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encoding, storage, and retrieval","Short-term memory holds 5 to 9 items for 15 to 30 seconds","Long-term memory stores info for a long time, sometimes forever",1,{"id":37,"data":38,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"0f864806-970c-4a1b-9bfa-1a0801ae3f82",{"type":39,"intro":40},10,[41,42],"What is the process called when the brain converts sensory perceptions into chemical and electrical charges?","Why is encoding crucial for learning?",[44,60,73,78,95],{"id":45,"data":46,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":49},"86bdab7e-c92f-403d-a50a-1174de063767",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":47,"audioMediaId":48},"Many people would consider the ideas of learning and memory to be interchangeable terms. However, there is a subtle difference. Take learning to ride a bike. You might remember the moment you learned to ride a bike, but the memory of this moment is different from the knowledge you learned about how to ride a bike.\n\n![Graph](image://e50b0b48-37b9-4c40-9432-d4092187b3b9 \"Learning to ride a bike is an act of both learning and memory. Image: Public domain via Pexels\")\n\nThe way we know that this distinction is real is that there are lots of bits of knowledge that you learned at some point, but you can’t remember the specific moment you learned them. According to the American Psychological Association, learning means acquiring a skill, whereas memory is being aware that you’ve acquired it.\n\nLearning is inseparable from memory as, without the ability to retain what we’ve learned, we cannot progress or apply what we’ve learned to our lived experience. So, understanding how memory itself works is pretty essential to understanding learning.","3d1ad7fa-ef83-43ba-8c52-a44786d73bc6",[50],{"id":51,"data":52,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"970d3787-eea9-4b68-a709-676f6be64595",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":54,"binaryCorrect":56,"binaryIncorrect":58},11,[55],"Your mental image of the moment you learned to ride a bike is an example of ...",[57],"Memory",[59],"Learning",{"id":61,"data":62,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":65},"ec82ad39-3f48-4b37-b17d-0e06b3a57d99",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":63,"audioMediaId":64},"There are three main processes that characterize how memory works: encoding, storage and retrieval. Let's imagine learning is like putting things inside of your backpack. Encoding is when you first put something into your backpack, storage is whether or not it stays in the backpack while you walk and retrieval is your ability to quickly find what you're looking for.\n\nUnfortunately, unlike a backpack, our memory only holds onto about 5% of the things we put in it, that is - unless we routinely reach out to look for them. That’s why all three memory processes are so important.","7b4038af-4bbf-411a-a8a9-b809a42e5779",[66],{"id":67,"data":68,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"9b3971bc-6b95-4c9b-b09c-a4530bfbc068",{"type":53,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":35,"activeRecallQuestion":69,"activeRecallAnswers":71},[70],"What percentage of information that has only been absorbed once is likely to be held in the memory?",[72],"5%",{"id":74,"data":75,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19},"4380c93a-40c0-44c8-890c-2a395f26174e",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":76,"audioMediaId":77},"In the first stage of memory formation, the brain converts sensory perceptions into chemical and electrical charges. This process is called ‘encoding’ because it is putting what you see, smell and taste into code. The new encoded representations in the brain are called memory traces.\n\n![Graph](image://d46d5bcd-b195-4058-9777-52a373f8f8d3 \"Encoding a memory is like using tracing paper to get the outline of the image. Image: Public domain via Wellcome Collection\")\n\nImagine that you’ve got a beautiful photograph of a beach scene. When you encode it, you trace over the top of it to store the outline. The second stage of memory is storage, which is how items are consolidated into long-term memory. After being placed in our short-term memory, the things we understand from the world around us are then grouped together and reorganized so we can remember them. For example, if you see a cute cat, the memory trace of it might be stored alongside other cute cats.","ea2dd14e-ad76-4053-9ff7-7c7ce8c39f53",{"id":79,"data":80,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":83},"13060d44-1679-4993-8573-005b4ae0e0a6",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":81,"audioMediaId":82},"Currently, the scientific literature classifies memory into four main types: sensory, working, short-term, and long-term memory. The information we take in from our environment via our senses is stored by our sensory memory. Working memory then processes this information, converting it into short or long-term memory.\n\nShort-term memory, as the name implies, is information quickly processed. Short-term memories typically last for 15 to 30 seconds. Ever wondered why you lost your train of thought in the middle of a conversation while thinking about something else? Well, it’s because most adults have the capacity to store only 5 to 9 items in our short-term memory.\n\nOnce the memory traces, or rough notes, are encoded in our short-term memory, they are either discarded, or consolidated and moved into long-term memory. Long-term memory enables us to store information for longer periods – sometimes forever.","d44a08e9-cec3-4e97-a8b2-70d900372104",[84],{"id":85,"data":86,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"32a05958-ae6b-412d-ba10-6b321bc9f826",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":87,"multiChoiceCorrect":89,"multiChoiceIncorrect":91,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[88],"How long are items typically held in our short-term memory?",[90],"15-30 seconds",[92,93,94],"30-45 seconds","25-40 seconds","45-60 seconds",{"id":96,"data":97,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":100},"48af4d2b-204a-4213-bfc1-60256adffec2",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":98,"audioMediaId":99},"The final stage in the memory process, retrieval, involves extracting information, skills and knowledge stored in our long-term memory. These are referred to as memory systems.\n\nSometimes, words or facts may elude us because they were never stored in our long-term memory in the first place; other times, forgetting is due to an inability to retrieve the information from memory.\n\nIf we cast our minds back to the traced image analogy, if encoding is tracing the photograph, and storage is putting the trace into the filing cabinet, then retrieval would be like going and getting the trace out of the filing cabinet to look at.\n\nOne example of retrieval in the real world would be recalling our revision notes when we are in an exam.","acdd52dd-8b00-458d-8b6d-2442e935b5d7",[101],{"id":102,"data":103,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"c85fdcbb-0de7-4e85-a47c-af0ecbb36051",{"type":53,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":35,"activeRecallQuestion":104,"activeRecallAnswers":106},[105],"What name is given to the process of fetching an encoded memory from your long-term memory?",[107],"Retrieval",{"id":109,"data":110,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":112,"introPage":120,"pages":126},"9bc46e94-ab90-4474-90b6-3d594cbcf3ff",{"type":25,"title":111},"Memory Systems and Types",{"id":113,"data":114,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"c8d58577-a6c6-4f73-b4f9-21abac4f5580",{"type":19,"summary":115},[116,117,118,119],"Declarative memory is conscious and includes facts and events","Semantic memory is knowing facts like dates and names","Episodic memory is recalling personal events and experiences","Procedural memory is unconscious and includes skills like riding a bike",{"id":121,"data":122,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"b8b96585-7628-4efe-92fa-ef3eddbc966e",{"type":39,"intro":123},[124,125],"What type of memory helps you remember how to ride a bike?","How does procedural memory differ from declarative memory?",[127,142,192],{"id":128,"data":129,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":132},"4d4a845b-55a4-406a-9365-68c30dc417c5",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":130,"audioMediaId":131},"Have you ever wondered why some knowledge seems impossible to remember, while other knowledge, once learned, seems to stick with us for life? Consider how easy it is to ride a bike even after decades of no practice. Then, consider how frequently you forget a word in the middle of a sentence or try to summon a name from memory and it eludes you.\n\nThis phenomenon puzzled researchers, who eventually began to question the idea that there was one unified system to store long-term memories. The earliest, and probably most influential, distinction of long-term memory came from the Austrian psychologist Endel Tulving, who proposed that it can be broken down into conscious and unconscious memory.\n\n![Graph](image://1092075b-0a9c-4a74-b010-21d34ac26699 \"Austrian psychologist Endel Tulving. Image: Public domain\")","2fbbc87d-2826-47ae-b584-522822253808",[133],{"id":134,"data":135,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"1660efc9-b73c-4a27-8523-01af0a0773d2",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":136,"binaryCorrect":138,"binaryIncorrect":140},[137],"Which of these is an accurate description of mainstream theory about long-term memory?",[139],"There is more than one system that stores long-term memory",[141],"There is one primary system that stores long term memory",{"id":143,"data":144,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":147},"bac774ec-844b-44fb-aedd-14553239c0ca",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":145,"audioMediaId":146},"When something is remembered consciously, it resides in the **declarative memory**. This is conscious memory – stuff that you have deliberately and consciously memorized. For example, information you wrote on flash cards and deliberately committed to memory for an exam. There are two kinds of declarative memory: semantic and episodic.\n\n![Graph](image://29373248-3369-4089-9bf2-f7bdc67c6c99 \"Dates are an example of declarative memory. Image: Public domain\")\n\nSemantic memory refers to facts that we know and commit to memory, such as dates, names, and birthdays. Episodic memory is our personal recollection of events. Semantic memory means knowing that the Earth is spherical; episodic memory means remembering the lesson where you were taught that the Earth is spherical.","caf61b2c-0397-4290-88ff-eefc632b46d6",[148,161,181],{"id":149,"data":150,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"51cb087b-1fe0-4e5c-8fed-f9e8922b9139",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":151,"multiChoiceCorrect":153,"multiChoiceIncorrect":156,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":160,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[152],"What are the two kinds of declarative memory?",[154,155],"Semantic","Episodic",[157,158,159],"Working","Short-term","Sensory",true,{"id":162,"data":163,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"9db5dda3-a579-4adc-8fe1-09e8328b8d7e",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":164,"multiChoiceQuestion":168,"multiChoiceCorrect":170,"multiChoiceIncorrect":172,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":176,"matchPairsPairs":178},[165,166,167],"70cc6c33-4c5b-481b-9011-f774db501bd0","baf5607d-e20b-4b2b-bf3e-6a10ba0373d3","cf375a5b-aebe-49c2-a420-9db19ffa0f0d",[169],"Which of the following best describes declarative memory?",[171],"Memory that can be consciously recalled.",[173,174,175],"Memory of facts.","Memory of events and experiences.","Memory of how to do things.",[177],"Match the pairs below:",[179],{"left":180,"right":171,"direction":19},"Declarative memory",{"id":165,"data":182,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":183,"multiChoiceQuestion":184,"multiChoiceCorrect":186,"multiChoiceIncorrect":187,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":188,"matchPairsPairs":189},[162,166,167],[185],"Which of the following best describes semantic memory?",[173],[171,174,175],[177],[190],{"left":191,"right":173,"direction":19},"Semantic memory",{"id":193,"data":194,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":197},"fd54a482-1cbd-47d5-82b1-24c74b7d8ca7",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":195,"audioMediaId":196},"In addition to conscious, declarative memory, there is also procedural memory – the things we remember unconsciously. Declarative memory includes facts and concepts, whereas procedural memory is made up of habits and skills.\n\n![Graph](image://184d9bc2-1950-4b76-9ff2-e88e76b42808 \"Playing an instrument is an example of procedural memory. Image: Public domain via Pxfuel\")\n\nThe knowledge we tap into when we ride a bike is stored in our procedural memory. Broadly, we can think of the difference between the two memory systems as remembering versus knowing. These are the channels we want to sharpen to enhance learning.\n\nThere are big debates about whether or not the same techniques should be used for different types of memory systems. This remains unresolved – a good bet for the time being is to try to incorporate multiple techniques for both kinds of memory systems.","c7ec534b-db2a-4445-9f5a-f56afd67e666",[198,209],{"id":166,"data":199,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":200,"multiChoiceQuestion":201,"multiChoiceCorrect":203,"multiChoiceIncorrect":204,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":205,"matchPairsPairs":206},[162,165,167],[202],"Which of the following best describes episodic memory?",[174],[171,173,175],[177],[207],{"left":208,"right":174,"direction":19},"Episodic memory",{"id":167,"data":210,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":211,"multiChoiceQuestion":212,"multiChoiceCorrect":214,"multiChoiceIncorrect":215,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":216,"matchPairsPairs":217},[162,165,166],[213],"Which of the following best describes procedural memory?",[175],[171,173,174],[177],[218],{"left":219,"right":175,"direction":19},"Procedural memory",{"id":221,"data":222,"type":25,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":224,"introPage":232,"pages":238},"cc21b2fb-daee-41e3-ab12-76453f473ae3",{"type":25,"title":223},"Memory Disorders and the Role of Sleep",{"id":225,"data":226,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"e705f53d-083d-43b6-bd73-676614507b9f",{"type":19,"summary":227},[228,229,230,231],"The hippocampus is crucial for forming new declarative memories","Henry Molaison's surgery led to anterograde amnesia, preventing new memory formation","Procedural memory (like motor skills) can be retained without a hippocampus","Sleep helps consolidate memories, with REM aiding procedural memory and deep sleep enhancing declarative memory",{"id":233,"data":234,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"e4f72b9b-ce47-43f4-aa53-2479f551ce51",{"type":39,"intro":235},[236,237],"How does sleep deprivation mess with your ability to learn?","What sleep stage boosts your memory for facts?",[239,252,267],{"id":240,"data":241,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":244},"8c3ec161-0a95-43f2-8857-65dcbd91a322",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":242,"audioMediaId":243},"Different areas of the brain are involved in memory storage. The part of the brain that governs new declarative memory formation is the hippocampus.\n\nEarlier in this pathway, we spoke about Henry Molaison. In 1953, Molaison unwittingly ‘invented neuroscience.’ Molaison had suffered debilitating epilepsy since childhood, and it was common medical practice at the time to remove parts of the brain to cure it. In a risky procedure known as a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy, his hippocampus was surgically removed.\n\nAs a tragic, unexpected side effect of the surgery, Molaison developed a condition known as anterograde amnesia – Molaison lost the ability to form any new memories. Every day he woke up, for decades afterwards, he could only remember his life before the operation. Anterograde amnesia meant that Molaison lost the ability to store or retrieve new experiences, meaning he lost the ability to form new memories.","edacb10b-142e-40c4-a211-06588f6f3983",[245],{"id":246,"data":247,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"437732af-329e-4aa0-8e99-f486c3b86e9a",{"type":53,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":35,"clozeQuestion":248,"clozeWords":250},[249],"The case of Henry Molaison helped scientists study what happens when the hippocampus is removed.",[251],"hippocampus",{"id":253,"data":254,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":257},"66df018e-3c06-4b5f-8441-9370aaaa500b",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":255,"audioMediaId":256},"Through a decades-long collaboration with Molaison, Suzanne Corkin, a young postgraduate neurology researcher, discovered that Molaison had retained the memories that existed before the procedure but he had lost the ability to transfer the experiences he had post-surgery from short-term into long-term memory. In other words, throughout their 46-year relationship and the many tests Corkin conducted on him, it was always Molaison’s first time meeting the researcher.\n\nA series of experiments revealed that Molaison was able to acquire new motor skills, such as writing backwards while looking at his hand in a mirror. More significantly, despite not remembering having met Corkin before, he was still able to write backwards.\n\nThis was a ground-breaking discovery as it proved that we use different parts of our brain for mental and motor skills, and for declarative and procedural memory. Molaison’s ability to acquire new motor skills without a hippocampus showed that his procedural memory had remained intact.\n\nHis tragic inability to recognize Corkin’s face, despite having met her many hundreds of times, proved that his declarative memory had been lost when his hippocampus was removed. Subsequent studies of amnesic patients who acquired new motor skills by, for instance, learning to drive, confirmed Corkin’s findings about the distinction between procedural and declarative memory pathways, marking a breakthrough for the field of neuroscience.","79ae62d7-5341-487d-9caf-52c4df47877e",[258],{"id":259,"data":260,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"328951c4-fe28-49d6-905d-886fef055330",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":261,"multiChoiceCorrect":263,"multiChoiceIncorrect":265,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[262],"When his hippocampus was removed, what kind of memory could Henry Molaison no longer form?",[264],"Declarative",[266,158,155],"Procedural",{"id":268,"data":269,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":272},"66e77e28-8e6e-4f75-9d40-be55efa2a7e0",{"type":35,"contentRole":25,"markdownContent":270,"audioMediaId":271},"Have you ever wondered where the phrase ‘to sleep on it’ came from? The answer may lie in neuroscience. Research has shown that sleep aids learning and memory in two distinct ways. First, when we’re sleep-deprived we cannot focus our attention optimally and, as a result, we cannot learn efficiently. Second, sleep itself plays a role in the consolidation of memory, which is critical for learning new information.\n\nRather than being a period of inactivity, our brain remains active while we sleep; running a specific algorithm that replays the important events it recorded during the previous day, and gradually transferring them into a more efficient compartment of our memory.\n\nIn other words, ‘sleeping on’ something is a powerful tool to boost learning and memory, and different sleep stages are beneficial for different tasks: REM sleep helps with procedural memory consolidation, and slow-wave, or ‘deep’ sleep, enhances declarative memory consolidation.","e77c8644-6619-404f-b417-090346da841e",[273,282],{"id":274,"data":275,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"6281407b-3b68-4a54-a8ae-b3058fda822d",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":276,"binaryCorrect":278,"binaryIncorrect":280},[277],"Which of these would be stored in the procedural memory?",[279],"Habits",[281],"Facts",{"id":283,"data":284,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"e687c355-82cc-4eb6-885a-4753294dd5e7",{"type":53,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":35,"clozeQuestion":285,"clozeWords":287},[286],"While we are asleep, our brain plays back a specific algorithm that replays the important events it recorded during the previous day.",[288],"important events",[290,420,511],{"id":23,"data":24,"type":25,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":27,"introPage":36,"pages":291},[292,329,346,371,393],{"id":45,"data":46,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":49,"parsed":293},{"data":294,"body":297,"toc":327},{"title":295,"description":296},"","Many people would consider the ideas of learning and memory to be interchangeable terms. However, there is a subtle difference. Take learning to ride a bike. You might remember the moment you learned to ride a bike, but the memory of this moment is different from the knowledge you learned about how to ride a bike.",{"type":298,"children":299},"root",[300,307,317,322],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":303,"children":304},"element","p",{},[305],{"type":306,"value":296},"text",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":308,"children":309},{},[310],{"type":301,"tag":311,"props":312,"children":316},"img",{"alt":313,"src":314,"title":315},"Graph","image://e50b0b48-37b9-4c40-9432-d4092187b3b9","Learning to ride a bike is an act of both learning and memory. Image: Public domain via Pexels",[],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":318,"children":319},{},[320],{"type":306,"value":321},"The way we know that this distinction is real is that there are lots of bits of knowledge that you learned at some point, but you can’t remember the specific moment you learned them. According to the American Psychological Association, learning means acquiring a skill, whereas memory is being aware that you’ve acquired it.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":323,"children":324},{},[325],{"type":306,"value":326},"Learning is inseparable from memory as, without the ability to retain what we’ve learned, we cannot progress or apply what we’ve learned to our lived experience. So, understanding how memory itself works is pretty essential to understanding learning.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":328},[],{"id":61,"data":62,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":65,"parsed":330},{"data":331,"body":333,"toc":344},{"title":295,"description":332},"There are three main processes that characterize how memory works: encoding, storage and retrieval. Let's imagine learning is like putting things inside of your backpack. Encoding is when you first put something into your backpack, storage is whether or not it stays in the backpack while you walk and retrieval is your ability to quickly find what you're looking for.",{"type":298,"children":334},[335,339],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":336,"children":337},{},[338],{"type":306,"value":332},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":340,"children":341},{},[342],{"type":306,"value":343},"Unfortunately, unlike a backpack, our memory only holds onto about 5% of the things we put in it, that is - unless we routinely reach out to look for them. That’s why all three memory processes are so important.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":345},[],{"id":74,"data":75,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"parsed":347},{"data":348,"body":350,"toc":369},{"title":295,"description":349},"In the first stage of memory formation, the brain converts sensory perceptions into chemical and electrical charges. This process is called ‘encoding’ because it is putting what you see, smell and taste into code. The new encoded representations in the brain are called memory traces.",{"type":298,"children":351},[352,356,364],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":353,"children":354},{},[355],{"type":306,"value":349},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":357,"children":358},{},[359],{"type":301,"tag":311,"props":360,"children":363},{"alt":313,"src":361,"title":362},"image://d46d5bcd-b195-4058-9777-52a373f8f8d3","Encoding a memory is like using tracing paper to get the outline of the image. Image: Public domain via Wellcome Collection",[],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":365,"children":366},{},[367],{"type":306,"value":368},"Imagine that you’ve got a beautiful photograph of a beach scene. When you encode it, you trace over the top of it to store the outline. The second stage of memory is storage, which is how items are consolidated into long-term memory. After being placed in our short-term memory, the things we understand from the world around us are then grouped together and reorganized so we can remember them. For example, if you see a cute cat, the memory trace of it might be stored alongside other cute cats.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":370},[],{"id":79,"data":80,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":83,"parsed":372},{"data":373,"body":375,"toc":391},{"title":295,"description":374},"Currently, the scientific literature classifies memory into four main types: sensory, working, short-term, and long-term memory. The information we take in from our environment via our senses is stored by our sensory memory. Working memory then processes this information, converting it into short or long-term memory.",{"type":298,"children":376},[377,381,386],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":378,"children":379},{},[380],{"type":306,"value":374},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":382,"children":383},{},[384],{"type":306,"value":385},"Short-term memory, as the name implies, is information quickly processed. Short-term memories typically last for 15 to 30 seconds. Ever wondered why you lost your train of thought in the middle of a conversation while thinking about something else? Well, it’s because most adults have the capacity to store only 5 to 9 items in our short-term memory.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":387,"children":388},{},[389],{"type":306,"value":390},"Once the memory traces, or rough notes, are encoded in our short-term memory, they are either discarded, or consolidated and moved into long-term memory. Long-term memory enables us to store information for longer periods – sometimes forever.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":392},[],{"id":96,"data":97,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":100,"parsed":394},{"data":395,"body":397,"toc":418},{"title":295,"description":396},"The final stage in the memory process, retrieval, involves extracting information, skills and knowledge stored in our long-term memory. These are referred to as memory systems.",{"type":298,"children":398},[399,403,408,413],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":400,"children":401},{},[402],{"type":306,"value":396},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":404,"children":405},{},[406],{"type":306,"value":407},"Sometimes, words or facts may elude us because they were never stored in our long-term memory in the first place; other times, forgetting is due to an inability to retrieve the information from memory.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":409,"children":410},{},[411],{"type":306,"value":412},"If we cast our minds back to the traced image analogy, if encoding is tracing the photograph, and storage is putting the trace into the filing cabinet, then retrieval would be like going and getting the trace out of the filing cabinet to look at.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":414,"children":415},{},[416],{"type":306,"value":417},"One example of retrieval in the real world would be recalling our revision notes when we are in an exam.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":419},[],{"id":109,"data":110,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":112,"introPage":120,"pages":421},[422,447,481],{"id":128,"data":129,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":132,"parsed":423},{"data":424,"body":426,"toc":445},{"title":295,"description":425},"Have you ever wondered why some knowledge seems impossible to remember, while other knowledge, once learned, seems to stick with us for life? Consider how easy it is to ride a bike even after decades of no practice. Then, consider how frequently you forget a word in the middle of a sentence or try to summon a name from memory and it eludes you.",{"type":298,"children":427},[428,432,437],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":429,"children":430},{},[431],{"type":306,"value":425},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":433,"children":434},{},[435],{"type":306,"value":436},"This phenomenon puzzled researchers, who eventually began to question the idea that there was one unified system to store long-term memories. The earliest, and probably most influential, distinction of long-term memory came from the Austrian psychologist Endel Tulving, who proposed that it can be broken down into conscious and unconscious memory.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":438,"children":439},{},[440],{"type":301,"tag":311,"props":441,"children":444},{"alt":313,"src":442,"title":443},"image://1092075b-0a9c-4a74-b010-21d34ac26699","Austrian psychologist Endel Tulving. Image: Public domain",[],{"title":295,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":446},[],{"id":143,"data":144,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":147,"parsed":448},{"data":449,"body":451,"toc":479},{"title":295,"description":450},"When something is remembered consciously, it resides in the declarative memory. This is conscious memory – stuff that you have deliberately and consciously memorized. For example, information you wrote on flash cards and deliberately committed to memory for an exam. There are two kinds of declarative memory: semantic and episodic.",{"type":298,"children":452},[453,466,474],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":454,"children":455},{},[456,458,464],{"type":306,"value":457},"When something is remembered consciously, it resides in the ",{"type":301,"tag":459,"props":460,"children":461},"strong",{},[462],{"type":306,"value":463},"declarative memory",{"type":306,"value":465},". This is conscious memory – stuff that you have deliberately and consciously memorized. For example, information you wrote on flash cards and deliberately committed to memory for an exam. There are two kinds of declarative memory: semantic and episodic.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":467,"children":468},{},[469],{"type":301,"tag":311,"props":470,"children":473},{"alt":313,"src":471,"title":472},"image://29373248-3369-4089-9bf2-f7bdc67c6c99","Dates are an example of declarative memory. Image: Public domain",[],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":475,"children":476},{},[477],{"type":306,"value":478},"Semantic memory refers to facts that we know and commit to memory, such as dates, names, and birthdays. Episodic memory is our personal recollection of events. Semantic memory means knowing that the Earth is spherical; episodic memory means remembering the lesson where you were taught that the Earth is spherical.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":480},[],{"id":193,"data":194,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":197,"parsed":482},{"data":483,"body":485,"toc":509},{"title":295,"description":484},"In addition to conscious, declarative memory, there is also procedural memory – the things we remember unconsciously. Declarative memory includes facts and concepts, whereas procedural memory is made up of habits and skills.",{"type":298,"children":486},[487,491,499,504],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":488,"children":489},{},[490],{"type":306,"value":484},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":492,"children":493},{},[494],{"type":301,"tag":311,"props":495,"children":498},{"alt":313,"src":496,"title":497},"image://184d9bc2-1950-4b76-9ff2-e88e76b42808","Playing an instrument is an example of procedural memory. Image: Public domain via Pxfuel",[],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":500,"children":501},{},[502],{"type":306,"value":503},"The knowledge we tap into when we ride a bike is stored in our procedural memory. Broadly, we can think of the difference between the two memory systems as remembering versus knowing. These are the channels we want to sharpen to enhance learning.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":505,"children":506},{},[507],{"type":306,"value":508},"There are big debates about whether or not the same techniques should be used for different types of memory systems. This remains unresolved – a good bet for the time being is to try to incorporate multiple techniques for both kinds of memory systems.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":510},[],{"id":221,"data":222,"type":25,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":224,"introPage":232,"pages":512},[513,535,562],{"id":240,"data":241,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":244,"parsed":514},{"data":515,"body":517,"toc":533},{"title":295,"description":516},"Different areas of the brain are involved in memory storage. The part of the brain that governs new declarative memory formation is the hippocampus.",{"type":298,"children":518},[519,523,528],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":520,"children":521},{},[522],{"type":306,"value":516},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":524,"children":525},{},[526],{"type":306,"value":527},"Earlier in this pathway, we spoke about Henry Molaison. In 1953, Molaison unwittingly ‘invented neuroscience.’ Molaison had suffered debilitating epilepsy since childhood, and it was common medical practice at the time to remove parts of the brain to cure it. In a risky procedure known as a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy, his hippocampus was surgically removed.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":529,"children":530},{},[531],{"type":306,"value":532},"As a tragic, unexpected side effect of the surgery, Molaison developed a condition known as anterograde amnesia – Molaison lost the ability to form any new memories. Every day he woke up, for decades afterwards, he could only remember his life before the operation. Anterograde amnesia meant that Molaison lost the ability to store or retrieve new experiences, meaning he lost the ability to form new memories.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":534},[],{"id":253,"data":254,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":257,"parsed":536},{"data":537,"body":539,"toc":560},{"title":295,"description":538},"Through a decades-long collaboration with Molaison, Suzanne Corkin, a young postgraduate neurology researcher, discovered that Molaison had retained the memories that existed before the procedure but he had lost the ability to transfer the experiences he had post-surgery from short-term into long-term memory. In other words, throughout their 46-year relationship and the many tests Corkin conducted on him, it was always Molaison’s first time meeting the researcher.",{"type":298,"children":540},[541,545,550,555],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":542,"children":543},{},[544],{"type":306,"value":538},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":546,"children":547},{},[548],{"type":306,"value":549},"A series of experiments revealed that Molaison was able to acquire new motor skills, such as writing backwards while looking at his hand in a mirror. More significantly, despite not remembering having met Corkin before, he was still able to write backwards.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":551,"children":552},{},[553],{"type":306,"value":554},"This was a ground-breaking discovery as it proved that we use different parts of our brain for mental and motor skills, and for declarative and procedural memory. Molaison’s ability to acquire new motor skills without a hippocampus showed that his procedural memory had remained intact.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":556,"children":557},{},[558],{"type":306,"value":559},"His tragic inability to recognize Corkin’s face, despite having met her many hundreds of times, proved that his declarative memory had been lost when his hippocampus was removed. Subsequent studies of amnesic patients who acquired new motor skills by, for instance, learning to drive, confirmed Corkin’s findings about the distinction between procedural and declarative memory pathways, marking a breakthrough for the field of neuroscience.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":561},[],{"id":268,"data":269,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":272,"parsed":563},{"data":564,"body":566,"toc":582},{"title":295,"description":565},"Have you ever wondered where the phrase ‘to sleep on it’ came from? The answer may lie in neuroscience. Research has shown that sleep aids learning and memory in two distinct ways. First, when we’re sleep-deprived we cannot focus our attention optimally and, as a result, we cannot learn efficiently. Second, sleep itself plays a role in the consolidation of memory, which is critical for learning new information.",{"type":298,"children":567},[568,572,577],{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":569,"children":570},{},[571],{"type":306,"value":565},{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":573,"children":574},{},[575],{"type":306,"value":576},"Rather than being a period of inactivity, our brain remains active while we sleep; running a specific algorithm that replays the important events it recorded during the previous day, and gradually transferring them into a more efficient compartment of our memory.",{"type":301,"tag":302,"props":578,"children":579},{},[580],{"type":306,"value":581},"In other words, ‘sleeping on’ something is a powerful tool to boost learning and memory, and different sleep stages are beneficial for different tasks: REM sleep helps with procedural memory consolidation, and slow-wave, or ‘deep’ sleep, enhances declarative memory consolidation.",{"title":295,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":583},[],{"left":4,"top":4,"width":585,"height":585,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":586},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":585,"height":585,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":588},"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"M4 5h16M4 12h16M4 19h16\"/>",1778179351478]