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unable to form new memories","The hippocampus, named after the Latin word for seahorse, is crucial for creating new memories","Explicit memories, like events and facts, are first stored in the hippocampus as short-term memories","Short-term memories in the hippocampus can become long-term memories stored in the neocortex",1,{"id":37,"data":38,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"7233d83d-7120-4f75-a235-38d9eb99e518",{"type":39,"intro":40},10,[41,42],"What part of the brain is crucial for forming new memories?","What are two factors that influence the transition of information from short-term to long-term memory?",[44,77,90],{"id":45,"data":46,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":49},"8e25641d-61d7-4164-a98a-227cde75516e",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":47,"audioMediaId":48},"One fall morning in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1953, a 27-year-old man named Henry Molaison sat down for a medical procedure. Doctors were trying to cure him of severe epilepsy. They theorized that the source of his condition lay in the area of his brain known as the hippocampus. Their solution? Hammer a spike into his brain and cut the whole hippocampus out, along with his amygdala.\n\nThe procedure – a temporal lobotomy – was, in one sense, successful. Molaison’s epilepsy was cured. But this story is more famous for the side effect that came as a result. Henry Molaison was left unable to form any new memories ever again. Every day he woke up, the last thing he could remember was the day before his lobotomy – September 1st, 1953.\n\n![Graph](image://c6013e0c-a6bf-4dc7-bc66-c99a5163a837 \"Henry Molaison. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThis was true for the rest of his life – right up to his death in 2008. Molaison’s famous case proved what some scientists had already hypothesized – that new memories are created in the hippocampus, and that they stay there for a while before being encoded as long-term memories in the cerebral cortex.","d0113370-4c44-4f4c-be43-c6a7add4415b",[50,58],{"id":51,"data":52,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"0af13315-46b4-4532-8fb6-99b43c964b61",{"type":53,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":35,"clozeQuestion":54,"clozeWords":56},11,[55],"Henry Molaison is famous for having his hippocampus removed",[57],"hippocampus",{"id":59,"data":60,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"c070fb9d-bbbc-4d53-b222-7f729455f5ee",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":61,"multiChoiceQuestion":64,"multiChoiceCorrect":66,"multiChoiceIncorrect":68,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":72,"matchPairsPairs":74},[62,63],"7925d43e-bde3-4c3c-afa7-897b2ac8dcd6","057d8ba4-c72d-42e5-9839-4d1bfd1a01cf",[65],"Which of the following best describes a temporal lobotomy?",[67],"Surgical operation involving incision into the brain",[69,70,71],"Memory of experiences","Memory of facts","A program for reviewing material over a long period of time",[73],"Match the pairs below:",[75],{"left":76,"right":67,"direction":19},"Temporal lobotomy",{"id":78,"data":79,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":82},"77dc797d-9097-4e06-9c35-a3157260884f",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":80,"audioMediaId":81},"The crucial part of the brain to forming new memories – the part that the unfortunate Henry Molaison lost – is the hippocampus. The word comes from Latin: ‘hippocampus’ is the Latin word for ‘seahorse,’ and this part of the brain got its name because it looks like one. This little seahorse, buried deep in the very center of your brain, decides which bits of brain activity – or neural pathways – get stored as memories.\n\n![Graph](image://193b4e62-f825-4033-90f7-bb43546f2910 \"The hippocampus (on the left). Image: Professor Laszlo Seress, CC BY-SA 1.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/1.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nMore specifically, these are ‘explicit memories.’ Explicit memories cover both conscious memories of events, known as episodic memories, and of facts and abstract concepts, known as semantic memories. The difference between episodic and semantic memories will be important, so remember: episodic memory is remembering events (think ‘episodes’), and semantic memory is knowing facts.\n\nBoth of these kinds of memory are initially stored as short-term memories in the hippocampus. Over time, some of those short-term memories will be converted into long-term memories that are stored in the neocortex, in the outer layer of the brain.","e13062da-a7e4-4a00-bb56-ebd6453334af",[83],{"id":84,"data":85,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":19},"6f4c1a4e-8d1e-4a1a-87d5-d97d1c64a8e2",{"type":53,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":35,"activeRecallQuestion":86,"activeRecallAnswers":88},[87],"The hippocampus is a seahorse shaped structure responsible for what?",[89],"Explicit memories",{"id":91,"data":92,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":95},"ec1eb5cd-d94b-41d2-9d84-bbe7d859bdb0",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":93,"audioMediaId":94},"We’ve thrown around a few big words, but don’t worry – the important thing for our purposes is that **newly learned information doesn’t go straight into your long-term memory**.\n\nInstead it sits in the hippocampus for a while, before some of it is converted into long-term memories, which are stored in the neocortex, and are altogether different than short-term ones. An imperfect analogy that might be helpful is between the brain and a computer – the hippocampus is a little like your RAM temporarily storing an input, and your neocortex is the hard drive, which will permanently save some of that information if needed.\n\n![Graph](image://179fc732-4d96-45ea-a526-4389a69d2d51 \"The neocortex makes up the outer layer of the brain. Image: Visanji, Naomi P., Patricia L. Brooks, Lili-Naz Hazrati, and Anthony E. Lang., CC BY 2.5 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nPlease bear in mind, this is a rough analogy! There are many other ways in which our memory does not work like a computer.\n\n\\\nAnyway, what we’ve been discussing begs the question: what leads some information to make it into long-term memory, while most never does? In truth, a lot remains unknown about this, but there are two factors that we can say with some confidence are influential on this process. These are repetition and reward – the topics of our next orb.","723ca6d0-a5f5-49b2-8099-229f898cca34",[96],{"id":97,"data":98,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":19},"1a33e80c-a923-469d-9fd5-bc9ee22a8333",{"type":53,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":35,"clozeQuestion":99,"clozeWords":101},[100],"The hippocampus converts short-term memories into long-term ones",[57],{"id":103,"data":104,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":106,"introPage":114,"pages":120},"e90dc01b-a9eb-4629-9dd7-a05771d4bdee",{"type":25,"title":105},"The Role of Repetition",{"id":107,"data":108,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"3dd0c333-3e51-40fc-87d9-0378229f2bca",{"type":19,"summary":109},[110,111,112,113],"Repetition moves memories from short-term to long-term storage","The hippocampus turns episodic memories into semantic ones","Spaced repetition helps activate the same neural pathways","Sleep boosts the hippocampus's ability to encode long-term memories",{"id":115,"data":116,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"bdae04d8-136b-4658-8d33-d88623884fb3",{"type":39,"intro":117},[118,119],"How does the hippocampus turn short-term memories into long-term ones?","What's the secret behind spaced repetition for learning?",[121,135],{"id":122,"data":123,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":126},"ef593216-7279-4ea9-9361-a6faeb607e27",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":124,"audioMediaId":125},"![Graph](image://ed731afb-3a94-4714-b515-de1694313160 \"We know the Earth is round as a semantic fact. Image: DonkeyHotey, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nLet’s look at what makes the difference between a memory that hovers in the short-term memory, then disappears, and one that is encoded into long-term memory.\n\nThe first factor that influences whether a memory is transmitted from short-term to long-term memory is repetition. The hippocampus stores short-term memories as episodic memory. This is true even for facts – if you learned something this morning, and try to remember it in the afternoon, the chances are that you will be remembering the moment you learned it, rather than remembering the fact itself.\n\nThe hippocampus distills long-term semantic memories from episodic ones, when it recognizes the same neural pathways being repeatedly activated. This is because of the difference between episodic and semantic memory – memory of events and memory of facts.","48d4f5d5-90de-4275-9680-b83594649007",[127],{"id":128,"data":129,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"afd3bc3a-87af-4608-b61b-cc24913d954c",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":130,"binaryCorrect":132,"binaryIncorrect":134},[131],"Episodic memory is defined as ...",[133],"Memory of events",[70],{"id":136,"data":137,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":140},"5b85a120-4286-4796-8a59-a251de2a5e44",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":138,"audioMediaId":139},"If you remember from an earlier orb, episodic memory is the memory of events, whereas semantic memory is the memory of facts. While you initially remember everything episodically, in the long term, it’s the semantic memory that sticks. You know that the Earth is a sphere, but can you remember the elementary school lesson where you were taught it?\n\nIt’s possible – but for most of us, we just have this stored as a semantic fact. The way this episodic recollection gets translated into semantic knowledge is through the hippocampus recognizing the same pathways being repeatedly activated.\n\nThis fact has several implications for how best to learn new information. Learning needs to be an exercise in repeating the right neural pathways – basically by absorbing the information on several occasions, at spaced intervals. This technique is called ‘spaced repetition.’\n\nIn practice, this might mean taking a lesson in the day, and checking your notes that evening. Then, taking another look at your notes, and maybe some similar lectures on YouTube, two days later. Finally you’d want to revisit the information a week later. Alternatively, you might want to use a spaced repetition app like Kinnu. But if you’re here, you already know that!\n\n![Graph](image://cb58da9e-7291-48cb-ba09-73181e89e976 \"Exam revision is a common form of spaced repetition. Tulane Public Relations, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nOver time, the hippocampus will recognize the familiar pathway, and will cease to view it as a one-off episode, and start to encode it into the neocortex. A wealth of recent research has suggested that this encoding happens much more during sleep. This is because the hippocampus encodes stuff for long-term storage much more effectively if it doesn't have to identify new pathways from lots of new brain processes at the same time.","d51cdc0f-2828-415c-bb1a-1901dc93d4be",[141,150,161],{"id":142,"data":143,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":19},"d01ea372-2944-45cf-bc18-d2130a81aa48",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":144,"binaryCorrect":146,"binaryIncorrect":148},[145],"\"My teacher said the earth is a sphere\" is an example of what kind of memory?",[147],"Episodic",[149],"Semantic",{"id":62,"data":151,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":152,"multiChoiceQuestion":153,"multiChoiceCorrect":155,"multiChoiceIncorrect":156,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":157,"matchPairsPairs":158},[59,63],[154],"Which of the following best describes episodic memory?",[69],[67,70,71],[73],[159],{"left":160,"right":69,"direction":19},"Episodic memory",{"id":63,"data":162,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":163,"multiChoiceQuestion":164,"multiChoiceCorrect":166,"multiChoiceIncorrect":167,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":168,"matchPairsPairs":169},[59,62],[165],"Which of the following best describes semantic memory?",[70],[67,69,71],[73],[170],{"left":171,"right":70,"direction":19},"Semantic memory",{"id":173,"data":174,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":176,"introPage":184,"pages":190},"b47f50f2-57e4-449f-85fa-50060ce5fee9",{"type":25,"title":175},"The Stick",{"id":177,"data":178,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"2cb0796e-cdc7-489c-9398-6167d4e38d90",{"type":19,"summary":179},[180,181,182,183],"The amygdala triggers stress hormones to help the hippocampus encode memories faster","Emotional experiences make memories stick in your brain","Patches O’Houlihan’s wrench-throwing shows how fear speeds up learning","Using small stressors, like denying treats, can boost learning without wrenches",{"id":185,"data":186,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"b1060611-fe9f-495c-be17-c9505d483faa",{"type":39,"intro":187},[188,189],"How does the amygdala speed up memory encoding in the hippocampus?","Why do intense experiences make memories stick better?",[191,204,226,231],{"id":192,"data":193,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":196},"48d25b29-89c4-41ac-b49f-7589aa17bb08",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":194,"audioMediaId":195},"Repetition encourages our brain to encode information into our long-term memory. But the ability to memorize new information isn’t the only aspect of learning. Another huge part of learning is motivation.\n\nMotivation is the reason you want to learn something in the first place, and the factor that will make you stick at learning it enough to make those essential repetitions. Understanding the neuroscience behind motivation is highly important to understanding how to learn successfully.\n\nThe key area of the brain that deals with motivation is called the reward system. This system is made up of several parts, but, for our purposes, we will be considering the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala.\n\n![Graph](image://03879df7-33bf-4287-a153-991061de74f7 \"The prefrontal cortex, highlighted in yellow. Image: Henry Vandyke Carter, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThese two parts of the reward system can encourage the hippocampus to encode information using two motivation tactics that we all understand – the carrot (the prefrontal cortex), and the stick (the amygdala).","d1f74935-f325-4184-b3e3-288a69e0ceb7",[197],{"id":198,"data":199,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":19},"530fa7f6-170b-4510-8824-804e9638b756",{"type":53,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":35,"activeRecallQuestion":200,"activeRecallAnswers":202},[201],"The amygdala is a part of what system in the brain, which is involved in motivation?",[203],"The reward system",{"id":205,"data":206,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":209},"5ca8c5a6-ad87-4a56-8bf9-a4944c6e35d2",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":207,"audioMediaId":208},"The amygdala is a tiny acorn-like bulb, sitting right next to the seahorse-shaped hippocampus. This acorn has been behind every feeling of stress, fear and anxiety you’ve ever felt. The amygdala processes intense emotional stimuli.\n\nMemories that have been associated with emotional stimuli in the amygdala will be encoded more quickly into the long term by the hippocampus. This is because the amygdala triggers the release of stress hormones – raising your heart rate and making you sweat – for neural pathways that it recognizes as potentially dangerous.\n\n![Graph](image://50ca0221-58a4-4616-b0fb-4202b8f33d78 \"The amygdala. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThis has an obvious function – your brain wants to remember the stuff that was most harmful in the past, encoding it to long-term memory so that it knows how to avoid harm in the future. Your hippocampus will encode memories more quickly when they are accompanied by this stress response from your amygdala. Pathways that have been accompanied by this heightened activity from stress hormones will be fast-streamed into the neocortex.","b50da064-d902-4f64-8bfe-7e9eae5fb3e1",[210,217],{"id":211,"data":212,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"d8ba565b-584c-4ff7-90fe-dc88480c1b5c",{"type":53,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":35,"clozeQuestion":213,"clozeWords":215},[214],"The amygdala processes intense emotional stimuli, and triggers the release of stress hormones.",[216],"intense emotional",{"id":218,"data":219,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"7f1f80cc-1871-412e-9ec1-eda2b4aea22e",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":220,"binaryCorrect":222,"binaryIncorrect":224},[221],"The amygdala speeds up the encoding of memories by identifying what?",[223],"Stressful experiences",[225],"Complex information",{"id":227,"data":228,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25},"bc55ae05-5d6a-40b5-94eb-23fe0733715b",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":229,"audioMediaId":230},"To think about how the amygdala helps encode memory, let’s look at a character in the classic comedy *Dodgeball* called Patches O’Houlihan. Patches is a dodgeball coach whose training technique involves carrying a big sack of monkey wrenches with him at all times. At random intervals, when a team member isn’t expecting it, he throws one at their head.\n\nIn the coach’s words, “if you can dodge a wrench, you can dodge a ball.” The aim is to give them such intense fear of being hit by his wrench that their reactions to dodging flying objects – including, of course, balls – become lightning-fast.","5611952d-452a-41f1-b7a6-b2100e658cce",{"id":232,"data":233,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":236},"a9f11787-b84c-4d06-854c-7e37663ecaee",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":234,"audioMediaId":235},"The case of Patches O’Houlihan more or less illustrates the role of the amygdala in speeding up the hippocampus’s encoding of memories. The amygdala has identified an extremely painful experience, and the hippocampus has fast-streamed the knowledge – ‘flying objects will really hurt you’ – straight to the neocortex as a result.\n\nAll it takes is a powerful emotional association with an event and the hippocampus will ensure you don’t forget it in a hurry. “If you can dodge a wrench, you can dodge a ball.”\n\nOf course, in reality we can create less extreme emotional responses than a fear of flying wrenches. When learning we can deny ourselves a treat or a break until we get something right – this might have a similar, but altogether healthier, effect.","c4c53692-939f-4063-a78a-152a7b2298c5",[237,248,267],{"id":238,"data":239,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"3d287abd-1270-41b2-8b76-dc9b866a14b8",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":240,"multiChoiceCorrect":242,"multiChoiceIncorrect":244,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[241],"Which of these is a true statement about the amygdala?",[243],"It triggers a stress response",[245,246,247],"It calms us down","It encodes information into the long-term memory","It stores short-term memories",{"id":249,"data":250,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"a54b772a-512b-49ef-94c9-43f3b1a638cf",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":251,"multiChoiceQuestion":255,"multiChoiceCorrect":257,"multiChoiceIncorrect":259,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":263,"matchPairsPairs":264},[252,253,254],"f37ba248-8211-4204-86d7-93cd9a22c81f","f2227258-672b-4927-8f48-3780410d0c7f","f32df9d9-fc1e-43d1-96d4-9dd5a6fc82cd",[256],"Which part of the brain processes intense emotional stimuli and triggers the release of stress hormones?",[258],"Amygdala",[260,261,262],"Hippocampus","Prefrontal cortex","Dopamine",[73],[265],{"left":258,"right":266,"direction":19},"Processes intense emotional stimuli, triggers release of stress hormones",{"id":252,"data":268,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":269,"multiChoiceQuestion":270,"multiChoiceCorrect":272,"multiChoiceIncorrect":273,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":274,"matchPairsPairs":275},[249,253,254],[271],"Which part of the brain is responsible for selecting short-term memories and encoding them into long-term memories?",[260],[258,261,262],[73],[276],{"left":260,"right":277,"direction":19},"Selects short-term memories and encodes them in the long-term",{"id":279,"data":280,"type":25,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":282,"introPage":290,"pages":296},"9c2c8ce5-f0da-4f62-8c5b-e66b67edccfe",{"type":25,"title":281},"The Carrot",{"id":283,"data":284,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"205e59dc-ad4f-423b-96ab-4cbb65b4d498",{"type":19,"summary":285},[286,287,288,289],"The amygdala speeds up learning with stress hormones","The prefrontal cortex uses dopamine to reward goal-aligned actions","Dopamine is about pleasure and helps encode memories","Hitting goals releases dopamine, making memories stick",{"id":291,"data":292,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"c276db2a-2431-41cd-b66d-ce4ff856a195",{"type":39,"intro":293},[294,295],"How does the prefrontal cortex use dopamine to influence memory encoding?","What happens in your brain when your goals align with your learning activities?",[297,311,326,343,348],{"id":298,"data":299,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":302},"1b216627-2f99-4733-9f65-64854d62cd0c",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":300,"audioMediaId":301},"So, one aspect of your brain’s motivation to learn is ‘the stick’ – the amygdala speeding the process up through the release of stress hormones. This means that you will find yourself learning information that’s associated with a powerful emotional response much more quickly. The second way that the reward system influences your brain’s motivation is through the carrot – the prefrontal cortex and dopamine pathways.\n\n![Graph](image://3867227b-7202-4b8d-8e0f-a5d0a070c4c5 \"A diagram illustrating the flow of hormones from the prefrontal cortex (PFC) to other parts of the brain. GeorgeVKach, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe prefrontal cortex is the part of your brain that deals with high-level goals and delayed gratification. It’s best thought of as the responsible, grown-up part of your brain. While other parts of the brain might be saying ‘maybe I do need to watch “Top Ten Unexpected Deaths in Game of Thrones”,’ the prefrontal cortex is the part that says, ‘you’ve already spent the past 45 minutes on YouTube!’","52944715-94b9-4fb8-a3bb-f6607ac820de",[303],{"id":304,"data":305,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"24b4ec5b-520b-4b06-a24c-c1ae264b5fd9",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":306,"multiChoiceCorrect":308,"multiChoiceIncorrect":309,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[307],"What part of the brain encourages you to pursue long-term goals?",[261],[310,258,260],"Neocortex",{"id":312,"data":313,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":316},"b8d67401-a7cf-42f5-a6b4-df13926d876c",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":314,"audioMediaId":315},"The prefrontal cortex works by storing long-term goals. Some of these are learned – ‘I want to buy a house one day’, others are instinctive – ‘I want my children to be safe.’ In either case, the prefrontal cortex uses these goals to influence the memory encoding process we discussed earlier. It does this through the brain’s dopamine pathways.\n\nYou may know dopamine as the ‘happy hormone.’ This is broadly accurate. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter – a chemical that sends messages from one part of the brain to the other. In the case of dopamine, this is a reward message – the brain will use dopamine to communicate the message ‘this is good, we need to keep doing this!’","c59fc2ef-661d-40f6-b28a-e0b83a3bd1db",[317],{"id":318,"data":319,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"5f8cad49-55ef-4b64-9b47-8ae13e6b7ce6",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":320,"binaryCorrect":322,"binaryIncorrect":324},[321],"Dopamine is used by the brain to ...",[323],"Send reward messages",[325],"Trigger stress responses",{"id":327,"data":328,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":331},"27cda61a-aa64-419c-88d7-9c649a137e6a",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":329,"audioMediaId":330},"Dopamine is slightly more complicated than being simply the happiness chemical. There’s another neurotransmitter, serotonin, that’s at play in happiness. The difference between the two is that dopamine is about pleasure, and especially the anticipation of pleasure, whereas serotonin is about contentment.\n\nDopamine is this feeling: ‘Yippee! My pizza has arrived!’. Serotonin is this feeling: ‘I’m feeling really on top of things and happy with my life at the moment.’\n\nFor the micro-rewards that are needed to help us remember stuff, it’s dopamine that’s going to be the most helpful.","4abc391c-e47d-41cc-adb1-560f7d601a79",[332],{"id":333,"data":334,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"546e7b23-255b-4de9-aa9f-936c82c8ddff",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":335,"multiChoiceCorrect":337,"multiChoiceIncorrect":339,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[336],"Which of these would be a feeling associated with serotonin?",[338],"Satisfaction with life",[340,341,342],"Anticipation of pleasure","Stress from work","Nervousness before a speech",{"id":344,"data":345,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25},"4c6c6b18-3f64-4f88-a621-67bafdbfcde8",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":346,"audioMediaId":347},"The prefrontal cortex sends a reward message through the dopamine pathway when it recognizes activity in the hippocampus that aligns with its long-term goals.\n\nEssentially, it spots neural pathways that will help contribute to the long-term goals that it values. It will then send a little hit of dopamine to the hippocampus, that will both encourage it to encode that pathway as a memory and trigger a feeling of pleasure.","5a7a9342-f0f5-4336-a887-dfb49e4ae007",{"id":349,"data":350,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":353},"eab2e7b0-f80d-4260-96e8-6690d647f7b9",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":351,"audioMediaId":352},"Let’s say your goal is to become a basketball player. You have an image in your head of yourself hitting the winning free throw in the NBA play-offs. You practice for hours and hours to hit free throws consistently.\n\n![Graph](image://0385f606-8489-47de-b885-196c0309bcec \"The prefrontal cortex helps top achievers learn towards their long-term goals. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nEvery time you hit that free throw, the image in your hippocampus matches up to that stored image on your prefrontal cortex. A little dopamine is released and the memory of how you threw the ball that time is recognized as more valuable by your hippocampus, which will encode it for long-term storage.","84a172a1-56fe-4d37-9a3e-4a3831d33d0e",[354,360,371],{"id":355,"data":356,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"fab2375d-7404-499e-8f03-51ce6e404ad8",{"type":53,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":35,"activeRecallQuestion":357,"activeRecallAnswers":359},[358],"The prefrontal cortex helps the hippocampus encode memories by releasing what hormone?",[262],{"id":253,"data":361,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":362,"multiChoiceQuestion":363,"multiChoiceCorrect":365,"multiChoiceIncorrect":366,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":367,"matchPairsPairs":368},[249,252,254],[364],"Which part of the brain is responsible for dealing with high-level goals and delayed gratification?",[261],[258,260,262],[73],[369],{"left":261,"right":370,"direction":19},"Deals with high-level goals and delayed gratification",{"id":254,"data":372,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":373,"multiChoiceQuestion":374,"multiChoiceCorrect":376,"multiChoiceIncorrect":377,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":378,"matchPairsPairs":379},[249,252,253],[375],"Which chemical is associated with anticipated rewards?",[262],[258,260,261],[73],[380],{"left":262,"right":381,"direction":19},"Chemical associated with anticpated rewards",[383,500,572,687],{"id":23,"data":24,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":27,"introPage":36,"pages":384},[385,422,452],{"id":45,"data":46,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":49,"parsed":386},{"data":387,"body":390,"toc":420},{"title":388,"description":389},"","One fall morning in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1953, a 27-year-old man named Henry Molaison sat down for a medical procedure. Doctors were trying to cure him of severe epilepsy. They theorized that the source of his condition lay in the area of his brain known as the hippocampus. Their solution? Hammer a spike into his brain and cut the whole hippocampus out, along with his amygdala.",{"type":391,"children":392},"root",[393,400,405,415],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":396,"children":397},"element","p",{},[398],{"type":399,"value":389},"text",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":401,"children":402},{},[403],{"type":399,"value":404},"The procedure – a temporal lobotomy – was, in one sense, successful. Molaison’s epilepsy was cured. But this story is more famous for the side effect that came as a result. Henry Molaison was left unable to form any new memories ever again. Every day he woke up, the last thing he could remember was the day before his lobotomy – September 1st, 1953.",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":406,"children":407},{},[408],{"type":394,"tag":409,"props":410,"children":414},"img",{"alt":411,"src":412,"title":413},"Graph","image://c6013e0c-a6bf-4dc7-bc66-c99a5163a837","Henry Molaison. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia",[],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":416,"children":417},{},[418],{"type":399,"value":419},"This was true for the rest of his life – right up to his death in 2008. Molaison’s famous case proved what some scientists had already hypothesized – that new memories are created in the hippocampus, and that they stay there for a while before being encoded as long-term memories in the cerebral cortex.",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":421},[],{"id":78,"data":79,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":82,"parsed":423},{"data":424,"body":426,"toc":450},{"title":388,"description":425},"The crucial part of the brain to forming new memories – the part that the unfortunate Henry Molaison lost – is the hippocampus. The word comes from Latin: ‘hippocampus’ is the Latin word for ‘seahorse,’ and this part of the brain got its name because it looks like one. This little seahorse, buried deep in the very center of your brain, decides which bits of brain activity – or neural pathways – get stored as memories.",{"type":391,"children":427},[428,432,440,445],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":429,"children":430},{},[431],{"type":399,"value":425},{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":433,"children":434},{},[435],{"type":394,"tag":409,"props":436,"children":439},{"alt":411,"src":437,"title":438},"image://193b4e62-f825-4033-90f7-bb43546f2910","The hippocampus (on the left). Image: Professor Laszlo Seress, CC BY-SA 1.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/1.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":441,"children":442},{},[443],{"type":399,"value":444},"More specifically, these are ‘explicit memories.’ Explicit memories cover both conscious memories of events, known as episodic memories, and of facts and abstract concepts, known as semantic memories. The difference between episodic and semantic memories will be important, so remember: episodic memory is remembering events (think ‘episodes’), and semantic memory is knowing facts.",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":446,"children":447},{},[448],{"type":399,"value":449},"Both of these kinds of memory are initially stored as short-term memories in the hippocampus. Over time, some of those short-term memories will be converted into long-term memories that are stored in the neocortex, in the outer layer of the brain.",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":451},[],{"id":91,"data":92,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":95,"parsed":453},{"data":454,"body":456,"toc":498},{"title":388,"description":455},"We’ve thrown around a few big words, but don’t worry – the important thing for our purposes is that newly learned information doesn’t go straight into your long-term memory.",{"type":391,"children":457},[458,471,476,484,489],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":459,"children":460},{},[461,463,469],{"type":399,"value":462},"We’ve thrown around a few big words, but don’t worry – the important thing for our purposes is that ",{"type":394,"tag":464,"props":465,"children":466},"strong",{},[467],{"type":399,"value":468},"newly learned information doesn’t go straight into your long-term memory",{"type":399,"value":470},".",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":472,"children":473},{},[474],{"type":399,"value":475},"Instead it sits in the hippocampus for a while, before some of it is converted into long-term memories, which are stored in the neocortex, and are altogether different than short-term ones. An imperfect analogy that might be helpful is between the brain and a computer – the hippocampus is a little like your RAM temporarily storing an input, and your neocortex is the hard drive, which will permanently save some of that information if needed.",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":477,"children":478},{},[479],{"type":394,"tag":409,"props":480,"children":483},{"alt":411,"src":481,"title":482},"image://179fc732-4d96-45ea-a526-4389a69d2d51","The neocortex makes up the outer layer of the brain. Image: Visanji, Naomi P., Patricia L. Brooks, Lili-Naz Hazrati, and Anthony E. Lang., CC BY 2.5 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":485,"children":486},{},[487],{"type":399,"value":488},"Please bear in mind, this is a rough analogy! There are many other ways in which our memory does not work like a computer.",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":490,"children":491},{},[492,496],{"type":394,"tag":493,"props":494,"children":495},"br",{},[],{"type":399,"value":497},"\nAnyway, what we’ve been discussing begs the question: what leads some information to make it into long-term memory, while most never does? In truth, a lot remains unknown about this, but there are two factors that we can say with some confidence are influential on this process. These are repetition and reward – the topics of our next orb.",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":499},[],{"id":103,"data":104,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":106,"introPage":114,"pages":501},[502,532],{"id":122,"data":123,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":126,"parsed":503},{"data":504,"body":505,"toc":530},{"title":388,"description":388},{"type":391,"children":506},[507,515,520,525],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":508,"children":509},{},[510],{"type":394,"tag":409,"props":511,"children":514},{"alt":411,"src":512,"title":513},"image://ed731afb-3a94-4714-b515-de1694313160","We know the Earth is round as a semantic fact. Image: DonkeyHotey, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":516,"children":517},{},[518],{"type":399,"value":519},"Let’s look at what makes the difference between a memory that hovers in the short-term memory, then disappears, and one that is encoded into long-term memory.",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":521,"children":522},{},[523],{"type":399,"value":524},"The first factor that influences whether a memory is transmitted from short-term to long-term memory is repetition. The hippocampus stores short-term memories as episodic memory. This is true even for facts – if you learned something this morning, and try to remember it in the afternoon, the chances are that you will be remembering the moment you learned it, rather than remembering the fact itself.",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":526,"children":527},{},[528],{"type":399,"value":529},"The hippocampus distills long-term semantic memories from episodic ones, when it recognizes the same neural pathways being repeatedly activated. This is because of the difference between episodic and semantic memory – memory of events and memory of facts.",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":531},[],{"id":136,"data":137,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":140,"parsed":533},{"data":534,"body":536,"toc":570},{"title":388,"description":535},"If you remember from an earlier orb, episodic memory is the memory of events, whereas semantic memory is the memory of facts. While you initially remember everything episodically, in the long term, it’s the semantic memory that sticks. You know that the Earth is a sphere, but can you remember the elementary school lesson where you were taught it?",{"type":391,"children":537},[538,542,547,552,557,565],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":539,"children":540},{},[541],{"type":399,"value":535},{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":543,"children":544},{},[545],{"type":399,"value":546},"It’s possible – but for most of us, we just have this stored as a semantic fact. The way this episodic recollection gets translated into semantic knowledge is through the hippocampus recognizing the same pathways being repeatedly activated.",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":548,"children":549},{},[550],{"type":399,"value":551},"This fact has several implications for how best to learn new information. Learning needs to be an exercise in repeating the right neural pathways – basically by absorbing the information on several occasions, at spaced intervals. This technique is called ‘spaced repetition.’",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":553,"children":554},{},[555],{"type":399,"value":556},"In practice, this might mean taking a lesson in the day, and checking your notes that evening. Then, taking another look at your notes, and maybe some similar lectures on YouTube, two days later. Finally you’d want to revisit the information a week later. Alternatively, you might want to use a spaced repetition app like Kinnu. But if you’re here, you already know that!",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":558,"children":559},{},[560],{"type":394,"tag":409,"props":561,"children":564},{"alt":411,"src":562,"title":563},"image://cb58da9e-7291-48cb-ba09-73181e89e976","Exam revision is a common form of spaced repetition. Tulane Public Relations, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":566,"children":567},{},[568],{"type":399,"value":569},"Over time, the hippocampus will recognize the familiar pathway, and will cease to view it as a one-off episode, and start to encode it into the neocortex. A wealth of recent research has suggested that this encoding happens much more during sleep. This is because the hippocampus encodes stuff for long-term storage much more effectively if it doesn't have to identify new pathways from lots of new brain processes at the same time.",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":571},[],{"id":173,"data":174,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":176,"introPage":184,"pages":573},[574,609,639,665],{"id":192,"data":193,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":196,"parsed":575},{"data":576,"body":578,"toc":607},{"title":388,"description":577},"Repetition encourages our brain to encode information into our long-term memory. But the ability to memorize new information isn’t the only aspect of learning. Another huge part of learning is motivation.",{"type":391,"children":579},[580,584,589,594,602],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":581,"children":582},{},[583],{"type":399,"value":577},{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":585,"children":586},{},[587],{"type":399,"value":588},"Motivation is the reason you want to learn something in the first place, and the factor that will make you stick at learning it enough to make those essential repetitions. Understanding the neuroscience behind motivation is highly important to understanding how to learn successfully.",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":590,"children":591},{},[592],{"type":399,"value":593},"The key area of the brain that deals with motivation is called the reward system. This system is made up of several parts, but, for our purposes, we will be considering the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala.",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":595,"children":596},{},[597],{"type":394,"tag":409,"props":598,"children":601},{"alt":411,"src":599,"title":600},"image://03879df7-33bf-4287-a153-991061de74f7","The prefrontal cortex, highlighted in yellow. Image: Henry Vandyke Carter, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":603,"children":604},{},[605],{"type":399,"value":606},"These two parts of the reward system can encourage the hippocampus to encode information using two motivation tactics that we all understand – the carrot (the prefrontal cortex), and the stick (the amygdala).",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":608},[],{"id":205,"data":206,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":209,"parsed":610},{"data":611,"body":613,"toc":637},{"title":388,"description":612},"The amygdala is a tiny acorn-like bulb, sitting right next to the seahorse-shaped hippocampus. This acorn has been behind every feeling of stress, fear and anxiety you’ve ever felt. The amygdala processes intense emotional stimuli.",{"type":391,"children":614},[615,619,624,632],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":616,"children":617},{},[618],{"type":399,"value":612},{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":620,"children":621},{},[622],{"type":399,"value":623},"Memories that have been associated with emotional stimuli in the amygdala will be encoded more quickly into the long term by the hippocampus. This is because the amygdala triggers the release of stress hormones – raising your heart rate and making you sweat – for neural pathways that it recognizes as potentially dangerous.",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":625,"children":626},{},[627],{"type":394,"tag":409,"props":628,"children":631},{"alt":411,"src":629,"title":630},"image://50ca0221-58a4-4616-b0fb-4202b8f33d78","The amygdala. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia",[],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":633,"children":634},{},[635],{"type":399,"value":636},"This has an obvious function – your brain wants to remember the stuff that was most harmful in the past, encoding it to long-term memory so that it knows how to avoid harm in the future. Your hippocampus will encode memories more quickly when they are accompanied by this stress response from your amygdala. Pathways that have been accompanied by this heightened activity from stress hormones will be fast-streamed into the neocortex.",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":638},[],{"id":227,"data":228,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"parsed":640},{"data":641,"body":643,"toc":663},{"title":388,"description":642},"To think about how the amygdala helps encode memory, let’s look at a character in the classic comedy Dodgeball called Patches O’Houlihan. Patches is a dodgeball coach whose training technique involves carrying a big sack of monkey wrenches with him at all times. At random intervals, when a team member isn’t expecting it, he throws one at their head.",{"type":391,"children":644},[645,658],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":646,"children":647},{},[648,650,656],{"type":399,"value":649},"To think about how the amygdala helps encode memory, let’s look at a character in the classic comedy ",{"type":394,"tag":651,"props":652,"children":653},"em",{},[654],{"type":399,"value":655},"Dodgeball",{"type":399,"value":657}," called Patches O’Houlihan. Patches is a dodgeball coach whose training technique involves carrying a big sack of monkey wrenches with him at all times. At random intervals, when a team member isn’t expecting it, he throws one at their head.",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":659,"children":660},{},[661],{"type":399,"value":662},"In the coach’s words, “if you can dodge a wrench, you can dodge a ball.” The aim is to give them such intense fear of being hit by his wrench that their reactions to dodging flying objects – including, of course, balls – become lightning-fast.",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":664},[],{"id":232,"data":233,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":236,"parsed":666},{"data":667,"body":669,"toc":685},{"title":388,"description":668},"The case of Patches O’Houlihan more or less illustrates the role of the amygdala in speeding up the hippocampus’s encoding of memories. The amygdala has identified an extremely painful experience, and the hippocampus has fast-streamed the knowledge – ‘flying objects will really hurt you’ – straight to the neocortex as a result.",{"type":391,"children":670},[671,675,680],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":672,"children":673},{},[674],{"type":399,"value":668},{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":676,"children":677},{},[678],{"type":399,"value":679},"All it takes is a powerful emotional association with an event and the hippocampus will ensure you don’t forget it in a hurry. “If you can dodge a wrench, you can dodge a ball.”",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":681,"children":682},{},[683],{"type":399,"value":684},"Of course, in reality we can create less extreme emotional responses than a fear of flying wrenches. When learning we can deny ourselves a treat or a break until we get something right – this might have a similar, but altogether healthier, effect.",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":686},[],{"id":279,"data":280,"type":25,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":282,"introPage":290,"pages":688},[689,714,731,753,770],{"id":298,"data":299,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":302,"parsed":690},{"data":691,"body":693,"toc":712},{"title":388,"description":692},"So, one aspect of your brain’s motivation to learn is ‘the stick’ – the amygdala speeding the process up through the release of stress hormones. This means that you will find yourself learning information that’s associated with a powerful emotional response much more quickly. The second way that the reward system influences your brain’s motivation is through the carrot – the prefrontal cortex and dopamine pathways.",{"type":391,"children":694},[695,699,707],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":696,"children":697},{},[698],{"type":399,"value":692},{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":700,"children":701},{},[702],{"type":394,"tag":409,"props":703,"children":706},{"alt":411,"src":704,"title":705},"image://3867227b-7202-4b8d-8e0f-a5d0a070c4c5","A diagram illustrating the flow of hormones from the prefrontal cortex (PFC) to other parts of the brain. GeorgeVKach, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":708,"children":709},{},[710],{"type":399,"value":711},"The prefrontal cortex is the part of your brain that deals with high-level goals and delayed gratification. It’s best thought of as the responsible, grown-up part of your brain. While other parts of the brain might be saying ‘maybe I do need to watch “Top Ten Unexpected Deaths in Game of Thrones”,’ the prefrontal cortex is the part that says, ‘you’ve already spent the past 45 minutes on YouTube!’",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":713},[],{"id":312,"data":313,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":316,"parsed":715},{"data":716,"body":718,"toc":729},{"title":388,"description":717},"The prefrontal cortex works by storing long-term goals. Some of these are learned – ‘I want to buy a house one day’, others are instinctive – ‘I want my children to be safe.’ In either case, the prefrontal cortex uses these goals to influence the memory encoding process we discussed earlier. It does this through the brain’s dopamine pathways.",{"type":391,"children":719},[720,724],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":721,"children":722},{},[723],{"type":399,"value":717},{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":725,"children":726},{},[727],{"type":399,"value":728},"You may know dopamine as the ‘happy hormone.’ This is broadly accurate. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter – a chemical that sends messages from one part of the brain to the other. In the case of dopamine, this is a reward message – the brain will use dopamine to communicate the message ‘this is good, we need to keep doing this!’",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":730},[],{"id":327,"data":328,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":331,"parsed":732},{"data":733,"body":735,"toc":751},{"title":388,"description":734},"Dopamine is slightly more complicated than being simply the happiness chemical. There’s another neurotransmitter, serotonin, that’s at play in happiness. The difference between the two is that dopamine is about pleasure, and especially the anticipation of pleasure, whereas serotonin is about contentment.",{"type":391,"children":736},[737,741,746],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":738,"children":739},{},[740],{"type":399,"value":734},{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":742,"children":743},{},[744],{"type":399,"value":745},"Dopamine is this feeling: ‘Yippee! My pizza has arrived!’. Serotonin is this feeling: ‘I’m feeling really on top of things and happy with my life at the moment.’",{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":747,"children":748},{},[749],{"type":399,"value":750},"For the micro-rewards that are needed to help us remember stuff, it’s dopamine that’s going to be the most helpful.",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":752},[],{"id":344,"data":345,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"parsed":754},{"data":755,"body":757,"toc":768},{"title":388,"description":756},"The prefrontal cortex sends a reward message through the dopamine pathway when it recognizes activity in the hippocampus that aligns with its long-term goals.",{"type":391,"children":758},[759,763],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":760,"children":761},{},[762],{"type":399,"value":756},{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":764,"children":765},{},[766],{"type":399,"value":767},"Essentially, it spots neural pathways that will help contribute to the long-term goals that it values. It will then send a little hit of dopamine to the hippocampus, that will both encourage it to encode that pathway as a memory and trigger a feeling of pleasure.",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":769},[],{"id":349,"data":350,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":353,"parsed":771},{"data":772,"body":774,"toc":793},{"title":388,"description":773},"Let’s say your goal is to become a basketball player. You have an image in your head of yourself hitting the winning free throw in the NBA play-offs. You practice for hours and hours to hit free throws consistently.",{"type":391,"children":775},[776,780,788],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":777,"children":778},{},[779],{"type":399,"value":773},{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":781,"children":782},{},[783],{"type":394,"tag":409,"props":784,"children":787},{"alt":411,"src":785,"title":786},"image://0385f606-8489-47de-b885-196c0309bcec","The prefrontal cortex helps top achievers learn towards their long-term goals. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia",[],{"type":394,"tag":395,"props":789,"children":790},{},[791],{"type":399,"value":792},"Every time you hit that free throw, the image in your hippocampus matches up to that stored image on your prefrontal cortex. A little dopamine is released and the memory of how you threw the ball that time is recognized as more valuable by your hippocampus, which will encode it for long-term storage.",{"title":388,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":794},[],{"left":4,"top":4,"width":796,"height":796,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":797},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":796,"height":796,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":799},"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"M4 5h16M4 12h16M4 19h16\"/>",1778179350612]