent":354,"audioMediaId":355},"Two thousand years after Aristotle, **René Descartes** tackled the subject of animal intelligence. He rejected the idea of a ladder of intelligence, deciding instead that humans were alone in their capacity for intelligent thought.\n\nHe believed that humans were made of two pieces: the body and the mind, or *res cogitans* and *res extensa*. The body performed automatic processes, like a biological machine, while the mind provided consciousness, intelligence, and thought. This is known as mind–body dualism, or Cartesian dualism.\n\nDescartes thought that animals lacked the ‘mind’ half of the dualism. Instead, they were simply biological machines, which he referred to as automata.","1154d34a-a9b5-4362-bce6-29820dd7bd45",[357,368],{"id":308,"data":358,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":359,"multiChoiceQuestion":360,"multiChoiceCorrect":362,"multiChoiceIncorrect":363,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":364,"matchPairsPairs":365},[305,309,310],[361],"What did Descartes believe about animal intelligence?",[316],[314,317,318],[177],[366],{"left":367,"right":316,"direction":33},"Descartes",{"id":327,"data":369,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":370,"multiChoiceQuestion":371,"multiChoiceCorrect":373,"multiChoiceIncorrect":374,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":375,"matchPairsPairs":376},[324,328,329],[372],"What is Cartesian dualism?",[335],[333,336,337],[177],[377],{"left":378,"right":335,"direction":33},"Cartesian dualism",{"id":380,"data":381,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":384},"97d4ded0-ddc1-4a25-a318-0b4138780183",{"type":24,"markdownContent":382,"audioMediaId":383},"About a hundred years after Descartes, in the middle of the 18th century, Scottish philosopher **David Hume** argued against the Cartesian theory that animals were mindless automata.\n\nIn his famous work, *A Treatise on Human Nature*, he wrote that “no truth appears to me more evident, than that beasts are endowed with thought and reason as well as men.”\n\nHe based this theory on the fact that animals often behave like humans; they run from fires, form bonds with masters, avoid strangers. If their external behaviors are similar, their internal processes were probably similar too.","da36aa63-54ea-42a4-90de-e343209d0859",[385,396],{"id":309,"data":386,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":387,"multiChoiceQuestion":388,"multiChoiceCorrect":390,"multiChoiceIncorrect":391,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":392,"matchPairsPairs":393},[305,308,310],[389],"What did Hume believe about animal intelligence?",[317],[314,316,318],[177],[394],{"left":395,"right":317,"direction":33},"Hume",{"id":397,"data":398,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"72233b02-32ec-412f-ab9d-3c780e6bc4a2",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":399,"multiChoiceCorrect":401,"multiChoiceIncorrect":403,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[400],"Which Scottish philosopher argued against the Cartesian theory of automata?",[402],"David Hume",[404,405,406],"Robert Burns","John Locke","Adam Smith",{"id":408,"data":409,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":412},"bd9a6845-a048-45be-a9ff-3834617516cd",{"type":24,"markdownContent":410,"audioMediaId":411},"When Hume and Descartes explored the subject of animal intelligence, their theories were based on anecdotal observation. In the 19th century, British psychologist **Conwy Lloyd Morgan** warned that this approach was dangerous.\n\nHe said that people observing the behavior of an animal had a tendency to anthropomorphize. When a dog started whining, people thought it was missing its owner, in a display of human-like intelligence. In reality, the dog might just have been hungry, and instinctively whining for food.\n\n![Graph](image://ebeac654-91b5-4e11-b9ae-3f7a50780e69 \" \")\n\nHe argued that, when observing animals, we must always assume a simpler explanation (instinctive behavior) before jumping to big conclusions (intelligent behavior). This idea is known as Morgan’s Canon, and it's influenced studies of animal intelligence ever since.","154ca88a-3bfb-4d86-86d0-8b1de2370a40",[413],{"id":328,"data":414,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":415,"multiChoiceQuestion":416,"multiChoiceCorrect":418,"multiChoiceIncorrect":419,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":420,"matchPairsPairs":421},[324,327,329],[417],"What is Morgan's Canon?",[336],[333,335,337],[177],[422],{"left":423,"right":336,"direction":33},"Morgan's Canon",{"id":425,"data":426,"type":25,"version":114,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":428,"introPage":435,"pages":441},"3cd44344-792a-4146-862d-87a26d4b25a0",{"type":25,"title":427},"Modern studies",{"id":429,"data":430,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"976543ab-c230-4282-9e55-86758f8e5946",{"type":33,"summary":431},[432,433,434],"Thorndike put forward the law of effect: a theory that animals repeat behaviors that lead to positive outcomes","Skinner and Pavlov expanded this theory into operant conditioning: the idea that animals learn through trial-and-error","Köhler countered these theories with his studies on chimps, which showed them using intelligent insight to solve problems",{"id":436,"data":437,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"1a960521-1bc9-4fed-a8c2-56decfcb7ef7",{"type":49,"intro":438},[439,440],"What is the theory of operant conditioning, and why is it controversial?","How do scientists in the modern world measure intelligence in animals?",[442,459,513,540,557],{"id":443,"data":444,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":447},"2196e1df-38a7-43e0-ad80-c46ca5e76ca8",{"type":24,"markdownContent":445,"audioMediaId":446},"At the end of the 19th century, Edward Thorndike became one of the first scientists to study animal intelligence in a laboratory setting. He pioneered a school of thought which later became known as **behaviorism**.\n\nThorndike wanted to know if an animal could intelligently learn the solution to a problem. He put a cat in a box, then showed the cat how a lever would open the door. If the cat was intelligent, it would learn from the demonstration.\n\n![Graph](image://cb4f80d4-e13a-476d-a33b-9c828e9df429 \"Thorndike’s puzzle box. Image: Public domain\")\n\nThe cat did not learn from the demonstration. It only learned through trial-and-error: it stood on the lever by accident, saw the door open, and exited the box. Thorndike decided this type of learning was random, and not a sign of intelligence.","62894191-03c4-42e0-89d4-ebd3d96171df",[448],{"id":449,"data":450,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"13ce41a9-3751-4b8f-a7e7-5385ea9e9df3",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":451,"multiChoiceCorrect":453,"multiChoiceIncorrect":455,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[452],"Edward Thorndike pioneered a school of thought which later became known as what?",[454],"Behaviorism",[456,457,458],"Functionalism","Cognitivism","Humanism",{"id":460,"data":461,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":464},"2a33799d-8108-45dc-9a18-d2618b006df5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":462,"audioMediaId":463},"After his experiments on cats, Edward Thorndike established what he called the **law of effect**: when an animal’s behavior leads to a positive outcome, like the door to a puzzle-box clicking open, they will repeat that behavior in the future.\n\nIn the early 20th century, Thorndike’s law of effect was built upon by scientists like B.F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov. It developed into the theory of **operant conditioning**.\n\nThis theory argued that animal behavior is constantly shaped by trial-and-error. If a random behavior leads to a reward, the animal will repeat it in the future. If a random behavior leads to a punishment, the animal will avoid it next time.\n\nOperant conditioning suggests that animals are simple and machine-like, and not capable of intelligent thought. It's a bit of a throwback to Descartes' theory that animals were mindless automata.","0acf6357-37d1-4bf4-9296-1a2a9c94c578",[465,484,495,506],{"id":466,"data":467,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"beec3cda-139d-4606-bc14-b2f82ef6a714",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":468,"multiChoiceQuestion":472,"multiChoiceCorrect":474,"multiChoiceIncorrect":476,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":480,"matchPairsPairs":481},[469,470,471],"cc29a9a9-8ef1-44c0-a293-924fed485199","3fa71c19-b175-45e5-b8c7-a56545d32e26","ca9ec5a3-ec63-4311-9e3e-a2b7083796b3",[473],"What was Edward Thorndike's main theory about animal intelligence?",[475],"Animals behave according to the law of effect",[477,478,479],"Animals learn through operant conditioning","Animals are capable of intelligent insight ","Different animals have different types of intelligence",[177],[482],{"left":483,"right":475,"direction":33},"Thorndike",{"id":469,"data":485,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":486,"multiChoiceQuestion":487,"multiChoiceCorrect":489,"multiChoiceIncorrect":490,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":491,"matchPairsPairs":492},[466,470,471],[488],"What was B.F Skinner's main theory about animal intelligence?",[477],[475,478,479],[177],[493],{"left":494,"right":477,"direction":33},"Skinner",{"id":329,"data":496,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":497,"multiChoiceQuestion":498,"multiChoiceCorrect":500,"multiChoiceIncorrect":501,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":502,"matchPairsPairs":503},[324,327,328],[499],"What is operant conditioning?",[337],[333,335,336],[177],[504],{"left":505,"right":337,"direction":33},"Operant conditioning",{"id":507,"data":508,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"fd7715da-0e10-405a-b2c0-c0bff3c6bafc",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":509,"activeRecallAnswers":511},[510],"Can you explain Thorndike's law of effect?",[512],"When an animal’s behavior leads to a positive outcome, they will repeat that behavior in the future",{"id":514,"data":515,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":114,"reviews":518},"04ff0a2e-f764-49d2-9b61-1a1b28cf8bdf",{"type":24,"markdownContent":516,"audioMediaId":517},"Operant conditioning was a dominant theory in the 20th century, but it was not the only theory of animal intelligence. It was challenged by a German psychologist, Wolfgang Köhler, who wrote a famous book called *The Mentality of Apes*.\n\nHe observed that, when a chimp was confronted by a novel problem, it would stop, and think, before coming up with a solution. Often, this solution would work the first time. For example, they might stack some boxes in order to reach a banana, without trying other behaviors first.\n\nKöhler described his chimps as “unwaveringly purposeful,” and argued that they were solving problems through **intelligent insight**, as opposed to trial-and-error conditioning. If operant conditioning was a throwback to Descartes, Köhler's theories were more closely aligned to Hume.","4cf14ea7-7e9e-4a27-ae5e-55d7737857b5",[519,530],{"id":470,"data":520,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":521,"multiChoiceQuestion":522,"multiChoiceCorrect":524,"multiChoiceIncorrect":525,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":526,"matchPairsPairs":527},[466,469,471],[523],"What was Wolfgang Köhler's main theory about animal intelligence?",[478],[475,477,479],[177],[528],{"left":529,"right":478,"direction":33},"Köhler",{"id":531,"data":532,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"bbbecf33-3d10-42b7-9c26-98ee30b6f3aa",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":533,"multiChoiceCorrect":535,"multiChoiceIncorrect":537,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[534],"Who wrote a famous book about animal intelligence: 'The Mentality of Apes'?",[536],"Wolfgang Köhler",[82,538,539],"Ivan Pavlov","Edward Thorndike",{"id":541,"data":542,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":545},"1f2cdd06-14fa-4b34-b384-8f53b20cacd5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":543,"audioMediaId":544},"The debate between conditioning and insight is ongoing, but most modern scientists now believe in a compromise. While animals (and humans) can learn through conditioning, they are also capable of intelligent, insightful thought.\n\nBut does this rule apply equally to every animal? Or does the nature of intelligence vary between different species?\n\nIn 1987, American psychologist Alan Kamil wrote a pioneering article: *A synthetic approach to the study of animal intelligence*. He argued that every species had a unique intelligence, just as it had a unique anatomy.\n\nIt came down to **evolutionary pressures**. Animals evolved a type of intelligence which best suited their specific needs.","6540c874-3593-4cc9-b085-4938179b7028",[546],{"id":471,"data":547,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":548,"multiChoiceQuestion":549,"multiChoiceCorrect":551,"multiChoiceIncorrect":552,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":553,"matchPairsPairs":554},[466,469,470],[550],"What was Alan Kamil's main theory about animal intelligence?",[479],[475,477,478],[177],[555],{"left":556,"right":479,"direction":33},"Kamil",{"id":558,"data":559,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":562},"d9c7abee-6be7-4b01-98b4-66cd8926f4ae",{"type":24,"markdownContent":560,"audioMediaId":561},"In the 21st century, studies into animal minds are becoming more and more advanced. And many of these studies focus on the ways that different animals have evolved their own types of intelligence.\n\nLaboratory experiments are often used to study smaller animals. They are placed in mazes, given memory tests, or asked to respond to images. Meanwhile, field studies often observe how animals behave in their natural habitats, especially larger species, like whales.\n\nFunctional MRI scans can be used to study neural activity, but only in certain species. Animals must be trained, or restrained, before entering the scanner. For example, a crocodile brain was successfully scanned in 2018, but only after the animal was sedated, and its mouth taped firmly shut.\n\n![Graph](image://cc795353-6f29-48e2-97da-af1a96ef7a8f \" \")\n\nIn the coming years, we should learn more and more about animal intelligence. It's a fast-moving field – and we've come a long way since the days of Aristotle.","047cbd18-510c-4f13-9c36-ece621173e95",[563],{"id":564,"data":565,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"e5c74e83-c46d-4806-bdb7-5fa166c7854d",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":566,"multiChoiceCorrect":568,"multiChoiceIncorrect":570,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[567],"Which animal's brain was successfully scanned in 2018, but only after its mouth was taped shut?",[569],"Crocodile",[571,572,573],"Dog","Alligator","Shark",{"id":575,"data":576,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"orbs":579},"9df628a0-2c32-4d86-8d9e-7fcc29218809",{"type":26,"title":577,"tagline":578},"Logical Intelligence"," How animals overcome problems",[580,695],{"id":581,"data":582,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":584,"introPage":591,"pages":597},"1c0b3303-e288-4da6-b20e-4e330c0325df",{"type":25,"title":583},"Can animals solve problems?",{"id":585,"data":586,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"e5edc589-3767-4f12-b18a-48061f614807",{"type":33,"summary":587},[588,589,590],"Some animals are able to use tools to solve problems, like crows making hooks and primates fishing for insects","Mathematical problem solving is rare in animals, probably because it lacks an evolutionary purpose","However, some animals can count, like shoaling fish, or solve math problems, like Alex the parrot",{"id":592,"data":593,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"b87c8aa3-49bc-4000-b4e1-dfbb4f9be7df",{"type":49,"intro":594},[595,596],"Are animals capable of solving problems?","Are animals capable of doing math?",[598,631,655],{"id":599,"data":600,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":603},"fc31a98a-2fa5-4571-a787-c9b6d11ce2f1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":601,"audioMediaId":602},"For more than a century, psychologists have studied logical intelligence in other species. Edward Thorndike was one of the first, with his experiments to see whether cats could escape from a simple puzzle-box.\n\nEscaping from a box is an example of **logical problem-solving**: overcoming an obstacle in order to achieve a goal. Modern researchers use similar tests, as well as observing animals solving problems in the wild.\n\nProblem solving is often linked to tool use. As recently as the 1960s, people thought that tools were only used by humans, but this is not the case. Crows make hooks out of twigs, primates use sticks to fish for insects – and there are plenty of other examples of animals using tools to solve a problem.\n\n![Graph](image://81875a15-731e-4953-b436-548ef8e7ccd0 \"Orangutan fishing for ants. Image: Colin Knowles from Vancouver, CC BY-SA 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","4535e09b-917d-4512-8bb4-45a9571b422d",[604,624],{"id":605,"data":606,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"b4974c12-bbc1-4486-95e2-25ef29911db5",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":607,"multiChoiceQuestion":611,"multiChoiceCorrect":613,"multiChoiceIncorrect":615,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":619,"matchPairsPairs":620},[608,609,610],"a24def14-abda-49d9-83e0-a84f7c7c4931","f3d0d6cf-0038-4502-b9de-f382bb9727ec","2e257dc6-b84f-47ee-b3d1-faf32c7ea697",[612],"Which of these might a researcher use to study problem solving in animals?",[614],"Puzzle box",[616,617,618],"Radial arm maze","Functional MRI","Mirror",[177],[621],{"left":622,"right":623,"direction":33},"Puzzle-box","Problem solving",{"id":625,"data":626,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"3461f875-405d-4abf-bfd4-033434d59f33",{"type":63,"reviewType":114,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":627,"clozeWords":629},[628],"As recently as the 1960s, people thought tools were only used by humans, but this is not the case.",[630],"tools",{"id":632,"data":633,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":636},"8e38597c-6098-4f58-a188-389340e55ea2",{"type":24,"markdownContent":634,"audioMediaId":635},"Working out how to escape from a box is a physical kind of problem. But what about abstract problem solving, like **mathematical problems**?\n\nMathematical ability is rare in other species, probably because the evolutionary benefits are limited. It's unclear why humans evolved such impressive numeracy skills, but it may have helped us keep track of resources.\n\nOn a basic level, some shoaling fish can count and compare numbers. When they see two shoals, they will usually join the larger one; there is an evolutionary benefit to comparing the numbers, and joining a stronger group.\n\n![Graph](image://661c61ee-4810-4502-88d4-0376317ceb1d \" \")\n\nAs well as this, a captive parrot named Alex was once taught how to count, and to perform some basic sums. This suggests that his brain was capable of math, although he never would have evolved these skills in the wild.\n\n![Graph](image://6a88c8a8-c59c-4055-93cd-00ba26c83a86 \"African grey parrot. Image: Alex from Ithaca, NY, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","30da86a6-eb70-4faa-a258-8b093681c59f",[637,644],{"id":638,"data":639,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"a4070030-09f9-4d0e-b8dd-c3b017a0ae2d",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":640,"activeRecallAnswers":642},[641],"Why might early humans have evolved numeracy skills, when most other species did not?",[643],"They used numbers to keep track of resources",{"id":645,"data":646,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"9d09e7ec-4af2-494e-ba37-9f8012d8926b",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":647,"multiChoiceCorrect":649,"multiChoiceIncorrect":651,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[648],"What type of animal was Alex, the bird who learned to do math?",[650],"Parrot",[652,653,654],"Crow","Finch","Canary",{"id":656,"data":657,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":660},"393acc70-da30-4698-b81a-933c878d000a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":658,"audioMediaId":659},"A subject of debate, in academic circles, is whether or not two individuals within a single species can be born with different levels of intelligence.\n\nFor example, while Alex the parrot learned basic math, other parrots of the same species have shown no signs of learning. Some chimps use sticks to fish for termites, while others never learn this skill, even with extensive training.\n\nIt's hard to know whether these differences are genetic, or the result of environmental differences. Some studies suggest that cognitive skills are heritable in chimps, but the research is inconclusive. In the coming years, this topic will demand further study.","8ae7bcc9-8daf-4a72-b342-92b7cad000d2",[661,679,686],{"id":662,"data":663,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7d5744e7-af92-4c79-8291-ff9b07afe3e7",{"type":63,"reviewType":664,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":665,"matchPairsPairs":666,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},6,[177],[667,670,673,676],{"left":668,"right":669,"direction":33},"Crows","Use tools to solve problems",{"left":671,"right":672,"direction":33},"Grass snakes","None of these",{"left":674,"right":675,"direction":33},"Shoaling fish","Count and compare numbers",{"left":677,"right":678,"direction":33},"Alex the parrot","Perform basic sums",{"id":680,"data":681,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"0522d20b-9166-4603-be8d-e5ed9d334180",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":682,"activeRecallAnswers":684},[683],"True or false: two individuals from the same animal species can be born with different levels of intelligence.",[685],"This is still subject to debate",{"id":687,"data":688,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"499e0374-7542-4103-a868-31d45520f978",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":689,"binaryCorrect":691,"binaryIncorrect":693},[690],"Some studies suggest that cognitive skills are heritable in which species?",[692],"Chimpanzees",[694],"Gorillas",{"id":696,"data":697,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":699,"introPage":706,"pages":712},"7ee11466-b328-4642-944e-25f8b5e6b438",{"type":25,"title":698},"Can animals use tools?",{"id":700,"data":701,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"55ecb6f8-6196-45d7-979c-b830bb993110",{"type":33,"summary":702},[703,704,705],"Primates and crows are skilful tool users, both using tools to forage for food and solve problems","A community of dolphins off the coast of Australia use sponges to protect their noses while foraging","Tool use is only a sign of logical intelligence if the tool use is insightful rather than instinctive",{"id":707,"data":708,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"73b67dea-3255-43fe-b762-5ad5ace98548",{"type":49,"intro":709},[710,711],"Which animals are the best at using tools?","What's the difference between instinctive and insightful tool use?",[713,749,773,797,810],{"id":714,"data":715,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":718},"e900bf32-c833-4cd8-81d5-ec8a38edaec6",{"type":24,"markdownContent":716,"audioMediaId":717},"Primates are particularly adept at using tools to solve problems. Chimps use sticks to fish for insects, and make pointed spears to hunt for small animals. Gorillas use logs to test the depth of a river before trying to walk across.\n\n![Graph](image://faab0ca2-30b4-4d2a-9478-0bc8bd079723 \"Gorilla testing water levels. Image: Wild Gorillas Handy with a Stick. PLoS Biology Vol. 3/11/2005, CC BY 2.5 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nPrimates are not the only mammalian tool-users. Dolphins in Australia put sponges on their noses to protect their faces while foraging for food. Mothers teach this skill to calves, making sure the knowledge passes through generations.\n\nThis is an example of **cultural learning**. At some point in the past, a dolphin must have learned to use a sponge, then shared the knowledge with the rest of the group. It has only ever been observed in one pod, which suggests these dolphins want to keep the knowledge to themselves.\n\nTool use has also been observed in other mammals, including bears, honey badgers, pigs and otters.","3dca3fff-e98a-4d07-962a-f0b9a1604671",[719,738],{"id":720,"data":721,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"0b78ec40-9d01-4c6b-8dd4-e9f59be2fca4",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":722,"multiChoiceQuestion":726,"multiChoiceCorrect":728,"multiChoiceIncorrect":730,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":734,"matchPairsPairs":735},[723,724,725],"37caa22e-0da5-4c02-badc-4c165b758ae1","53f26ef9-6129-41e4-94c9-df71b2b33072","5328e427-906b-4b88-8af5-0240fac06ad5",[727],"What do we call it when one animal passes knowledge to another, like the dolphins who teach each other to use sponges?",[729],"Cultural learning",[731,732,733],"Theory of mind","Intraspecific communication","Interspecific communication",[177],[736],{"left":729,"right":737,"direction":33},"One animal passes a piece of knowledge to another animal",{"id":739,"data":740,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"03cc9516-3f61-4dab-81c0-4fb7a1a8d735",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":741,"multiChoiceCorrect":743,"multiChoiceIncorrect":747,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[742],"Which of these mammals have demonstrated tool use?",[744,745,746],"Primates","Pigs","Otters",[748],"Sheep",{"id":750,"data":751,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":754},"a83ee0a4-6a1c-476f-8a51-d392ab83ebe7",{"type":24,"markdownContent":752,"audioMediaId":753},"Alongside mammals, the animal kingdom’s most prolific tool-users are birds. The New Caledonian crow is a striking example, which outperforms chimps in the majority of logical tests.\n\nThese birds craft tools out of leaves and sticks, carefully fashioning them into useful shapes. They invent new tools to combat novel problems, like a hook-shaped tool to reach an insect nest hidden down an awkward bend.\n\nIn laboratory tests, crows have also demonstrated **meta-tool use**: using one tool to obtain a second tool, which then helps them to reach some food. Problem solving using two different tools in two different steps suggests a high capacity for logical reasoning, which few other species are capable of.\n\n![Graph](image://e0173897-77bb-4912-9f7b-8876162f7e51 \"Caledonian crow. Image: Yi-Kai Tea, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nTool use has also been observed in other birds, including parrots, herons, finches and Egyptian vultures.","51309132-6747-4f48-a500-f16ed9186048",[755,762],{"id":756,"data":757,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"08022652-26eb-479d-93d6-6b7f8e0b260f",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":758,"activeRecallAnswers":760},[759],"What is meta-tool use?",[761],"Using one tool to obtain a second tool, which then helps to solve a problem",{"id":763,"data":764,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"a55faf68-c837-4d2d-aaed-a1a6c3247768",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":765,"multiChoiceCorrect":767,"multiChoiceIncorrect":769,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[766],"Which bird has demonstrated meta-tool use?",[768],"New Caledonian crow",[770,771,772],"African grey parrot","Purple heron","Zebra finch",{"id":774,"data":775,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":778},"91bf08ce-ecdd-4af9-8576-63250d4f9ea0",{"type":24,"markdownContent":776,"audioMediaId":777},"In recent years, the logical intelligence of octopuses has gained a lot of attention. Wild individuals have been seen collecting coconut shells, and wielding them like shields or armor.\n\n![Graph](image://bc571610-450f-47f5-ae23-3dc001c2651c \"Octopus using shells. Image: Nick Hobgood, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAt an aquarium in Germany, Otto the octopus learned to throw stones at the sides of his tank, in an effort to break the glass. He also sprayed water to short-circuit a lamp, probably because he didn't like the glare.\n\nSome species of fish can also use tools, like wrasses who use rocks to open clams. Stingrays adjust the shape of their bodies to redirect currents, using the flow of water to extract hard-to-reach pieces of food.","9ab82d19-2dfc-4c37-8590-13bc6c1a934d",[779,790],{"id":780,"data":781,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"88f1c013-7dd9-4352-8ac6-709cf2764c19",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":782,"multiChoiceCorrect":784,"multiChoiceIncorrect":786,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[783],"How did Otto the octopus short-circuit a lamp in his aquarium?",[785],"He sprayed water at it",[787,788,789],"He cut the wires","He threw rocks at it","He unscrewed a bulb",{"id":791,"data":792,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"395d6e6d-28f7-4615-8a0f-be9d8e35a25a",{"type":63,"reviewType":114,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":793,"clozeWords":795},[794],"Some species of fish can also use tools, like the wrasses who use rocks to open clams.",[796],"wrasses",{"id":798,"data":799,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":802},"b5d13d4b-394b-416c-8cb4-3e6f8aa15e80",{"type":24,"markdownContent":800,"audioMediaId":801},"Tool use has rarely been observed in reptiles, which do not excel when it comes to logical intelligence. But in 2007, one notable exception was observed in India.\n\nA crocodile will hold a pile of twigs at the end of its nose, then lie motionless beneath the water. When a bird tries to collect the sticks, the crocodile attacks. The crocodiles only use this technique during nesting season, when birds are on the lookout for sticks.\n\nFinally, tool use is relatively common in insects. Ants use stones to block the tunnels of rival colonies, while bumblebees in a laboratory test learned to roll a ball to a specific location in order to receive a treat.","ae2fcada-03f2-4ea2-badc-e54a01799d44",[803],{"id":804,"data":805,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"1f3e90f8-8847-4f06-bb5e-3fe49ca09f56",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":806,"activeRecallAnswers":808},[807],"In an example of tool use, how do ants use stones?",[809],"To block the tunnels of rival colonies",{"id":811,"data":812,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":815},"96aa2e01-5913-49a2-876e-fd659990975f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":813,"audioMediaId":814},"Some scientists argue that tool use in other species is not a true indication of logical intelligence. The debate comes down to two interpretations: instinct versus insight.\n\n**Instinctive tool use** is an automatic behavior that a species evolves over millions of years. Crocodiles, for example, do not actively decide to set a trap for birds. This is an innate behavior, which they perform automatically. It does not involve any creative, logical thought.\n\n**Insightful tool use** is when an animal encounters a brand new problem and comes up with a tool to overcome it. Unlike crocodiles, there are a number of birds, primates, and octopuses which have demonstrated insightful tool use. This creativity and flexibility is generally seen as a sign of logical intelligence. These animals are not automata – they're insightfully responding to different challenges, exactly the same as we do.\n\n![Graph](image://e2cdd255-c43f-43bb-adc5-e329acba697c \"Cracking a nut. Image: Haslam M, Gumert MD, Biro D, Carvalho S, Malaivijitnond S (2013), CC BY 2.5 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","ece2bf31-de4c-4680-88aa-f04ffa178d24",[816,832],{"id":817,"data":818,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"8f7c56dc-88e5-4b72-ba59-18edac12046f",{"type":63,"reviewType":664,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":819,"matchPairsPairs":820,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[177],[821,823,826,829],{"left":694,"right":822,"direction":33},"Use logs to test river depth",{"left":824,"right":825,"direction":33},"Dolphins","Use sponges to protect faces",{"left":827,"right":828,"direction":33},"Crocodiles","Use sticks to lure prey",{"left":830,"right":831,"direction":33},"Octopuses","Use shells to protect bodies",{"id":833,"data":834,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"f3decfa1-4f41-40e7-ad7f-74d5f2b318f0",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":835,"binaryCorrect":837,"binaryIncorrect":839},[836],"When a crocodile use sticks as a lure for birds, it's an example of what?",[838],"Instinctive tool use",[840],"Insightful tool use",{"id":842,"data":843,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":114,"orbs":846},"9fc11b6a-143a-4b79-b8e0-3446e50e3491",{"type":26,"title":844,"tagline":845},"Emotional Intelligence","How animals laugh and grieve",[847,974],{"id":848,"data":849,"type":25,"version":114,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":851,"introPage":858,"pages":864},"d7ab887e-1bb7-41bb-8cd4-21fa87908a9d",{"type":25,"title":850},"Do animals feel emotions?",{"id":852,"data":853,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25},"648c81f3-79f6-44bf-bcd3-4f4352efebce",{"type":33,"summary":854},[855,856,857],"Emotional intelligence has an evolutionary benefit, as it helps animals to thrive in social groups","Some animals, like rats, may be capable of laughter, while other animals, like elephants, show signs of grief","There is evidence to suggest that some species become pessimistic or optimisic depending on their current mood",{"id":859,"data":860,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"48f0daf4-a8cc-4b08-a928-6016741238f1",{"type":49,"intro":861},[862,863],"Are animals capable of laughter?","Are animals capable of grief?",[865,870,899,915,939],{"id":866,"data":867,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25},"6e33a72f-8e21-416f-ac42-68bf52f990f3",{"type":24,"markdownContent":868,"audioMediaId":869},"**Emotional intelligence** is the ability to monitor our own emotions, and to read emotions in others. This is evolutionarily beneficial to certain species, as it helps social groups to work together and thrive.\n\nSome people are skeptical about emotional intelligence in animals. They argue that observations of animal emotions are based on anthropomorphic bias – the tendency to attribute human characteristics to non-human entities.\n\nBut there is scientific evidence that animals are capable of feeling emotions, and understanding emotions in others. While it's important to be wary of anthropomorphic bias, it's also important not to dismiss all this evidence either.\n\n![Graph](image://b1e3e2d2-0d02-4d62-bc5e-1fa7476981fc \" \")","f09f58c6-1802-4077-adcd-489bc04f4daa",{"id":871,"data":872,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":875},"0d306c1a-944f-4684-9f8c-6328bff43d1c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":873,"audioMediaId":874},"Charles Darwin was one of the first scientists to study animal emotions. In *The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals*, he explored how body language, like smiling and crying, evolves in different species.\n\nDarwin’s work was mainly based on anecdotal observation. The first scientist to study animal emotions in a laboratory setting was Jaak Panksepp, a psychobiologist working in the 1970s. Through experiments with rats, he identified **seven emotional states**, including rage, fear and play.\n\nPanksepp believed that these emotional states were hereditary rather than learned. For example, a rat would show signs of fear when it smelled a cat hair, even if that rat had never encountered a cat before. In other words, these animals were born with a pre-set range of emotions.","8139f3ff-4e7b-40fd-956d-5143b1354047",[876,885,892],{"id":877,"data":878,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"5b8ec41c-948c-4808-b001-8f6b8fc0f10d",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":879,"multiChoiceCorrect":881,"multiChoiceIncorrect":883,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[880],"Who explored the evolution of animal emotions in 'The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'?",[882],"Charles Darwin",[884,539,536],"Jaak Panksepp",{"id":886,"data":887,"type":63,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},"162cf67c-4e97-4fe4-a90e-b1699882bd93",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":888,"multiChoiceCorrect":890,"multiChoiceIncorrect":891},[889],"Who was the first scientist to study animal emotions in a laboratory setting?",[884],[882,539,536],{"id":893,"data":894,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"e1b20c44-3ec4-472d-a10a-a00de7bbac63",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":895,"activeRecallAnswers":897},[896],"Panksepp believed that emotional states were hereditary. What example, involving cat hair, might demonstrate this?",[898],"A rat seemed scared when it smelled a cat hair, even if that rat had never encountered a cat before",{"id":900,"data":901,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":904},"a1db2802-c9a4-4eeb-a65a-9c97d8462f61",{"type":24,"markdownContent":902,"audioMediaId":903},"One of Panksepp’s most famous experiments – and one he was often ridiculed for – looked at whether or not non-human species were capable of **laughter**.\n\nWhen he tickled rats, they emitted high-frequency chirps, at a similar pitch to sounds they made when they were excited by pieces of food. Panksepp concluded that these excitable chirps were animal laughter. The rats enjoyed being tickled, and always came back for more.\n\n![Graph](image://c276411a-2d95-4c97-aec7-d00343ce070f \" \")\n\nLaughter might have evolved as a form of social bonding among mammals. It helps individuals to feel relaxed and playful in close proximity, and not to misinterpret something like tickling as an aggressive, physical attack.\n\nThis is a clear example of emotional intelligence: two animals monitoring their own emotions, and reading emotional cues in others.","91c1bee7-f610-487e-bc42-abe26d3ed259",[905],{"id":906,"data":907,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"d282c4ab-b091-4546-869c-863c6e372da4",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":908,"multiChoiceCorrect":910,"multiChoiceIncorrect":912,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[909],"Which animals did Panksepp tickle in his famous study on non-human laughter?",[911],"Rats",[913,914,745],"Cats","Dogs",{"id":916,"data":917,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":920},"c8bd1267-5cf3-47b0-bc7d-173fc227648e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":918,"audioMediaId":919},"Laughter suggests that animals are capable of positive, playful emotions, but there are also signs they feel negative emotions like fear and grief.\n\nWhen social animals, like crows or elephants, find a dead individual, they often gather around it, and stand there silently, as though they are holding some kind of funeral. It is hard to be sure if grief is involved, but at the very least, these animals appear to hold an understanding of death.\n\nIn the 1970s, researchers observed a young chimp named Flint, who stopped eating and socializing when his mother, Flo, passed away. In the end, he died of starvation. Again, it is hard to know what happened in his brain, but his behavior certainly looked like grief to observers.\n\n![Graph](image://3bbe3f4b-e27d-42c6-83fc-92539313881c \" \")","df16fc3d-5e89-4891-b561-180586a8fbbc",[921,928],{"id":922,"data":923,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"b19c07e5-7f49-440e-b9fb-3e99bf12dd2a",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":924,"activeRecallAnswers":926},[925],"How do some social animals, like crows or elephants, respond to a dead individual?",[927],"They gather in silence, almost like holding a funeral",{"id":929,"data":930,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"d0f41ada-e81d-4eed-8b4d-9442050a1246",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":931,"multiChoiceCorrect":933,"multiChoiceIncorrect":935,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[932],"What happened to Flint, the chimp whose mother died in the 1970s?",[934],"He stopped eating",[936,937,938],"He ran away","He attacked his brother","He became more social",{"id":940,"data":941,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":944},"d0f6d317-6124-408f-9aaf-875481d1150d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":942,"audioMediaId":943},"**Cognitive bias** is a phenomenon in which an individual's perception of reality is distorted by their beliefs and emotions. Optimism and pessimism are classic examples: people see the same thing differently depending what mood they are in.\n\nStudies have shown that animals experience emotion-driven biases. If rats are tickled, and put into a good mood, they are more likely to pull a lever which has a chance of giving them food. This is a clear example of optimism; when rats are stressed, they pull the lever less often.\n\nSimilar results have also been found in other species, like honeybees. After the bees were aggressively shaken by researchers, they seemed to become more cautious and pessimistic.","0f50b6ee-ac49-4be9-aa6a-bce7ea566414",[945,956,965],{"id":946,"data":947,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"cab193a7-6503-42dd-943a-ec4ee6bfab48",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":948,"multiChoiceCorrect":950,"multiChoiceIncorrect":952,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[949],"What do we call the phenomenon in which an individual's perception is distorted by their emotions?",[951],"Cognitive bias",[953,954,955],"Emotional distortion","Cognitive distortion","Emotional bias",{"id":957,"data":958,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7e5a6e48-9981-4899-b4f0-2eb8f8175809",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":959,"binaryCorrect":961,"binaryIncorrect":963},[960],"In an example of cognitive bias, how do rats change their behavior after being tickled by a researcher?",[962],"They're more likely to try a lever that might give them food",[964],"They're less likely to try a lever that might give them food",{"id":966,"data":967,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"46bd8613-a447-4f90-bc47-fdb9b3ebf47a",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":968,"binaryCorrect":970,"binaryIncorrect":972},[969],"In an example of cognitive bias, how do bees change their behavior after being shaken by a researcher?",[971],"They become cautious and pessimistic",[973],"They become brave and optimisitic",{"id":975,"data":976,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":978,"introPage":985,"pages":991},"69dee930-2f50-4b4c-9027-4bf40247dc0e",{"type":25,"title":977},"Can animals read emotions in others?",{"id":979,"data":980,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"de3ae9fd-0ee7-469b-8109-bb8a2ef7562e",{"type":33,"summary":981},[982,983,984],"Bonobos has been seen comforting victims of conflict, which suggests some kind of theory of mind","Experiments with ravens have shown evidence of emotional contagion","Orcas have more spindle cells than humans, which might mean they're capable of highly complex emotions",{"id":986,"data":987,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"1df9bfb6-a4e6-44d4-8707-8d9451b7aa96",{"type":49,"intro":988},[989,990],"Do any animals show signs of having theory of mind?","Which animal's brain might be capable of more complex emotions than our own?",[992,1016,1031],{"id":993,"data":994,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":997},"49c870a4-b3c3-4972-bf25-004b932ebe2e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":995,"audioMediaId":996},"**Theory of mind** is the capacity to understand that other people have their own emotions and thoughts. It is an important part of emotional intelligence: we cannot empathize with another person unless we know they have emotions.\n\nConclusive evidence of theory of mind is hard to come by, but there are tentative signs in a few non-human species. For example, bonobos have been seen embracing victims of aggressive conflict. Without theory of mind, they would not know that the victim was upset, or offer a comforting embrace.\n\n![Graph](image://49ec9488-aecc-4c87-b8c7-791b72d1398a \"Bonobos. Image: Pierre Fidenci, CC BY-SA 2.5 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\n**Emotional contagion** is the idea that one person’s emotional state can affect the emotions of somebody else. This has been observed in ravens. When one raven gets excited about a piece of food, another raven observing (but unaware of the food) will show signs of excitement too.","93c5d2cb-241f-4022-a865-5e1b4828443b",[998,1009],{"id":724,"data":999,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1000,"multiChoiceQuestion":1001,"multiChoiceCorrect":1003,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1004,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1005,"matchPairsPairs":1006},[720,723,725],[1002],"What term describes the capacity to understand that other individuals have their own emotions and thoughts?",[731],[729,732,733],[177],[1007],{"left":732,"right":1008,"direction":33},"One animal speaks to another animal of the same species",{"id":1010,"data":1011,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"1ca1ba0a-0324-49b0-8743-a3b1fce1b8a4",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1012,"activeRecallAnswers":1014},[1013],"What is emotional contagion?",[1015],"The idea that one individual's emotional state can affect the emotions of someone else",{"id":1017,"data":1018,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1021},"d27d44b0-faef-4d8f-afb2-8ad7101015a0",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1019,"audioMediaId":1020},"There is evidence to suggest that cetacean species – like whales and orcas – actually have a higher level of emotional intelligence than humans.\n\nIn the human brain, emotions seem to be controlled and manufactured by something known as **spindle cells**. Studies into orca brains have found that these animals have three times as many spindle cells as humans.\n\nIt is hard to know whether additional spindle cells translate into higher emotional intelligence, but some scientists believe these species feel stronger emotions than we do. They are social creatures, who live in family pods, where emotional intelligence is of vital evolutionary importance.","b2c47bf5-7649-4ed9-944b-77f70ef8bff5",[1022],{"id":1023,"data":1024,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"b35d8532-b783-43c8-bf40-39aeb880b673",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1025,"binaryCorrect":1027,"binaryIncorrect":1029},[1026],"Orcas might have higher emotional intelligence than humans, because their brains have more of what?",[1028],"Spindle cells",[1030],"Stem cells",{"id":1032,"data":1033,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1036},"aa6aa2f3-1990-44aa-b264-c0467590750a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1034,"audioMediaId":1035},"Scientific proof of animal emotions has major implications. In 2018, the state of California passed the Orca Welfare and Safety Act in response to rising evidence that these animals have emotional intelligence.\n\nThis law made it illegal to capture wild orcas, or to keep these animals in captivity for the purposes of entertainment. Captive orcas have behaved in ways that seem to indicate grief, madness, and anxiety.\n\nScientific proof of animal emotions also raises questions about our moral duty to protect the natural world. Would people be so willing to cut down trees, and pollute rivers, if they knew that animals felt emotions similar to our own?\n\n![Graph](image://831c31aa-c126-4918-ab4c-1b5e451c8b58 \" \")","15222fe4-7fdb-4817-8365-79ce47409875",[1037,1044],{"id":1038,"data":1039,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7d775d05-cbf7-40fd-9c58-5f3a20d4112e",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1040,"activeRecallAnswers":1042},[1041],"In 2018, what did California ban in response to growing evidence of animal emotions?",[1043],"Keeping orcas in captivity for the purpose of entertainment",{"id":1045,"data":1046,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"0112f5c1-9b8b-459b-b36d-d4152be3206b",{"type":63,"reviewType":664,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1047,"matchPairsPairs":1048,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[177],[1049,1052,1055,1058],{"left":1050,"right":1051,"direction":33},"Bonobos","Tentative evidence of theory of mind",{"left":1053,"right":1054,"direction":33},"Ravens","Evidence of emotional contagion",{"left":1056,"right":1057,"direction":33},"Orcas","High numbers of spindle cells",{"left":1059,"right":672,"direction":33},"Dragonflies",{"id":1061,"data":1062,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"orbs":1065},"8167efd4-0dc2-47fb-844d-4949ccac0659",{"type":26,"title":1063,"tagline":1064},"Spatial Intelligence","How animals navigate physical space",[1066,1142],{"id":1067,"data":1068,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1070,"introPage":1077,"pages":1083},"a2536b64-8fc7-47f6-8379-37ed6cf5c0ad",{"type":25,"title":1069},"How well do animals navigate?",{"id":1071,"data":1072,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"6887f481-7dd0-4611-a17b-663448d85ce4",{"type":33,"summary":1073},[1074,1075,1076],"Birds, moths, butterflies, whales, and fish can migrate thousands of kilometers without getting lost","Some of these species are able to sense the earth’s magnetic field, or use the position of stars to navigate","On a smaller scale, many species are able to use cognitive maps to remember locations and navigate 3D spaces",{"id":1078,"data":1079,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"9c50d961-3b99-401e-a568-aedfdb43bd13",{"type":49,"intro":1080},[1081,1082],"How do migratory species navigate without getting lost?","What is a cognitive map, and why do animals need one?",[1084,1097,1114],{"id":1085,"data":1086,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1089},"c837b06b-9710-402f-a303-f4277aca4d96",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1087,"audioMediaId":1088},"**Spatial intelligence** is the type of intelligence which most animals have evolved to excel at. It is the ability to think in three dimensions, to recognize objects, and to navigate physical spaces.\n\nSpatial intelligence is so useful to animals that many species outperform humans. The brains of flies are a good example: they process visual information four times faster than we do, which is why they are so hard to swat. To their high speed brains, a human probably appears to be moving in slow motion.\n\n![Graph](image://1c84f877-a2b6-4de1-aaa0-fb5b787aa8cb \" \")\n\nSome animals are also far better at navigating physical spaces than we are, like the migratory species which travel thousands of kilometers, without ever getting lost along the way.","84de8ebb-653f-4d54-981f-051cc85c9bf0",[1090],{"id":1091,"data":1092,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"2484fd59-9589-41de-bd8c-adee8b2313f8",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1093,"activeRecallAnswers":1095},[1094],"Why are flies so hard to swat?",[1096],"They process visual information four times faster than a human",{"id":1098,"data":1099,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1102},"847f0a52-573c-47e6-afed-788f9c869af0",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1100,"audioMediaId":1101},"In terms of **long-distance navigation**, birds are the obvious example. But many moths, butterflies, whales and fish travel similar distances every year.\n\n![Graph](image://4573d2f0-ca30-412d-bea3-ac52f9079ea2 \"Migration paths for six species of bird. Image: Public domain\")\n\nThese long-distance migrations require cognitive skills that a human brain can't match. In fact, human scientists struggle to know how some of these species manage it.\n\nCertain animals seem to sense the direction of the earth’s magnetic field. Others may use the position of stars or the color of the sky. These navigational skills are evolutionary adaptations; they let species spend the winter in warmer climates, without getting lost along the way. Again, we didn't evolve this ability, because it wasn't beneficial to our species.","2bbc5631-d956-4dde-aeaa-732a40f30042",[1103],{"id":1104,"data":1105,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"819e3aa4-2115-43f2-8c83-362a8190a21b",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1106,"multiChoiceCorrect":1108,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1112,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1107],"In theory, how might an animal navigate when performing a long distance migration?",[1109,1110,1111],"Look at the color of the sky","Look at the position of stars","Sense the Earth's magnetic field",[1113],"Look at the size of the moon",{"id":1115,"data":1116,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1119},"c4cbc95a-bfb3-4eee-b3da-0ec49a8d31b9",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1117,"audioMediaId":1118},"On a smaller scale, a **cognitive map** is a mental picture that helps animals navigate their local environment. Without a cognitive map, an animal could run into problems, like forgetting the location of a nest after leaving for food.\n\nThis concept was first explored by Edward Tolman in the 1940s. He found that rats could build a cognitive map of a maze. After learning the maze, the rats were placed into random corners, and observed using their cognitive map to find their way to the center.\n\nIn recent years, Kate Jeffrey has studied cognitive maps in birds and fish. Unlike rats and humans, who generally move on a horizontal plane, these animals are able to swim and fly through three-dimensional space. This demands a more complex map than the kind most mammals rely on.","e3e09636-5117-46a6-a574-6bdb0acb998f",[1120,1127,1135],{"id":1121,"data":1122,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"fd66a1d6-691e-42d9-afef-3f84fcb2c41a",{"type":63,"reviewType":114,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1123,"clozeWords":1125},[1124],"A cognitive map is a mental picture that helps animals navigate their local environment.",[1126],"cognitive map",{"id":1128,"data":1129,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"1707563f-c862-4d32-a791-458ceaf4e4ab",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1130,"multiChoiceCorrect":1132,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1133,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1131],"In the 1940s, Edward Tolman observed which animal making cognitive maps of a maze?",[911],[913,1134,672],"Bats",{"id":1136,"data":1137,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"eb72fffe-802f-45ee-831c-b182c9e48210",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1138,"activeRecallAnswers":1140},[1139],"Why might a fish require a more complex cognitive map than a human?",[1141],"Humans move on a horizontal plane, whereas fish swim through 3D space",{"id":1143,"data":1144,"type":25,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1146,"introPage":1153,"pages":1159},"d5d9cd78-fd12-488e-baf1-4af1b1452bec",{"type":25,"title":1145},"How do animals see the world?",{"id":1147,"data":1148,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"f0d8f187-9fc1-44b6-96fb-d205da13feb7",{"type":33,"summary":1149},[1150,1151,1152],"Pigeons (with training) can recognize cancers in mammograms as well as human pathologists","Sharks can sense electricity, zebra finches can see in ultraviolet, and mosquitoes can see in infrared","Octopus arms have mini-brains of their own, which might be capable of basic, independent thought",{"id":1154,"data":1155,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"a00f6550-c67d-4225-be14-1cae8ac335d0",{"type":49,"intro":1156},[1157,1158],"Could a well-trained pigeon do the job of a human pathologist?","What makes the brain of an octopus so different to the brains of other animals on Earth?",[1160,1182,1195,1212],{"id":1161,"data":1162,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1165},"8b03694b-0b30-406c-82a7-40db28126ce4",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1163,"audioMediaId":1164},"**Object recognition** is an important branch of spatial intelligence. It involves looking at an object – like a piece of food – and recognizing what that object is.\n\nStudies have shown that some bird species, like eagles and pigeons, can recognize objects with remarkable accuracy. During a groundbreaking study, in 2015, pigeons were trained to recognize cancers in mammograms. With practice, these birds performed just as well as experienced human pathologists.\n\n![Graph](image://b740a261-5194-49b3-917e-1acbc51617f8 \" \")\n\nIn other tests of object recognition, birds actually outperform us. They probably evolved this cognitive skill due to the high demands of recognizing objects while flying rapidly through the air. Earth-bound humans, moving at slower speeds, did not need to evolve such advanced object recognition, which is why our brains aren't as capable in this particular area.","6a39f07e-0613-469b-be94-d0682d8b6f79",[1166,1173],{"id":1167,"data":1168,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"f760b603-b005-42f7-ace7-d9e99dfd2498",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1169,"activeRecallAnswers":1171},[1170],"What process involves looking at an object – like a piece of food – and recognizing what that object is?",[1172],"Object recognition",{"id":1174,"data":1175,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"2fb00af8-b98f-4522-b332-3f25b9ac84e8",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1176,"multiChoiceCorrect":1178,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1180,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1177],"In 2015, which species of bird was trained to recognize cancers in mammograms?",[1179],"Pigeon",[1181,652,650],"Eagle",{"id":1183,"data":1184,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1187},"a4bf95e9-6552-4d5d-affe-33259dcde9aa",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1185,"audioMediaId":1186},"In addition to impressive object recognition, some animals have evolved unique senses which help their species to survive. Sharks are capable of electroreception, zebra finches can see in ultraviolet, mosquitoes can see in infrared, and there are hundreds of other examples.\n\nThese extra senses help a species find food, or spot an approaching predator. They rely on specialist sensory organs, which send information to the brain. Interpreting this type of information is a form of intelligence that other species might never have needed to evolve.\n\nThe word **sentience** is sometimes used as a synonym for intelligence. But this word has its roots in the ability to sense. In this context, some animals are more ‘sentient’ than others, where evolution has given them extra senses.","ba1c1305-c688-480f-afd1-358725412766",[1188],{"id":1189,"data":1190,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"47d7a2ab-1d91-4b54-bced-1a193734deb5",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1191,"activeRecallAnswers":1193},[1192],"Which word (sometimes used as a synonym for 'intelligence') has its roots in the ability to sense?",[1194],"Sentience",{"id":1196,"data":1197,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1200},"f8a1675e-0953-4e7e-9f6b-cc71cff32b48",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1198,"audioMediaId":1199},"Researchers studying animal intelligence – whether spatial, logical, or something else – must take into account each species’ approach to senses.\n\nFor example, scientists studying dog intelligence used to give their subjects visual tests. The dogs performed poorly, and were dismissed as unintelligent. But modern scientists discovered that dogs have bad eyesight. When dogs were given olfactory tests, they suddenly performed much better.\n\nIf an intelligence test isn't designed to match a subject’s senses, it's like putting a human in a pitch-black maze, then deciding all humans are bad at navigating when the subject starts bumping into walls.","9aa322d5-a064-4e8f-ab60-31b375537be8",[1201],{"id":1202,"data":1203,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"72701021-046c-486e-9d0c-dde4184bfe7b",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1204,"multiChoiceCorrect":1206,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1208,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1205],"Different animals perform better in tests which rely on different sense. Which test might a dog do best in?",[1207],"Olfactory",[1209,1210,1211],"Visual","Auditory","Tactile",{"id":1213,"data":1214,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1217},"22a3d954-2152-4fe5-8499-38e2c3a69e61",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1215,"audioMediaId":1216},"Perhaps the strangest example of spatial intelligence can be found in the mind of the octopus. Unlike most species, octopus intelligence is **distributed throughout their bodies**; alongside a main brain in the head, each arm also has its own mini-brain.\n\nSome scientists think each arm can make independent decisions without consulting the main brain first. Others think the main brain makes the key decisions, like deciding to reach into a hole, then starts to think about something else while the arm explores on its own.\n\n![Graph](image://b256af6f-dba5-48fa-a125-48336b66fcef \" \")\n\nHowever it works, there is no better example of an animal brain evolving differently to our own. An octopus’ approach to spatial intelligence is so wildly different to that of a human that it is hard to compare the two.","2a761c37-f5de-4c10-a77a-294a1d42e6e3",[1218,1234],{"id":1219,"data":1220,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"66977e2d-bacc-41ab-b134-8f8d23ba4a69",{"type":63,"reviewType":664,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1221,"matchPairsPairs":1222,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[177],[1223,1226,1229,1232],{"left":1224,"right":1225,"direction":33},"Sharks","Can sense electricity",{"left":1227,"right":1228,"direction":33},"Zebra finches","Can see in ultraviolet",{"left":1230,"right":1231,"direction":33},"Mosquitoes","Can see in infrared",{"left":830,"right":1233,"direction":33},"Have distributed intelligence",{"id":1235,"data":1236,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"4c1d14ee-06e9-42e4-b4b3-39bc5282f6a7",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1237,"multiChoiceCorrect":1239,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1241,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1238],"How many brains does an octopus have?",[1240],"One main brain, eight mini-brains",[1242,1243,1244],"Three main brains","One main brain, two mini-brains","Eight mini-brains",{"id":1246,"data":1247,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"orbs":1250},"56b8eb0b-67e6-4a9d-a42d-44ccbe5593e8",{"type":26,"title":1248,"tagline":1249},"Linguistic Intelligence","How animals generate language",[1251,1343],{"id":1252,"data":1253,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1255,"introPage":1262,"pages":1268},"1b1715ad-15f0-45d3-a339-c1874ac97bb6",{"type":25,"title":1254},"Can animals talk to humans?",{"id":1256,"data":1257,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"a066844d-4cde-49d4-95d4-9aa292715f9c",{"type":33,"summary":1258},[1259,1260,1261],"Koko the gorilla learned human sign language, and even used it to tell lies","Alex the parrot learned basic English, and became the first recorded animal to ask a question","Dogs cannot generate human language, but they can learn to understand up to 250 human words",{"id":1263,"data":1264,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"ae0a95f9-c35b-4243-86d1-c5f41bc83457",{"type":49,"intro":1265},[1266,1267],"Can animals learn to speak in human languages?","When we talk to a dog, does it understand us?",[1269,1295,1319],{"id":1270,"data":1271,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1274},"9ec50d20-9d32-4844-baf5-66c8ec24f22f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1272,"audioMediaId":1273},"**Linguistic intelligence** is the ability to understand and generate language. Among animal species, parrots are famously strong in this area. Parrots have been taught to use thousands of human words, and even colors and numbers.\n\nMeanwhile, a number of primates have been taught to communicate with humans through hand symbols. Koko the gorilla learned to make a thousand different signs. She had conversations with her keepers, and was even capable of telling lies.\n\nKoko had a pet kitten, which she named All Ball. Once, in a moment of anger, Koko ripped a sink off the wall of her enclosure. When a keeper arrived, Koko used sign language to blame the damage on All Ball.\n\nInterestingly, Koko never used sign language to ask a question. Scientists are uncertain why this is.\n\n![Graph](image://c749c668-50ec-4086-ad26-4c1c78375ec1 \"Gorilla in captivity (not Koko). Image: Anil Öztas, FALCC-BY-NC-4.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")","50f4e9f5-3449-427e-b729-da0ae49aa159",[1275,1284],{"id":1276,"data":1277,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"bd20c0f4-50ba-405c-8df6-27b7805a3ccf",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1278,"binaryCorrect":1280,"binaryIncorrect":1282},[1279],"Which gorilla was famously taught to use sign language?",[1281],"Koko",[1283],"All Ball",{"id":1285,"data":1286,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"78d7f4e0-d360-4479-ba88-a1a2bd8a1d41",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1287,"multiChoiceCorrect":1289,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1291,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1288],"When Koko the gorilla ripped a sink off the wall, who did she blame (using sign language)?",[1290],"Her pet kitten",[1292,1293,1294],"Another gorilla","A zookeeper","A bird",{"id":1296,"data":1297,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1300},"324fe9c6-0cf1-45bb-a049-445a755a9404",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1298,"audioMediaId":1299},"The first recorded animal to **ask a question** using human language was Alex, an African gray parrot. We've mentioned him before – he was also the first parrot to learn how to count.\n\nHe asked the question when he was sitting in front of a mirror. Looking at himself, he asked: \"what color?\" His owner told him \"gray\".\n\nAlex also invented his own words. When he was shown an apple for the first time, he started calling it \"banerry\". This was probably a combination of \"banana\" and \"cherry\", two other words which Alex had been taught in the past.","7b61bbfd-63b2-4272-921a-0cc5bfca4211",[1301,1308],{"id":1302,"data":1303,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"caa92f21-ba1b-4df5-9fb2-281660dcc42d",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1304,"activeRecallAnswers":1306},[1305],"Who was the first recorded animal to ask a question, and what was that question?",[1307],"Alex the parrot looked in a mirror, and asked 'what color?'",{"id":1309,"data":1310,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"b5c0adff-8ed0-4e07-ab16-735a25095963",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1311,"multiChoiceCorrect":1313,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1315,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1312],"What new word did Alex the parrot invent when he saw an apple for the first time?",[1314],"Banerry",[1316,1317,1318],"Mangange","Banange","Mangerry",{"id":1320,"data":1321,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1324},"fd24312a-3a8c-4c03-8195-0e999c88e37f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1322,"audioMediaId":1323},"Talking parrots and signing primates are both examples of **speech generation**, but that is not the only sign of linguistic intelligence. **Speech comprehension** is also important: hearing language and understanding what it means.\n\nStudies have shown that dogs can learn up to 250 human words. Most dog-owners have probably noticed this – when a dog hears the word ‘walk’, they instantly get excited.\n\nA dog cannot generate any human language back at us. They lack the vocal range of a parrot, and have no hands to use for signing. But despite these physiological limitations, the ability to comprehend our words is a sign of linguistic intelligence.\n\n![Graph](image://9725a164-e680-4dc1-8f50-586be60c4d9a \" \")","99fd1fb0-8b25-413a-82e4-91cef55f0f75",[1325,1332],{"id":1326,"data":1327,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"3d0eceab-ffe4-4f76-ae7b-a54b29e0a5ce",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1328,"activeRecallAnswers":1330},[1329],"Linguistic intelligence can be divided into two parts: speech generation and what?",[1331],"Speech comprehension",{"id":1333,"data":1334,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"0b2544b3-c8eb-44cf-b478-859cebfc13fa",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1335,"multiChoiceCorrect":1337,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1339,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1336],"Approximately how many human words can a dog learn to understand?",[1338],"250",[1340,1341,1342],"None","150","200",{"id":1344,"data":1345,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1347,"introPage":1355,"pages":1361},"04a88b26-abd0-468a-b969-4887abed1cf4",{"type":25,"title":1346},"Can animals talk to each other?",{"id":1348,"data":1349,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"ec72c209-18e6-4c49-8cad-4330ec419fec",{"type":33,"summary":1350},[1351,1352,1353,1354],"When an animal speaks to a human, it is known as interspecific language","When an animals speaks to other members of its species, it is known as intraspecific language","Chimps seem to speak using hand and facial gestures, while birds communicate through song","Project CETI has been using AI in an effort to translate whalesong into human language ",{"id":1356,"data":1357,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"2cfeb696-eab4-4694-9fd3-900734fe4e48",{"type":49,"intro":1358},[1359,1360],"How do chimpanzees use physical gestures to communicate?","Is it possible to translate whalesong into human language?",[1362,1390,1395,1412,1425],{"id":1363,"data":1364,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1367},"6cd44ac3-ef8f-4c8a-b4fc-ec03115d351e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1365,"audioMediaId":1366},"When animals interact with human language, scientists call it **interspecific communication** – language used between two different species. Traditionally, this was always used as a measure of an animal’s linguistic intelligence.\n\nBut is this a fair approach to take? Animals did not evolve to speak to humans; they evolved to speak to other members of their own species. We would never judge a human’s language skills on their ability to squeak or squawk, so we should not judge an animal’s language on its ability to speak like us.\n\nIn the last few years, scientists have moved away from interspecific communication, and started to focus on **intraspecific communication** instead. This is seen as a more valid measure of a species’ linguistic intelligence.","0e8198d5-355e-4cad-b26a-7c839bc44f4c",[1368,1379],{"id":723,"data":1369,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1370,"multiChoiceQuestion":1371,"multiChoiceCorrect":1373,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1374,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1375,"matchPairsPairs":1376},[720,724,725],[1372],"What do we call it when two animals of different species communicate with each other?",[733],[729,731,732],[177],[1377],{"left":731,"right":1378,"direction":33},"One animal is aware that another animal has emotions",{"id":725,"data":1380,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1381,"multiChoiceQuestion":1382,"multiChoiceCorrect":1384,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1385,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1386,"matchPairsPairs":1387},[720,723,724],[1383],"What do we call it when two animals of the same species communicate with each other?",[732],[729,731,733],[177],[1388],{"left":733,"right":1389,"direction":33},"One animal speaks to another animal of a different species",{"id":1391,"data":1392,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25},"d6cab689-1e64-4f38-b0b2-f844422ed4ec",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1393,"audioMediaId":1394},"When it comes to intraspecific language, primates are fairly competent. Chimpanzees use vocalizations such as grunts and barks to express emotions and communicate danger.\n\nBut their main form of language is **physical gestures**. A recent study found that chimps used 31 hand gestures, and 18 facial gestures, to talk to each other in captivity. Another study found evidence of turn-taking – chimps let each other speak turn by turn, just as humans do when having a conversation.\n\nThis is probably why primates like Koko the gorilla were able to learn some hand signs to communicate with humans. They had already evolved a gesture-based form of communication, so signing was compatible with their innate linguistic intelligence.\n\n![Graph](image://724a604c-37f1-4409-bb35-c18d51e9c0de \"Chimps communicating? Image: Bjoertvedt, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","8f26d610-dba2-40ff-81a8-4f45044caa8b",{"id":1396,"data":1397,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1400},"76b6fcc0-eccb-41ad-a0a0-1bc7d2ba3a5f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1398,"audioMediaId":1399},"Birds are capable of producing complex vocalizations, but whether **birdsong** counts as a type of language is subject to scholarly debate. Language, as a concept, is hard to define, but it is broadly seen as a way to communicate information using some kind of vocabulary and grammar.\n\nBirdsong communicates information: they use it to warn each other about approaching predators. It also seems to have vocabulary: different predators are described using different calls. In some cases, there may also be grammar: chickadees change the number of ‘dees’ in their distinctive call to indicate the size of an approaching threat.\n\n![Graph](image://1c7b68ad-3042-48b0-9310-97d93d1e8664 \" \")\n\nThe way parrots are able to learn human language suggests birdsong follows similar linguistic forms. It seems unlikely that a bird could learn to speak English so well if it hadn't already evolved a brain with similar systems of its own.","7bd791da-981f-445e-a84f-bbb334bf9f56",[1401],{"id":1402,"data":1403,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"9a79d3ce-d47e-4f52-a3a9-891f28998cd4",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1404,"multiChoiceCorrect":1406,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1408,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1405],"Chickadees change the number of ‘dees’ in their call depending on what?",[1407],"The size of an approaching threat",[1409,1410,1411],"The time of day","The size of a food source","The season",{"id":1413,"data":1414,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1417},"3f7ee36f-7b4b-43be-8761-5b4804f7750a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1415,"audioMediaId":1416},"Cetaceans, such as whales and dolphins, communicate using streams of clicks which scientists refer to as **codas**. Dolphins appear to form sentences, and may refer to one another using signature whistles, almost like having names.\n\nPods of whales, within the same species, have been found to speak different dialects. These dialects seem to be a product of cultural learning, as words and phrases are passed down through generations.\n\nWhen it comes to linguistic intelligence, these examples suggest that cetaceans are very advanced. And scientists are now attempting to translate their languages into English. Project CETI (Cetacean Translation Initiative) is an ambitious project which hopes to use artificial intelligence to translate whalesong into a human language.\n\nIt would be one of the biggest breakthroughs in scientific history. Instead of teaching an animal to speak our language, we could communicate using one of theirs.\n\n![Graph](image://8d663443-0518-4185-8972-04734cfaed34 \" \")","8e19b469-ef13-4c7a-a693-eab252c9cef1",[1418],{"id":1419,"data":1420,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"a64348ba-08ec-4caa-bcc0-2208aefa9c57",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1421,"activeRecallAnswers":1423},[1422],"Which AI-driven project is working to translate whalesong into human language?",[1424],"Project CETI (Cetacean Translation Initiative)",{"id":1426,"data":1427,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1430},"1d3b02c8-110a-4c56-9090-d5e7235a396e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1428,"audioMediaId":1429},"An unusual form of animal language can be found in **eusocial insects**. These insects, including species of bees and ants, live in a tight-knit colony, where communication is essential.\n\nSome bees communicate using ‘waggle dances’, where they move their bodies in different rhythms to tell other members of the colony that a predator is coming, or where to find some nearby food.\n\nOther eusocial insects communicate using chemical signals, which can be passed from one individual to the next in a rapid chain of information. This has been compared to the way that cells communicate in a multicellular brain; in other words, the colony could be seen as a single, collective intelligence.\n\nIt's debatable whether this counts as language, but it is certainly a form of communication, and one which evolved extremely differently to our own.","a1702f6b-18e7-4bfa-b370-396645a63402",[1431,1447,1458],{"id":1432,"data":1433,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7da81208-05c1-4da1-9bbc-dc60519a3128",{"type":63,"reviewType":664,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1434,"matchPairsPairs":1435,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[177],[1436,1438,1441,1444],{"left":692,"right":1437,"direction":33},"Communicate using gestures",{"left":1439,"right":1440,"direction":33},"Chickadees","Communicate using song",{"left":1442,"right":1443,"direction":33},"Cetaceans","Communicate using codas",{"left":1445,"right":1446,"direction":33},"Eusocial insects","Communicate using chemical signals",{"id":1448,"data":1449,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7ed25a68-8e39-45b8-9572-9ec6909ba5b3",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1450,"multiChoiceCorrect":1452,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1454,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1451],"Which type of eusocial insect uses 'waggle dances' to communicate?",[1453],"Bee",[1455,1456,1457],"Ant","Termite","Wasp",{"id":1459,"data":1460,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"3dd57915-c214-4db4-a8a3-e2889c4183af",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1461,"activeRecallAnswers":1463},[1462],"What is the collective intelligence of eusocial insects sometimes compared to?",[1464],"A multicellular brain",{"id":1466,"data":1467,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":114,"orbs":1470},"e7d180a9-337c-44b7-bed0-27152bf601db",{"type":26,"title":1468,"tagline":1469},"Animal Memory","How animals remember past events",[1471,1591],{"id":1472,"data":1473,"type":25,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1475,"introPage":1482,"pages":1488},"cd8c274c-f739-4eec-a030-d0f6c18f276d",{"type":25,"title":1474},"Do animals have long-term memories?",{"id":1476,"data":1477,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25},"b3fb95cc-db4a-46e0-a537-a4f568bb2af8",{"type":33,"summary":1478},[1479,1480,1481],"Some scatter-hoarder species can rememeber the locations of more than hundred food caches","Dolphins and elephants have shown signs of remembering other individuals after twenty years apart","Even animals with simple brains, like slugs or goldfish, can remember some things for weeks",{"id":1483,"data":1484,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"157a3483-ce98-4b7a-b204-45be259b14cb",{"type":49,"intro":1485},[1486,1487],"Is it true that elephants never forget?","Do goldfish have good memories or not?",[1489,1505,1534,1549],{"id":1490,"data":1491,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1494},"50b5a9b9-c89e-443d-8f49-37c188f73fdc",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1492,"audioMediaId":1493},"In human beings, a good memory is often seen as a sign of intelligence. When it comes to animals, a similar argument could be made.\n\nOne of the most common methods for testing animal memory is something called a **radial arm maze**. An animal is placed at the center of a box with a number of passages leading away. There is food at the end of one passage, but the animal does not know which one.\n\n![Graph](image://339aac80-43e1-4d98-9673-5c5dd2b25e4d \"Simple radial arm maze. Image: Mcole13, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAfter checking a passage, and finding no food, the animal returns to the center. If they do not check that passage again, they must remember it has no food. If they do check it again, they must have forgotten.\n\nA memory like this one might last for days or even weeks. It can be tested by removing the animal from the maze, then returning it to the maze later.","a8f8f55c-2454-4b5b-bf7e-81c7294ef1dc",[1495],{"id":608,"data":1496,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1497,"multiChoiceQuestion":1498,"multiChoiceCorrect":1500,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1501,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1502,"matchPairsPairs":1503},[605,609,610],[1499],"Which of these might a researcher use to study long-term memory in animals?",[616],[614,617,618],[177],[1504],{"left":616,"right":246,"direction":33},{"id":1506,"data":1507,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1510},"97ba7ee8-b32f-4eb3-8aa2-dd2ad6a9ff81",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1508,"audioMediaId":1509},"Outside of laboratory experiments, field observations can also be used to measure animal memory. Many species have excellent memories when it comes to remembering the locations of water or food.\n\n**Scatter-hoarder species**, such as western scrub jays, bury caches of food underground. And studies have shown that these birds are able to recall the location of more than a hundred caches. Most humans would struggle to replicate this, as we never evolved this particular cognitive ability.\n\nSome elephants remember the location of water for upwards of fifty years. In times of drought, the oldest members of the herd can show youngsters to a site that has not been visited for decades. When those youngsters grow up, they'll remember this site too, and show it to the next generation.\n\n![Graph](image://7026d169-266f-44fd-b88e-3c5cd7b41bf3 \" \")","ecd842e6-25f4-4d6a-b769-9b35d3534875",[1511,1520,1527],{"id":1512,"data":1513,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"51d76d05-097f-40e0-84cb-22526460fe4c",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1514,"binaryCorrect":1516,"binaryIncorrect":1518},[1515],"What is the term for species that bury caches of food underground?",[1517],"Scatter-hoarder",[1519],"Scatter-cacher",{"id":1521,"data":1522,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7a0fc3da-36f1-45b6-9fe3-842924adb7f0",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1523,"activeRecallAnswers":1525},[1524],"Which scatter-hoarder bird can remember the location of more than a hundred food caches?",[1526],"Western scrub jay",{"id":1528,"data":1529,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"d1903c3d-cbb6-490d-b3b0-0b6f8e1a3ef8",{"type":63,"reviewType":114,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1530,"clozeWords":1532},[1531],"Some elephants remember the location of water for upwards of fifty years.",[1533],"elephants",{"id":1535,"data":1536,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1539},"fde16ca2-2daa-4860-81c3-8c1a650705d1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1537,"audioMediaId":1538},"Dolphins possess an impressive capacity for remembering other dolphins. This could help them to assess **social threats** – did this dolphin behave like a friend or foe when the two of them met in the past?\n\nAn important experiment, in 2013, showed that dolphins still recognized the voices of other dolphins which they had not met for twenty years. This is not just a sign of long-term memory, but also of the importance of social bonds.\n\nSimilar results have been observed in elephants. In 2000, two elephants named Shirley and Jenny were reunited after more than twenty years apart. They showed signs of intimacy and recognition. Clearly, they had not forgotten each other.","0ea904ac-eeff-4b71-8b00-21f797211003",[1540],{"id":1541,"data":1542,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"58a2f009-f1b4-4513-857b-e02a66818ce9",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1543,"binaryCorrect":1545,"binaryIncorrect":1547},[1544],"Which two elephants still remembered each other after twenty years apart?",[1546],"Shirley and Jenny",[1548],"Shanny and Jerry",{"id":1550,"data":1551,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1554},"818eaa81-4e6a-4d16-b3cb-159683c62bc1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1552,"audioMediaId":1553},"Dolphins and elephants have large, complex brains, so their excellent memories might come as no surprise. But animals with relatively simple brains are also able to store information in the form of long-term memories.\n\nInsects, such as bees, have been studied extensively in an effort to understand their memory capabilities. Honeybees are able to learn the location of a food source, and in certain cases, remember that location for life.\n\nSlugs appear to store information for approximately one month. After tasting a bitter-tasting liquid, they will avoid that liquid for the duration of the month, then forget this information, and taste the liquid again.\n\nGoldfish are often cited as an animal with 10-second memory, but this is a myth. In reality, they often remember things for months, or in some cases, several years.\n\n![Graph](image://dc914a35-9262-4cb4-8b1d-370822c07532 \" \")","0caec4fb-5f8d-4482-a7a0-6e31d204f595",[1555,1571,1580],{"id":1556,"data":1557,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"b3fee20f-ae2e-4044-8442-d230a4404a12",{"type":63,"reviewType":664,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1558,"matchPairsPairs":1559,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[177],[1560,1563,1566,1568],{"left":1561,"right":1562,"direction":33},"Jays","Remember the location of food caches",{"left":1564,"right":1565,"direction":33},"Elephants","Remember the location of water sources",{"left":824,"right":1567,"direction":33},"Remember the voices of other individuals",{"left":1569,"right":1570,"direction":33},"Slugs","Remember to avoid bad-tasting liquids",{"id":1572,"data":1573,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"06d74f47-e41c-4475-aa78-614e6e488fa6",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1574,"binaryCorrect":1576,"binaryIncorrect":1578},[1575],"Which small animal can remember the location of a food source for its entire life?",[1577],"Honeybee",[1579],"Slug",{"id":1581,"data":1582,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"20c0f44d-9d75-4b8f-a07a-d4b073701b00",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1583,"multiChoiceCorrect":1585,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1587,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1584],"How long is the memory of a goldfish?",[1586],"Several months or years",[1588,1589,1590],"Several weeks","Several minutes","Ten seconds",{"id":1592,"data":1593,"type":25,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1595,"introPage":1602,"pages":1608},"6898230e-817f-47c0-af4e-b62ce05713d6",{"type":25,"title":1594},"Do animals have working memories?",{"id":1596,"data":1597,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"f27a78e7-6207-4d51-a439-541930fa8fb0",{"type":33,"summary":1598},[1599,1600,1601],"Something resembling working memory has been observed in primates and birds","Mental time travel has been also tentatively been observed in some species of rodents","However, the evidence is inconclusive in both cases, and requires further research",{"id":1603,"data":1604,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"f97349df-d8ed-4969-80e2-531fca79c4d5",{"type":49,"intro":1605},[1606,1607],"What is working memory, and do animals have it?","Can animals perform mental time travel?",[1609,1632],{"id":1610,"data":1611,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1614},"5a427eca-dac0-4988-a257-c2cf3261cb7d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1612,"audioMediaId":1613},"There are plenty of examples of animals with long-term memories. But there is a lot less evidence of animals with **working memories**.\n\nWorking memory is the ability to remember things just for a moment, holding pieces of information in a mental workspace while we solve a problem in our heads. From an evolutionary perspective, it helps with mental problem solving.\n\nThe relative lack of scientific evidence does not mean that animals are not capable of this kind of memory. Something resembling working memory has been observed in primates, birds, and a few other groups.\n\nBut it is harder to study than long-term memory, and often relies on functional MRI scans. It will take a few more years of careful research before the topic is better understood.","6a0aa29b-06ea-4f31-a8e1-73a0f73cb80c",[1615,1625],{"id":609,"data":1616,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1617,"multiChoiceQuestion":1618,"multiChoiceCorrect":1620,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1621,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1622,"matchPairsPairs":1623},[605,608,610],[1619],"Which of these might a researcher use to study working memory in animals?",[617],[614,616,618],[177],[1624],{"left":617,"right":244,"direction":33},{"id":1626,"data":1627,"type":63,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},"e45f61ba-89f9-4442-b405-a8c04375aaad",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1628,"activeRecallAnswers":1630},[1629],"Has working memory ever been observed in non-human species?",[1631],"Something resembling it has been observed in primates, birds, and a few other groups",{"id":1633,"data":1634,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1637},"e3d3b9d7-5794-4d38-aa1d-09697cafbf60",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1635,"audioMediaId":1636},"Another important question, in animal intelligence, is whether non-human species are capable of **mental time travel**: thinking back to a former moment, and imagining that moment in your mind.\n\nFor a long time, this was thought to be an exclusively human trait. But in the last few years, psychologists have found signs of mental time travel in animals. When a human mentally time travels, their brain lights up in a certain way, and the same patterns have now been recorded in the brains of rodents.\n\n![Graph](image://c231bd7f-1b8c-4b3f-9bc9-1280453fba1a \" \")\n\nMental time travel helps us to learn from past events, and to wonder whether we might have acted differently. The same evolutionary pressures which encouraged this cognitive ability in humans seem to have encouraged it in other species too.","2ee6b64f-a0c4-431b-af5d-585d4bbb3a7c",[1638,1647,1654],{"id":1639,"data":1640,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"1b297b9f-4814-4fa8-9f2c-d4532a7df39b",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1641,"binaryCorrect":1643,"binaryIncorrect":1645},[1642],"When an animal thinks back to a former moment, and imagines that moment in their mind, it is called:",[1644],"Mental time travel",[1646],"Memory time travel",{"id":1648,"data":1649,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"613bdf04-eb74-420d-accd-b99a3952d0fb",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1650,"activeRecallAnswers":1652},[1651],"From an evolutionary perspective, mental time travel helps a species to:",[1653],"Learn from past events",{"id":1655,"data":1656,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"d5d20f24-c661-434b-acbd-c1d61360d2dc",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1657,"multiChoiceCorrect":1659,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1661,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1658],"Patterns resembling mental time travel have been observed in the brain of what animal?",[1660],"Rodents",[1662,827,1663],"Horses","Geese",{"id":1665,"data":1666,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":114,"orbs":1669},"10369879-475c-42ff-af8f-f3e3bfdf1959",{"type":26,"title":1667,"tagline":1668},"Animal Consciousness","How animals see themselves",[1670,1791],{"id":1671,"data":1672,"type":25,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1674,"introPage":1681,"pages":1687},"4982fa3a-b85b-4205-b9af-6beabee514ab",{"type":25,"title":1673},"Are animals self-aware?",{"id":1675,"data":1676,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"7383a869-7351-42f9-b09e-b1d026be4305",{"type":33,"summary":1677},[1678,1679,1680],"The mirror test measures self-awareness by checking whether an animal is able to recognize itself in a mirror","Chimpanzees were the first non-human species to successfully pass the mirror test","Eurasian magpies passed the mirror test in 2008, while bluestreak cleaner wrasse passed in 2019",{"id":1682,"data":1683,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"8b670871-c76b-4cee-a155-af6975807283",{"type":49,"intro":1684},[1685,1686],"How do scientists test animals for self-awareness?","Which unexpected species shocked the world in 2019 with a display of self-awareness?",[1688,1701,1729,1743,1763],{"id":1689,"data":1690,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1693},"d0ecf7b4-0294-44af-ab79-d8e4d1b7a235",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1691,"audioMediaId":1692},"Perhaps the biggest question in animal intelligence, and the one which is hardest to empirically prove, is whether any non-human species are conscious.\n\n**Consciousness** is a difficult concept to define, but it is generally seen as a state of self-awareness. Related concepts include metacognition: not just to think, but to know we are doing it.\n\nScientists barely understand how consciousness works in humans, let alone in other species. But in 2012, a group of leading psychologists signed the Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness.\n\nThis declaration asserted that “humans are not unique in possessing the neurological substrates that generate consciousness”. In other words, some animal species are considered self-aware.","93ece162-a029-4320-949c-1e84f2add480",[1694],{"id":1695,"data":1696,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"c06ec17a-cbdb-49b1-9650-91c5125e3f4d",{"type":63,"reviewType":114,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1697,"clozeWords":1699},[1698],"According to a Cambridge Declaration in 2012: “humans are not unique in possessing [...] consciousness.”",[1700],"consciousness",{"id":1702,"data":1703,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1706},"e0a0d804-5864-4458-8a40-c2aacc7326aa",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1704,"audioMediaId":1705},"The **mirror test**, developed by psychologist Gordon Gallup in the 1970s, is the most popular way to measure self-awareness in animals.\n\nThis test involves placing a mark on an animal, like a sticker or a spot of paint. Afterwards, the animal is given access to a mirror. If the animal looks at its own reflection, then touches the mark on its own body, it is assumed to have self-awareness – it knew the reflection was an image of itself, and not of another animal.\n\nThe mirror test has also been used on human children. Under the age of 18 months, most children think the reflection in the mirror is a playmate, and do not reach for the mark on their own body. But from approximately 18 months onwards, they gain some level of self-awareness, and start to reach for the mark.\n\n![Graph](image://e34a3bca-c403-495f-a7b2-3b5d30652861 \"Mirror test. Image: Moshe Blank, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")","9ab8a367-3721-434e-86db-3a59d4444ae7",[1707,1718],{"id":610,"data":1708,"type":63,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1709,"multiChoiceQuestion":1710,"multiChoiceCorrect":1712,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1713,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1714,"matchPairsPairs":1715},[605,608,609],[1711],"Which of these might a researcher use to study consciousness in animals?",[618],[614,616,617],[177],[1716],{"left":618,"right":1717,"direction":33},"Consciousness",{"id":1719,"data":1720,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"3e3deffd-dbab-4fc7-8de2-77ab54278b0f",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1721,"multiChoiceCorrect":1723,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1725,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1722],"At what age do humans usually start passing the mirror test?",[1724],"18 months",[1726,1727,1728],"6 months","12 months","From birth",{"id":1730,"data":1731,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1734},"56837985-c3fa-4518-bce8-e10a36ad603b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1732,"audioMediaId":1733},"The first animals to pass the mirror test, in the 1970s, were some captive chimpanzees. This was a stunning discovery in animal psychology, and the first ever evidence that another species was conscious and self-aware.\n\nIn the next few decades, other mammals managed to pass the test. As well as several species of primate, orcas and dolphins have demonstrated self-awareness.\n\nAnother famous example was an Asian elephant named Happy, who passed the mirror test in 2006. Interestingly, two other elephants who took part in the test showed no signs of self-awareness. This suggests that different individuals in the same species can have different levels of consciousness.","3e81f3ae-0fd2-49f6-acbd-072939c0394f",[1735],{"id":1736,"data":1737,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"591e6a33-d59b-4cae-9df2-2ae11aedb13a",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1738,"multiChoiceCorrect":1740,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1741,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1739],"What were the first non-humans to pass the mirror test?",[692],[1056,1742,1564],"Magpies",{"id":1744,"data":1745,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1748},"8cdedc55-734b-4dd6-aba8-95564f429d5d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1746,"audioMediaId":1747},"Due to the successes of mammals in the mirror test, scientists began to wonder if consciousness was an exclusively mammalian quality. They linked it to the neocortex – a part of the brain that can only be found in mammals.\n\nBut in 2008, this theory was blown apart, when a group of five **Eurasian magpies** managed to pass the mirror test. Birds do not have a neocortex, which means consciousness must be generated in a different part of the brain.\n\n![Graph](image://9f7903bf-6f5b-4115-8308-72e791337116 \" \")\n\nOther birds, such as New Caledonian crows, which perform so well in logical intelligence, have failed to pass the mirror test. The same is true in African gray parrots, which perform well in linguistic intelligence. Self-awareness must evolve separately from these other cognitive abilities.","32572af9-1f80-4f2b-9cda-4c7309bab448",[1749,1756],{"id":1750,"data":1751,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"ee78bbc3-026a-41cb-a57d-8db735358eb0",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1752,"activeRecallAnswers":1754},[1753],"Due to the early successes of mammals in the mirror test, what did scientists initially wonder?",[1755],"Whether consciousness was linked to the neocortex, which can only be found in mammals",{"id":1757,"data":1758,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"1b46a4d1-1104-4fbd-97df-0893ec660b47",{"type":63,"reviewType":114,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1759,"clozeWords":1761},[1760],"In 2008, a group of magpies passed the mirror test, blowing the theory that consciousness was exclusive to mammals.",[1762],"magpies",{"id":1764,"data":1765,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1768},"61605b4e-e098-444f-af19-48254aa0b61e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1766,"audioMediaId":1767},"The biggest surprise in the history of mirror testing happened in 2019. A groundbreaking study found that **bluestreak cleaner wrasse** – a tiny species of tropical fish – were able to pass the test.\n\nIt was such a shock that Gordon Gallup, the inventor of the test, denied the findings. He did not believe that an animal as cognitively simple as a fish could possibly pass the test. But in 2022, a follow-up study generated the same results.\n\n![Graph](image://ad85130b-21d2-411c-9db9-785b01c0d25c \"Bluestreak cleaner wrasse. Image: Diego Delso, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nUltimately, self-awareness has evolutionary benefits. It helps an animal to understand its role in a social group, to know the shape and size of its body, and to recognize its strengths and weaknesses. It is little wonder that such a useful skill would evolve in so many species.","6d9b3292-c52e-416e-8c30-2fe1878208cd",[1769,1780],{"id":1770,"data":1771,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"d2c0db26-5ce1-4f72-be34-d1cfd5f5d7c0",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1772,"multiChoiceCorrect":1774,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1776,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1773],"In 2019, what species of fish controversially passed the mirror test?",[1775],"Bluestreak cleaner wrasse",[1777,1778,1779],"Greenstreak cleaner wrasse","Redstreak cleaner wrasse","Yellowstreak cleaner wrasse",{"id":1781,"data":1782,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"9c454515-1baf-46de-84a8-5df5dfd8ac4e",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1783,"multiChoiceCorrect":1785,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1787,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1784],"From an evolutionary perspective, self-awareness helps a species to:",[1786],"All of these",[1788,1789,1790],"Understand its role in a social group","Know the shape and size of its body","Recognize its strengths and weaknesses",{"id":1792,"data":1793,"type":25,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1795,"introPage":1802,"pages":1808},"193b7c31-d953-4820-bd2a-334e6f544ccc",{"type":25,"title":1794},"What is it like to be a bat?",{"id":1796,"data":1797,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"415400b3-b0c2-4af1-a54a-f4477203fb4c",{"type":33,"summary":1798},[1799,1800,1801],"Philosopher Thomas Nagel argued we cannot ever truly know whether another species is conscious","The UK legally recognized animal sentience in 2022 with the Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act","With increasing evidence of animal intelligence, it raises questions about the way human beings should treat them",{"id":1803,"data":1804,"type":49,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"59f93101-99dd-4b0f-a92b-25bdfa6ad443",{"type":49,"intro":1805},[1806,1807],"Which philosopher once asked: what is it like to be a bat?","Should our changing understanding of animal intelligence also change the way we treat them?",[1809,1831,1858],{"id":1810,"data":1811,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1814},"965e4081-6887-452b-9ee2-7d89969977b9",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1812,"audioMediaId":1813},"The mirror test is the most established method for testing self-awareness, but it is sometimes criticized.\n\nThe test does not cater for species with poor visual skills, such as dogs. These animals can barely see a mirror, let alone the reflection of a mark on their body. A **sniff test of self-recognition** (STSR) has been explored for dogs, but for now, the species is officially listed as ‘not self-aware’.\n\n![Graph](image://3d708a8f-cdfc-4aff-a48a-a6179e04e507 \" \")\n\nAnother concern is whether or not the animals feel motivated to touch the mark. When two elephants failed the test, in 2006, researchers wondered whether they actually liked the look of the mark, and decided to leave it where it was.\n\nAs well as this, some people argue that self-recognition is not the same as self-awareness. These species may know what their bodies look like, but are they truly conscious?","2ef4b754-7f9e-4fad-a569-36c2e039e1bd",[1815,1822],{"id":1816,"data":1817,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"8b95c8fd-82d2-4dbe-b8ec-040511699d2e",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1818,"activeRecallAnswers":1820},[1819],"Why might the mirror test not be a fair way to test the self-awareness of a mole?",[1821],"Moles have bad eyesight, so would not see themselves in the mirror",{"id":1823,"data":1824,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"8d4268ed-bd11-4260-95fd-1f63a9da8055",{"type":63,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1825,"binaryCorrect":1827,"binaryIncorrect":1829},[1826],"What has been explored for dogs as an alternative to the mirror test?",[1828],"A sniff test of self-recognition (STSR)",[1830],"A sound test of self-recognition (STSR)",{"id":1832,"data":1833,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1836},"4b68f9c9-fc7b-4ed7-95da-59b8477bc437",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1834,"audioMediaId":1835},"If the mirror test is rejected, it leaves researchers in a difficult position. We might never be able to empirically test whether animals are truly conscious.\n\nIn 1974, philosopher **Thomas Nagel** published a famous paper titled *What is it like to be a bat?* in which he argued that we will never know whether other species are conscious. Their mental experiences are so remote from our own that we cannot ever hope to comprehend them.\n\n![Graph](image://3920b538-39f9-42d5-87ad-84ac8c76dd4b \"What is it like? Image: Public domain\")\n\nNagel's argument has been widely discussed in the fifty years since its publication. While certain scientists agree with him, many believe that we will understand animal consciousness eventually. If we devote enough time to animal brains, surely an answer will be found.","41797a0e-6746-4838-938b-f5e148590560",[1837,1848],{"id":310,"data":1838,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1839,"multiChoiceQuestion":1840,"multiChoiceCorrect":1842,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1843,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1844,"matchPairsPairs":1845},[305,308,309],[1841],"What did Thomas Nagel believe about animal intelligence?",[318],[314,316,317],[177],[1846],{"left":1847,"right":318,"direction":33},"Nagel",{"id":1849,"data":1850,"type":63,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},"a66afc65-b777-46df-9aaf-9008da8ee8a7",{"type":63,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1851,"multiChoiceCorrect":1853,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1854},[1852],"What was the name of Thomas Nagel's famous paper on animal consciousness?",[1794],[1855,1856,1857],"What is it like to be a cat?","What is it like to be a rat?","What is it like to be a sprat?",{"id":1859,"data":1860,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1863},"c166b4b3-1fc1-43c9-82f4-66d893ef63a8",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1861,"audioMediaId":1862},"Whether animals are self-aware or not, one thing is certain: from logic and emotions, to space and memory, non-human minds have evolved in astonishing ways.\n\nAs people better understand this, it has real-world implications. In 2022, the United Kingdom passed the Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act, which legally recognized animal sentience, and promoted ethical treatment of other species.\n\nBut at the same time, forests are cut down around the world, despite evidence to suggest that primates are capable of grief. Some countries still hunt whales, even though they can speak and feel, while a company in Spain is currently building the world’s first octopus factory farm.\n\nAs a species, maybe we should stop and ask ourselves: if animals are intelligent beings, should that change the way we treat them?\n\n![Graph](image://4ca320c8-c2d5-4859-aba8-98436dac1acf \" \")","4569a953-8175-4181-89f3-030b4143addc",[1864],{"id":1865,"data":1866,"type":63,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"5a9b1f2f-1696-4310-bbd4-9be2aac726f2",{"type":63,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1867,"activeRecallAnswers":1869},[1868],"In 2022, which UK law legally recognized animal sentience?",[1870],"Animal Welfare (Sentience) Act",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1872,"height":1872,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1873},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1872,"height":1872,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1875},"\u003Cg fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\">\u003Cpath d=\"M12.586 2.586A2 2 0 0 0 11.172 2H4a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v7.172a2 2 0 0 0 .586 1.414l8.704 8.704a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 3.42 0l6.58-6.58a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 0-3.42z\"/>\u003Ccircle cx=\"7.5\" cy=\"7.5\" r=\".5\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",1778179170434]