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Learning",9,11,[31,116,292,654,931,1105,1381,1641,1790,1987,2096,2376],{"id":32,"data":33,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"orbs":38},"c4a7bd95-5b6f-4643-8cc8-5613a5cc07b6",{"type":28,"title":34,"tagline":35},"Introduction","Welcome to Superpower Learning",3,4,[39],{"id":40,"data":41,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":44,"introPage":52,"pages":59},"5c60453e-51fb-4027-a824-a3647e7711b3",{"type":42,"title":43},2,"Understanding the Importance of Learning",{"id":45,"data":46,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"e7accc52-9cf2-451f-a18f-7c487d5b62d6",{"type":36,"summary":47},[48,49,50,51],"Information overload makes learning feel hard despite abundant resources","General knowledge is crucial for original thought and requires lifelong learning","Adaptable learning is the most valuable skill in a rapidly changing world","Learning styles are a myth; anyone can learn anything with the right approach",{"id":53,"data":54,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"a3bb2527-1380-4d38-ba93-495e42587099",{"type":55,"intro":56},10,[57,58],"Why is information overload a problem in the information age?","What did Alvin Toffler say about the illiterate of the 21st Century?",[60,75,88,103],{"id":61,"data":62,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":65},"dc7e5680-2665-4502-9a5a-554759f9d2ca",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":63,"audioMediaId":64},"![Graph](image://dc91b4e3-da9b-4571-bb03-d3446a20a345 \"An early 20th-century theory for how the future of education might look. Image: Jean Marc Cote (if 1901) or Villemard (if 1910) http://publicdomainreview.org/2012/06/30/france-in-the-year-2000-1899-1910/, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nWe’re living through the best of times and the worst of times for education. Never before has there been more information available at everyone’s fingertips. Courses worth hundreds of thousands of dollars, from the world’s top institutions, are available to anyone with a smartphone and internet access. There are more learning-related videos on YouTube than there are books in the entire US Library of Congress.\n\nSo why does it feel so hard to learn anything? The answer to this is information overload. With such overwhelming options, it’s tough to get stuck into a long course or article without getting distracted or fatigued. All the material is out there for us. The problem lies in how we choose to approach it. **The question of how best to learn has never been more important.**\n\nA wealth of cognitive science exists to answer this question. This is the science of learning – and harnessing it is one of the most valuable superpowers you can develop in the information age.","a6926283-c34e-4975-8f6a-56ec1c0a8470",[66],{"id":67,"data":68,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"8c941f63-78c4-458c-80f7-bf5705bb62d2",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":69,"binaryCorrect":71,"binaryIncorrect":73},[70],"In the age of information abundance, which of these is more important?",[72],"The way you choose to learn",[74],"Finding the materials to learn from",{"id":76,"data":77,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":80},"6caee458-d79f-4926-926c-c6e7254c528b",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":78,"audioMediaId":79},"But why should we bother learning about learning?\n\nWell, it’s fascinating, for a start. But there are also two more pragmatic reasons that make the science of learning an essential area to study.\n\nThe first is that general knowledge is a lost art. Modern education teaches people to specialize, but truly original thought requires interdisciplinary knowledge. It requires the ability to sense connections between different ideas, where others simply see unconnected data. Achieving this kind of knowledge requires you to keep actively learning throughout your life. And that is what the science of learning will show you how to do.\n\n![Graph](image://571f443d-24b3-4234-b3a3-174e41ae25ad \"Alvin Toffler. Image: Vern Evans, CC BY-SA 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe second reason is that adaptable learning is the most valuable skill you can have in a rapidly changing world. As businessman and writer Alvin Toffler put it – ‘the illiterate of the 21st Century will not be those who cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn and relearn.’","31d982b3-92d7-477b-aa0d-ce222bc4e29c",[81],{"id":82,"data":83,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"1e2d6c61-e3c9-4d37-af7c-4d177c77ee99",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":84,"clozeWords":86},[85],"Truly innovative thinking requires broad, interdisciplinary knowledge.",[87],"interdisciplinary",{"id":89,"data":90,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":93},"692a3501-4c64-44ce-b231-3b7557d98d13",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":91,"audioMediaId":92},"There are some myths around learning that this pathway will prove wrong. The most important one is about ‘styles of learners.’\n\nAll the neuroscience suggests that people aren’t born with a predisposition toward learning one way or another. You might think of yourself as a visual learner, or a verbal learner, or an aural learner. But there’s no evidence at a neurological level that this is true.\n\nEven worse, you might have internalized the idea that some people just have smarter brains than others. These myths have a huge impact on how most of us think about learning. Somewhere along the line, we decided we weren’t logical enough to learn how to do calculus, or that we didn’t have the right kind of mind to write a poem.\n\nThis pathway will demonstrate to you why that isn’t the case – with the right approach and discipline, just about anyone can learn just about anything.","c0367008-f8d9-4a8b-9cf1-8e2e613020bd",[94],{"id":95,"data":96,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"86e5da44-147d-49ae-8e35-9e8f655372a1",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":97,"binaryCorrect":99,"binaryIncorrect":101},[98],"Most people are born with a predisposition towards a particular learning style",[100],"FALSE",[102],"TRUE",{"id":104,"data":105,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":108},"c21a8f7b-6c73-43cc-a8e9-f1fd4ab0c087",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":106,"audioMediaId":107},"Here at Kinnu, we believe that one of the greatest gifts you can ever receive is a good education. It should be easier than ever to do that, but, somehow, it isn’t. It’s our aim to change that, by taking a science-led approach to learning.\n\nWe believe that the best way to help people learn is to understand the science behind all aspects of learning and to build a learning experience that foregrounds that science. The science of learning remains a hotly contested area. This pathway explores the most prominent theories, and how they can fit together to create a superpowered learning experience.\n\nWe hope that, as you learn about learning, you’ll pick up valuable skills of your own, as well as getting a glimpse of just how excited we are to bring the superpower of learning into as many people’s lives as possible.\n\nThis is our obsession – and we’re always looking to learn ourselves. If there’s anything you’d add to this pathway – or if you just want to chat – please reach out to us through our website or Discord.","e26aecc6-f160-49da-8e1c-287d623b6e44",[109],{"id":110,"data":111,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"d1658d30-d3cc-4ce4-83e6-eda25ccaf837",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":112,"activeRecallAnswers":114},[113],"Kinnu's approach to learning is led by what?",[115],"The science of learning",{"id":117,"data":118,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":121,"orbs":122},"a3befcbe-ee55-48e5-8d2d-f4126d5680ed",{"type":28,"title":119,"tagline":120},"The First Principles of Learning","The foundational principles that inform the science of learning",6,[123,218],{"id":124,"data":125,"type":42,"version":121,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":127,"introPage":135,"pages":141},"823d1a6b-96f6-4eaa-8261-ca26db577d1f",{"type":42,"title":126},"What is Learning?",{"id":128,"data":129,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42},"acd0a708-f88f-4108-a6e3-517500df1b8e",{"type":36,"summary":130},[131,132,133,134],"The four pillars of learning are: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together, learning to be","The science of learning combines cognitive neuroscience, data science, learning analytics, behavioral economics, and educational psychology","The human brain has a learning capacity of about 2.5 Petabytes, which is never full","Neuroplasticity means our brains can reshape and form new pathways throughout our lives",{"id":136,"data":137,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"e7e3dabc-35e0-487d-aa5c-32a88855c565",{"type":55,"intro":138},[139,140],"What are the three main questions the science of learning aims to answer?","How does neuroplasticity affect our ability to learn?",[142,159,173,188,201],{"id":143,"data":144,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":147},"9c95504b-f441-4426-b2ed-eae105289b4d",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":145,"audioMediaId":146},"The concept of ‘learning’ can actually be difficult to pin down. Learning calculus is different from learning how to play Mario Kart, which is different from learning that someone shaking their head means ‘no’ in some cultures, and ‘yes’ in others. Most learning theorists divide learning into 4 different categories.\n\nThese are often known as the ‘four pillars of learning’ and they were first recorded by UNESCO in 1996. Collectively, they cover all the major types of learning – though often different education systems will cover a mixture of two or more. These pillars are: learning to know; learning to do; learning to live together; learning to be. For the purposes of this pathway, ‘learning’ will mostly refer to the first pillar, and occasionally the second.","4a105b3a-fff0-4fbd-a96b-4102d8e7d6aa",[148],{"id":149,"data":150,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"a9b0f6db-d44e-4a65-bfe9-aa03e3b27b87",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":151,"multiChoiceCorrect":153,"multiChoiceIncorrect":155,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[152],"Which of these is one of the pillars of learning?",[154],"Learning to do",[156,157,158],"Learning to be good","Learning everything","Learning from others",{"id":160,"data":161,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":164,"reviews":165},"ba236303-b1dc-48f9-9807-195eb2ba356d",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":162,"audioMediaId":163},"The science of learning combines data, research and practices from a diverse range of disciplines, including cognitive neuroscience, data science, learning analytics, behavioral economics and educational psychology. This approach aims to combine all of these approaches to understand how learning occurs, with the overarching objective of optimizing learning.\n\n![Graph](image://e1eb11de-e6a6-4047-8ca2-8a8ddef52801 \"Cognitive neuroscience is an important aspect of the science of learning. User Ancheta Wis on en.wikipedia, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe aim is to answer three main questions. How can you motivate people to learn? How can you get people to remember information? And how can you help people to apply that information in the future? These questions (whose answers often overlap) form the ongoing guidelines for the science of learning.","65f4cdee-ef95-422b-aa40-c68f07f4a70a",5,[166],{"id":167,"data":168,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"d3187370-d0c1-4a7b-b5c9-9677a179bb35",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":169,"clozeWords":171},[170],"The science of learning combines a range of disciplines, including behavioral economics and cognitive neuroscience, to understand how humans learn.",[172],"cognitive neuroscience",{"id":174,"data":175,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":178},"24072d09-675a-42f4-a6ef-dc024acf9713",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":176,"audioMediaId":177},"For many people, forgetting things is just an unfortunate fact of life. Sometimes, there are things that you don’t want to remember, like a catchy jingle from a car insurance advert that sticks in your head. Other times, there are things that you desperately need to remember that you can’t recall.\n\nIt’s easy to think that this is just a result of your brain’s natural limitations. In fact, the human brain has a learning capacity of about 2.5 Petabytes. That’s the equivalent of 20,000 times what you can store in your iPhone or 300 years of continuous television.\n\n![Graph](image://e4c7a212-7e91-4649-8d19-2cb6fe3793ca \"The Library of Congress contains approximately 1 petabyte of data. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nIn short, your brain is never full. As long as you learn to learn the right way, you’re always able to pick up more knowledge.\n\nEvery regular, healthy person has the same total capacity for learning. This means that whatever you scored on an IQ test, or any other test for that matter, has no relation to your ability to learn. Everyone is able to pick up knowledge if they use the right techniques.","d70d4ee3-a183-4180-b6fc-2e0462ab725b",[179],{"id":180,"data":181,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"d49c382b-6d6b-49b2-ac3e-acb85643b9e2",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":182,"binaryCorrect":184,"binaryIncorrect":186},[183],"How big is your brain's learning capacity?",[185],"2.5 Petabytes",[187],"2.5 Exabytes",{"id":189,"data":190,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":193},"ea9a0140-2221-478d-bc85-db6050cc8cf1",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":191,"audioMediaId":192},"One of the most important questions in the science of learning is the extent to which our ability to learn comes down to innate differences, or whether it’s something that anyone can improve equally.\n\nThis has been pretty well proven by multiple studies – humans have a tendency to overestimate our innate differences, such as claiming not to be a ‘math person,’ or a ‘language person.’\n\nAs researchers understand more and more about the brain and how it learns, there seems to be less and less evidence that people are naturally predisposed to be good or bad learners.","90b27a51-b5c8-47f7-a14c-b3bda551eeff",[194],{"id":195,"data":196,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"e2f64c7d-699f-4bdb-b805-2984df134406",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":197,"clozeWords":199},[198],"Humans have a tendency to overestimate our innate differences",[200],"overestimate",{"id":202,"data":203,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":206},"620887f0-268d-4ab6-983a-291abb128930",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":204,"audioMediaId":205},"With the right environment and motivation, anyone can be a good learner. This is because of a concept called neuroplasticity. Our brains reshape and remold themselves throughout their lives. At a neurological level, ‘learning’ something means that our brain has recognized a neural pathway and stored an image of it.\n\nOur synapses are constantly changing throughout our lives, and these changes reflect what we learn. ‘Neuroplasticity’ refers to our brain’s ability to form new pathways, and also to recognize new kinds of pathways.\n\n![Graph](image://1a5602e4-03e8-4ccf-b409-ed7f1604ee4b \"AI-generated image of neural pathways\")\n\nWhile our neuroplasticity as a child is incredibly strong, we also retain pretty good neuroplasticity throughout our entire adult life. That ability to train our brain to recognize new pathways never really goes away.\n\nSo, even if you feel you started off on a bad foot, the good news is that learning is an acquired skill. Fundamentally, you can remold your mind to make yourself better at learning.","209424a4-2e38-4821-ba45-f4afb8870e63",[207],{"id":208,"data":209,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"76968cb7-8dcb-40ca-9419-b2fdaeeded2a",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":210,"multiChoiceCorrect":212,"multiChoiceIncorrect":214,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[211],"Which of these refers to the brain's ability to form new pathways?",[213],"Neuroplasticity",[215,216,217],"Cognitive load","Consolidation","Elaborative compression",{"id":219,"data":220,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":222,"introPage":230,"pages":236},"e7045a95-2d0d-4065-8447-b6fce1a5c651",{"type":42,"title":221},"Prior Knowledge and Emotion",{"id":223,"data":224,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"90290af2-38e6-4792-92a2-c00ea54db101",{"type":36,"summary":225},[226,227,228,229],"The brain gets better at learning the more it knows, like a muscle getting stronger","Mistakes are part of learning; non-punitive feedback helps us learn faster","Sleep helps consolidate new knowledge, making it stick long-term","Emotions boost memory; tie what you learn to how you feel",{"id":231,"data":232,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"e332522c-90c8-4be4-9b69-209dc3ee4531",{"type":55,"intro":233},[234,235],"How does emotion impact memory retention?","Why do tabloids use extreme emotions in their headlines?",[237,252,265,279],{"id":238,"data":239,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":242},"7db5db96-799a-455e-a1b2-486437b411f9",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":240,"audioMediaId":241},"There are some similarities between brains and computers, which we’ll discuss in this pathway. But one of the key differences is that the more information is stored by the brain, the faster it gets at learning, and the more capacious its memory becomes.\n\nIn this sense, it is more like a muscle than a computer. If you keep learning new concepts, your brain will be progressively better-adapted to understanding new information. Think of newly learned information as a volleyball coming over a net. If there are ten people on the side receiving the ball, they’re going to be much more likely to be able to keep it up in the air than if there were just two.\n\n![Graph](image://8c76f457-136e-49f8-bce1-34e8b43df564 \"A game of volleyball at the Olympics. cdephotos, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nIn this analogy, the people receiving the ball are the brain’s prior knowledge. If you can align a new piece of information with ideas and memories that you already have, then you’ll be much more likely to sustain that piece of information in your memory – to keep the ball in the air. This is effectively how neuroplasticity is created – the stronger the network of existing knowledge, the easier it is to assimilate new knowledge into that network.","b280e730-ce60-4e3c-8fa3-edbd7ff1b25f",[243],{"id":244,"data":245,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"deaa38ef-e56e-40f1-a882-2feef533658e",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":246,"binaryCorrect":248,"binaryIncorrect":250},[247],"What leads to stronger neuroplasticity?",[249],"A network of existing concepts",[251],"A clean slate",{"id":253,"data":254,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":257},"15567cbc-c716-485d-ba8a-38de1081f778",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":255,"audioMediaId":256},"Another highly important aspect of learning is error feedback – the process by which we handle mistakes in learning. This is a very important factor, both in learning itself, and in our motivation to learn. Not all that long ago, a standard practice in British and American schools was to use a ‘dunce’s cap.’ The dunce’s cap approach to learning was simple.\n\nThe child who got the most answers wrong that day would be forced to sit in the corner with a large cap with a capital ‘D’ for dunce (meaning idiot) written on it. While the dunce’s cap is fortunately a thing of the past, its legacy remains in many educational systems. Students, teachers and parents all operate under the belief that making mistakes is fundamentally undesirable, and sometimes worthy of punishment.\n\n![Graph](image://b3db6cd7-bca1-426c-bbbd-fc6e9725116c \"A boy wears a dunce's hat in a 19th-century classroom. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThis stigmatizes learning: punishment stops us from engaging. Conversely, good error processing occurs when students are encouraged to participate and generate responses; and then quickly receive objective, non-punitive feedback that enables them to correct themselves. If we are shown that errors are a natural part of learning and an opportunity to refine their exploration, we’ll learn far more quickly.","23729ff0-df9d-4a8e-8f8b-974f477895c3",[258],{"id":259,"data":260,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"48d01757-7d23-4583-9aa8-5c155f11c50f",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":261,"activeRecallAnswers":263},[262],"Healthy error feedback means responding to errors without what?",[264],"Punishment",{"id":266,"data":267,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":270},"6887483b-1e25-49dd-9840-e142508b025b",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":268,"audioMediaId":269},"Back in college, you may have found yourself pulling an all-nighter to meet your deadline or nail an exam. This can sometimes work for short-term gains. However, it almost never works in the long term - while you’ll remember the stuff during that 24 hour period for the test, you won’t remember it for any longer than that. That’s because consolidation is necessary for knowledge to be stored long term.\n\nConsolidation occurs when the knowledge and skills we have acquired shift from effortful processing to unconscious, and automatic expertise. When we are consolidating, we are learning not just consciously but subconsciously. In fact, our brains consolidate new knowledge most effectively while we are asleep.\n\n![Graph](image://a72acd31-4720-44c4-95be-b25c0f04302b \"A WW2 poster encouraging sailors to get good sleep. Image: National Archives at College Park, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nOur dreams allow us to have a whole new landscape of exploration, active engagement and error feedback. Next time you’re trying to learn something, try reading it through before you go to bed - you’ll thank yourself in the morning.","dc7301c5-7157-45ad-8170-9f7f05767fe9",[271],{"id":272,"data":273,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"0426099f-efe2-444d-b870-d5dd300ddb5e",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":274,"binaryCorrect":276,"binaryIncorrect":277},[275],"Sleep is necessary for ...",[216],[278],"Conflagration",{"id":280,"data":281,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":284},"81061d7c-19a9-4205-9660-9d6fecee20a2",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":282,"audioMediaId":283},"![Graph](image://c4f8b1b5-1612-43a6-882c-39806f79130e \"Strong emotions can actually boost our learning\")\n\nThink back to a time at school when you were trying to learn something. How did you feel? Most people have a stronger recollection of how they felt at school – bored, happy, sad – than of the specific moments that they learned new information. Put simply, our minds are hardwired to remember emotional responses. This phenomenon is now widely studied.\n\nJohn MacBeath, Chairman of Educational Leadership at the University of Cambridge, says that, when we look back on our school days as adults, it’s the “peak moments of enjoyment and discovery” that make some memories stand out more than others. This is not something that works just in theory: magazine articles that make you shocked or angry will stick in your head for longer. That’s why so many tabloids frame their headlines to elicit such extreme emotive responses.\n\n![Graph](image://2f510fb2-059c-43f0-9f82-25d4a1920ad2 \"British tabloids are famous for stirring up strong emotions with their headlines. Image: The Sun, Fair use via Wikimedia\")\n\nRather than suppressing your emotions while trying to study, why not try to embrace them? If you can tie the content you’re learning to the emotions you’re feeling, you’re far more likely to remember them.","8c210f3b-3333-48bb-bd6c-dba559566f95",[285],{"id":286,"data":287,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"3058b2d2-f65b-42b6-86e3-37535a696180",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":288,"activeRecallAnswers":290},[289],"According to John MacBeath, what plays a strong role in learning new information?",[291],"Emotion",{"id":293,"data":294,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"orbs":297},"f84e7a27-55d5-41ec-804e-c89523c93602",{"type":28,"title":295,"tagline":296},"The Brain and How it Learns","An overview of the different parts of the brain and how they store memory, and the role that the brain’s reward circuitry has to play in learning.",[298,374,444,550],{"id":299,"data":300,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":302,"introPage":310,"pages":316},"94f76d9c-70fb-4ef2-a62f-6c92c0e4b318",{"type":42,"title":301},"The Hippocampus and Long-Term Memory",{"id":303,"data":304,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"e2740937-de82-4b4a-b5f3-92f191f169a6",{"type":36,"summary":305},[306,307,308,309],"Henry Molaison's lobotomy cured his epilepsy but left him unable to form new memories","The hippocampus, named after the Latin word for seahorse, is crucial for creating new memories","Explicit memories, like events and facts, are first stored in the hippocampus as short-term memories","Short-term memories in the hippocampus can become long-term memories stored in the neocortex",{"id":311,"data":312,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"7233d83d-7120-4f75-a235-38d9eb99e518",{"type":55,"intro":313},[314,315],"What part of the brain is crucial for forming new memories?","What are two factors that influence the transition of information from short-term to long-term memory?",[317,349,362],{"id":318,"data":319,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":322},"8e25641d-61d7-4164-a98a-227cde75516e",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":320,"audioMediaId":321},"One fall morning in Hartford, Connecticut, in 1953, a 27-year-old man named Henry Molaison sat down for a medical procedure. Doctors were trying to cure him of severe epilepsy. They theorized that the source of his condition lay in the area of his brain known as the hippocampus. Their solution? Hammer a spike into his brain and cut the whole hippocampus out, along with his amygdala.\n\nThe procedure – a temporal lobotomy – was, in one sense, successful. Molaison’s epilepsy was cured. But this story is more famous for the side effect that came as a result. Henry Molaison was left unable to form any new memories ever again. Every day he woke up, the last thing he could remember was the day before his lobotomy – September 1st, 1953.\n\n![Graph](image://c6013e0c-a6bf-4dc7-bc66-c99a5163a837 \"Henry Molaison. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThis was true for the rest of his life – right up to his death in 2008. Molaison’s famous case proved what some scientists had already hypothesized – that new memories are created in the hippocampus, and that they stay there for a while before being encoded as long-term memories in the cerebral cortex.","d0113370-4c44-4f4c-be43-c6a7add4415b",[323,330],{"id":324,"data":325,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"0af13315-46b4-4532-8fb6-99b43c964b61",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":326,"clozeWords":328},[327],"Henry Molaison is famous for having his hippocampus removed",[329],"hippocampus",{"id":331,"data":332,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"c070fb9d-bbbc-4d53-b222-7f729455f5ee",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":333,"multiChoiceQuestion":336,"multiChoiceCorrect":338,"multiChoiceIncorrect":340,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":344,"matchPairsPairs":346},[334,335],"7925d43e-bde3-4c3c-afa7-897b2ac8dcd6","057d8ba4-c72d-42e5-9839-4d1bfd1a01cf",[337],"Which of the following best describes a temporal lobotomy?",[339],"Surgical operation involving incision into the brain",[341,342,343],"Memory of experiences","Memory of facts","A program for reviewing material over a long period of time",[345],"Match the pairs below:",[347],{"left":348,"right":339,"direction":36},"Temporal lobotomy",{"id":350,"data":351,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":354},"77dc797d-9097-4e06-9c35-a3157260884f",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":352,"audioMediaId":353},"The crucial part of the brain to forming new memories – the part that the unfortunate Henry Molaison lost – is the hippocampus. The word comes from Latin: ‘hippocampus’ is the Latin word for ‘seahorse,’ and this part of the brain got its name because it looks like one. This little seahorse, buried deep in the very center of your brain, decides which bits of brain activity – or neural pathways – get stored as memories.\n\n![Graph](image://193b4e62-f825-4033-90f7-bb43546f2910 \"The hippocampus (on the left). Image: Professor Laszlo Seress, CC BY-SA 1.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/1.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nMore specifically, these are ‘explicit memories.’ Explicit memories cover both conscious memories of events, known as episodic memories, and of facts and abstract concepts, known as semantic memories. The difference between episodic and semantic memories will be important, so remember: episodic memory is remembering events (think ‘episodes’), and semantic memory is knowing facts.\n\nBoth of these kinds of memory are initially stored as short-term memories in the hippocampus. Over time, some of those short-term memories will be converted into long-term memories that are stored in the neocortex, in the outer layer of the brain.","e13062da-a7e4-4a00-bb56-ebd6453334af",[355],{"id":356,"data":357,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"6f4c1a4e-8d1e-4a1a-87d5-d97d1c64a8e2",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":358,"activeRecallAnswers":360},[359],"The hippocampus is a seahorse shaped structure responsible for what?",[361],"Explicit memories",{"id":363,"data":364,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":367},"ec1eb5cd-d94b-41d2-9d84-bbe7d859bdb0",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":365,"audioMediaId":366},"We’ve thrown around a few big words, but don’t worry – the important thing for our purposes is that **newly learned information doesn’t go straight into your long-term memory**.\n\nInstead it sits in the hippocampus for a while, before some of it is converted into long-term memories, which are stored in the neocortex, and are altogether different than short-term ones. An imperfect analogy that might be helpful is between the brain and a computer – the hippocampus is a little like your RAM temporarily storing an input, and your neocortex is the hard drive, which will permanently save some of that information if needed.\n\n![Graph](image://179fc732-4d96-45ea-a526-4389a69d2d51 \"The neocortex makes up the outer layer of the brain. Image: Visanji, Naomi P., Patricia L. Brooks, Lili-Naz Hazrati, and Anthony E. Lang., CC BY 2.5 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nPlease bear in mind, this is a rough analogy! There are many other ways in which our memory does not work like a computer.\n\n\\\nAnyway, what we’ve been discussing begs the question: what leads some information to make it into long-term memory, while most never does? In truth, a lot remains unknown about this, but there are two factors that we can say with some confidence are influential on this process. These are repetition and reward – the topics of our next orb.","723ca6d0-a5f5-49b2-8099-229f898cca34",[368],{"id":369,"data":370,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"1a33e80c-a923-469d-9fd5-bc9ee22a8333",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":371,"clozeWords":373},[372],"The hippocampus converts short-term memories into long-term ones",[329],{"id":375,"data":376,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":378,"introPage":386,"pages":392},"e90dc01b-a9eb-4629-9dd7-a05771d4bdee",{"type":42,"title":377},"The Role of Repetition",{"id":379,"data":380,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"3dd0c333-3e51-40fc-87d9-0378229f2bca",{"type":36,"summary":381},[382,383,384,385],"Repetition moves memories from short-term to long-term storage","The hippocampus turns episodic memories into semantic ones","Spaced repetition helps activate the same neural pathways","Sleep boosts the hippocampus's ability to encode long-term memories",{"id":387,"data":388,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"bdae04d8-136b-4658-8d33-d88623884fb3",{"type":55,"intro":389},[390,391],"How does the hippocampus turn short-term memories into long-term ones?","What's the secret behind spaced repetition for learning?",[393,407],{"id":394,"data":395,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":398},"ef593216-7279-4ea9-9361-a6faeb607e27",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":396,"audioMediaId":397},"![Graph](image://ed731afb-3a94-4714-b515-de1694313160 \"We know the Earth is round as a semantic fact. Image: DonkeyHotey, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nLet’s look at what makes the difference between a memory that hovers in the short-term memory, then disappears, and one that is encoded into long-term memory.\n\nThe first factor that influences whether a memory is transmitted from short-term to long-term memory is repetition. The hippocampus stores short-term memories as episodic memory. This is true even for facts – if you learned something this morning, and try to remember it in the afternoon, the chances are that you will be remembering the moment you learned it, rather than remembering the fact itself.\n\nThe hippocampus distills long-term semantic memories from episodic ones, when it recognizes the same neural pathways being repeatedly activated. This is because of the difference between episodic and semantic memory – memory of events and memory of facts.","48d4f5d5-90de-4275-9680-b83594649007",[399],{"id":400,"data":401,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"afd3bc3a-87af-4608-b61b-cc24913d954c",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":402,"binaryCorrect":404,"binaryIncorrect":406},[403],"Episodic memory is defined as ...",[405],"Memory of events",[342],{"id":408,"data":409,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":412},"5b85a120-4286-4796-8a59-a251de2a5e44",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":410,"audioMediaId":411},"If you remember from an earlier orb, episodic memory is the memory of events, whereas semantic memory is the memory of facts. While you initially remember everything episodically, in the long term, it’s the semantic memory that sticks. You know that the Earth is a sphere, but can you remember the elementary school lesson where you were taught it?\n\nIt’s possible – but for most of us, we just have this stored as a semantic fact. The way this episodic recollection gets translated into semantic knowledge is through the hippocampus recognizing the same pathways being repeatedly activated.\n\nThis fact has several implications for how best to learn new information. Learning needs to be an exercise in repeating the right neural pathways – basically by absorbing the information on several occasions, at spaced intervals. This technique is called ‘spaced repetition.’\n\nIn practice, this might mean taking a lesson in the day, and checking your notes that evening. Then, taking another look at your notes, and maybe some similar lectures on YouTube, two days later. Finally you’d want to revisit the information a week later. Alternatively, you might want to use a spaced repetition app like Kinnu. But if you’re here, you already know that!\n\n![Graph](image://cb58da9e-7291-48cb-ba09-73181e89e976 \"Exam revision is a common form of spaced repetition. Tulane Public Relations, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nOver time, the hippocampus will recognize the familiar pathway, and will cease to view it as a one-off episode, and start to encode it into the neocortex. A wealth of recent research has suggested that this encoding happens much more during sleep. This is because the hippocampus encodes stuff for long-term storage much more effectively if it doesn't have to identify new pathways from lots of new brain processes at the same time.","d51cdc0f-2828-415c-bb1a-1901dc93d4be",[413,422,433],{"id":414,"data":415,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"d01ea372-2944-45cf-bc18-d2130a81aa48",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":416,"binaryCorrect":418,"binaryIncorrect":420},[417],"\"My teacher said the earth is a sphere\" is an example of what kind of memory?",[419],"Episodic",[421],"Semantic",{"id":334,"data":423,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":424,"multiChoiceQuestion":425,"multiChoiceCorrect":427,"multiChoiceIncorrect":428,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":429,"matchPairsPairs":430},[331,335],[426],"Which of the following best describes episodic memory?",[341],[339,342,343],[345],[431],{"left":432,"right":341,"direction":36},"Episodic memory",{"id":335,"data":434,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":435,"multiChoiceQuestion":436,"multiChoiceCorrect":438,"multiChoiceIncorrect":439,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":440,"matchPairsPairs":441},[331,334],[437],"Which of the following best describes semantic memory?",[342],[339,341,343],[345],[442],{"left":443,"right":342,"direction":36},"Semantic memory",{"id":445,"data":446,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":448,"introPage":456,"pages":462},"b47f50f2-57e4-449f-85fa-50060ce5fee9",{"type":42,"title":447},"The Stick",{"id":449,"data":450,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"2cb0796e-cdc7-489c-9398-6167d4e38d90",{"type":36,"summary":451},[452,453,454,455],"The amygdala triggers stress hormones to help the hippocampus encode memories faster","Emotional experiences make memories stick in your brain","Patches O’Houlihan’s wrench-throwing shows how fear speeds up learning","Using small stressors, like denying treats, can boost learning without wrenches",{"id":457,"data":458,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"b1060611-fe9f-495c-be17-c9505d483faa",{"type":55,"intro":459},[460,461],"How does the amygdala speed up memory encoding in the hippocampus?","Why do intense experiences make memories stick better?",[463,476,498,503],{"id":464,"data":465,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":468},"48d25b29-89c4-41ac-b49f-7589aa17bb08",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":466,"audioMediaId":467},"Repetition encourages our brain to encode information into our long-term memory. But the ability to memorize new information isn’t the only aspect of learning. Another huge part of learning is motivation.\n\nMotivation is the reason you want to learn something in the first place, and the factor that will make you stick at learning it enough to make those essential repetitions. Understanding the neuroscience behind motivation is highly important to understanding how to learn successfully.\n\nThe key area of the brain that deals with motivation is called the reward system. This system is made up of several parts, but, for our purposes, we will be considering the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala.\n\n![Graph](image://03879df7-33bf-4287-a153-991061de74f7 \"The prefrontal cortex, highlighted in yellow. Image: Henry Vandyke Carter, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThese two parts of the reward system can encourage the hippocampus to encode information using two motivation tactics that we all understand – the carrot (the prefrontal cortex), and the stick (the amygdala).","d1f74935-f325-4184-b3e3-288a69e0ceb7",[469],{"id":470,"data":471,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"530fa7f6-170b-4510-8824-804e9638b756",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":472,"activeRecallAnswers":474},[473],"The amygdala is a part of what system in the brain, which is involved in motivation?",[475],"The reward system",{"id":477,"data":478,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":481},"5ca8c5a6-ad87-4a56-8bf9-a4944c6e35d2",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":479,"audioMediaId":480},"The amygdala is a tiny acorn-like bulb, sitting right next to the seahorse-shaped hippocampus. This acorn has been behind every feeling of stress, fear and anxiety you’ve ever felt. The amygdala processes intense emotional stimuli.\n\nMemories that have been associated with emotional stimuli in the amygdala will be encoded more quickly into the long term by the hippocampus. This is because the amygdala triggers the release of stress hormones – raising your heart rate and making you sweat – for neural pathways that it recognizes as potentially dangerous.\n\n![Graph](image://50ca0221-58a4-4616-b0fb-4202b8f33d78 \"The amygdala. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThis has an obvious function – your brain wants to remember the stuff that was most harmful in the past, encoding it to long-term memory so that it knows how to avoid harm in the future. Your hippocampus will encode memories more quickly when they are accompanied by this stress response from your amygdala. Pathways that have been accompanied by this heightened activity from stress hormones will be fast-streamed into the neocortex.","b50da064-d902-4f64-8bfe-7e9eae5fb3e1",[482,489],{"id":483,"data":484,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"d8ba565b-584c-4ff7-90fe-dc88480c1b5c",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":485,"clozeWords":487},[486],"The amygdala processes intense emotional stimuli, and triggers the release of stress hormones.",[488],"intense emotional",{"id":490,"data":491,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"7f1f80cc-1871-412e-9ec1-eda2b4aea22e",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":492,"binaryCorrect":494,"binaryIncorrect":496},[493],"The amygdala speeds up the encoding of memories by identifying what?",[495],"Stressful experiences",[497],"Complex information",{"id":499,"data":500,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42},"bc55ae05-5d6a-40b5-94eb-23fe0733715b",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":501,"audioMediaId":502},"To think about how the amygdala helps encode memory, let’s look at a character in the classic comedy *Dodgeball* called Patches O’Houlihan. Patches is a dodgeball coach whose training technique involves carrying a big sack of monkey wrenches with him at all times. At random intervals, when a team member isn’t expecting it, he throws one at their head.\n\nIn the coach’s words, “if you can dodge a wrench, you can dodge a ball.” The aim is to give them such intense fear of being hit by his wrench that their reactions to dodging flying objects – including, of course, balls – become lightning-fast.","5611952d-452a-41f1-b7a6-b2100e658cce",{"id":504,"data":505,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":508},"a9f11787-b84c-4d06-854c-7e37663ecaee",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":506,"audioMediaId":507},"The case of Patches O’Houlihan more or less illustrates the role of the amygdala in speeding up the hippocampus’s encoding of memories. The amygdala has identified an extremely painful experience, and the hippocampus has fast-streamed the knowledge – ‘flying objects will really hurt you’ – straight to the neocortex as a result.\n\nAll it takes is a powerful emotional association with an event and the hippocampus will ensure you don’t forget it in a hurry. “If you can dodge a wrench, you can dodge a ball.”\n\nOf course, in reality we can create less extreme emotional responses than a fear of flying wrenches. When learning we can deny ourselves a treat or a break until we get something right – this might have a similar, but altogether healthier, effect.","c4c53692-939f-4063-a78a-152a7b2298c5",[509,520,539],{"id":510,"data":511,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"3d287abd-1270-41b2-8b76-dc9b866a14b8",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":512,"multiChoiceCorrect":514,"multiChoiceIncorrect":516,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[513],"Which of these is a true statement about the amygdala?",[515],"It triggers a stress response",[517,518,519],"It calms us down","It encodes information into the long-term memory","It stores short-term memories",{"id":521,"data":522,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"a54b772a-512b-49ef-94c9-43f3b1a638cf",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":523,"multiChoiceQuestion":527,"multiChoiceCorrect":529,"multiChoiceIncorrect":531,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":535,"matchPairsPairs":536},[524,525,526],"f37ba248-8211-4204-86d7-93cd9a22c81f","f2227258-672b-4927-8f48-3780410d0c7f","f32df9d9-fc1e-43d1-96d4-9dd5a6fc82cd",[528],"Which part of the brain processes intense emotional stimuli and triggers the release of stress hormones?",[530],"Amygdala",[532,533,534],"Hippocampus","Prefrontal cortex","Dopamine",[345],[537],{"left":530,"right":538,"direction":36},"Processes intense emotional stimuli, triggers release of stress hormones",{"id":524,"data":540,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":541,"multiChoiceQuestion":542,"multiChoiceCorrect":544,"multiChoiceIncorrect":545,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":546,"matchPairsPairs":547},[521,525,526],[543],"Which part of the brain is responsible for selecting short-term memories and encoding them into long-term memories?",[532],[530,533,534],[345],[548],{"left":532,"right":549,"direction":36},"Selects short-term memories and encodes them in the long-term",{"id":551,"data":552,"type":42,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":554,"introPage":562,"pages":568},"9c2c8ce5-f0da-4f62-8c5b-e66b67edccfe",{"type":42,"title":553},"The Carrot",{"id":555,"data":556,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"205e59dc-ad4f-423b-96ab-4cbb65b4d498",{"type":36,"summary":557},[558,559,560,561],"The amygdala speeds up learning with stress hormones","The prefrontal cortex uses dopamine to reward goal-aligned actions","Dopamine is about pleasure and helps encode memories","Hitting goals releases dopamine, making memories stick",{"id":563,"data":564,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"c276db2a-2431-41cd-b66d-ce4ff856a195",{"type":55,"intro":565},[566,567],"How does the prefrontal cortex use dopamine to influence memory encoding?","What happens in your brain when your goals align with your learning activities?",[569,583,598,615,620],{"id":570,"data":571,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":574},"1b216627-2f99-4733-9f65-64854d62cd0c",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":572,"audioMediaId":573},"So, one aspect of your brain’s motivation to learn is ‘the stick’ – the amygdala speeding the process up through the release of stress hormones. This means that you will find yourself learning information that’s associated with a powerful emotional response much more quickly. The second way that the reward system influences your brain’s motivation is through the carrot – the prefrontal cortex and dopamine pathways.\n\n![Graph](image://3867227b-7202-4b8d-8e0f-a5d0a070c4c5 \"A diagram illustrating the flow of hormones from the prefrontal cortex (PFC) to other parts of the brain. GeorgeVKach, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe prefrontal cortex is the part of your brain that deals with high-level goals and delayed gratification. It’s best thought of as the responsible, grown-up part of your brain. While other parts of the brain might be saying ‘maybe I do need to watch “Top Ten Unexpected Deaths in Game of Thrones”,’ the prefrontal cortex is the part that says, ‘you’ve already spent the past 45 minutes on YouTube!’","52944715-94b9-4fb8-a3bb-f6607ac820de",[575],{"id":576,"data":577,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"24b4ec5b-520b-4b06-a24c-c1ae264b5fd9",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":578,"multiChoiceCorrect":580,"multiChoiceIncorrect":581,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[579],"What part of the brain encourages you to pursue long-term goals?",[533],[582,530,532],"Neocortex",{"id":584,"data":585,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":588},"b8d67401-a7cf-42f5-a6b4-df13926d876c",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":586,"audioMediaId":587},"The prefrontal cortex works by storing long-term goals. Some of these are learned – ‘I want to buy a house one day’, others are instinctive – ‘I want my children to be safe.’ In either case, the prefrontal cortex uses these goals to influence the memory encoding process we discussed earlier. It does this through the brain’s dopamine pathways.\n\nYou may know dopamine as the ‘happy hormone.’ This is broadly accurate. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter – a chemical that sends messages from one part of the brain to the other. In the case of dopamine, this is a reward message – the brain will use dopamine to communicate the message ‘this is good, we need to keep doing this!’","c59fc2ef-661d-40f6-b28a-e0b83a3bd1db",[589],{"id":590,"data":591,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"5f8cad49-55ef-4b64-9b47-8ae13e6b7ce6",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":592,"binaryCorrect":594,"binaryIncorrect":596},[593],"Dopamine is used by the brain to ...",[595],"Send reward messages",[597],"Trigger stress responses",{"id":599,"data":600,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":603},"27cda61a-aa64-419c-88d7-9c649a137e6a",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":601,"audioMediaId":602},"Dopamine is slightly more complicated than being simply the happiness chemical. There’s another neurotransmitter, serotonin, that’s at play in happiness. The difference between the two is that dopamine is about pleasure, and especially the anticipation of pleasure, whereas serotonin is about contentment.\n\nDopamine is this feeling: ‘Yippee! My pizza has arrived!’. Serotonin is this feeling: ‘I’m feeling really on top of things and happy with my life at the moment.’\n\nFor the micro-rewards that are needed to help us remember stuff, it’s dopamine that’s going to be the most helpful.","4abc391c-e47d-41cc-adb1-560f7d601a79",[604],{"id":605,"data":606,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"546e7b23-255b-4de9-aa9f-936c82c8ddff",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":607,"multiChoiceCorrect":609,"multiChoiceIncorrect":611,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[608],"Which of these would be a feeling associated with serotonin?",[610],"Satisfaction with life",[612,613,614],"Anticipation of pleasure","Stress from work","Nervousness before a speech",{"id":616,"data":617,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42},"4c6c6b18-3f64-4f88-a621-67bafdbfcde8",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":618,"audioMediaId":619},"The prefrontal cortex sends a reward message through the dopamine pathway when it recognizes activity in the hippocampus that aligns with its long-term goals.\n\nEssentially, it spots neural pathways that will help contribute to the long-term goals that it values. It will then send a little hit of dopamine to the hippocampus, that will both encourage it to encode that pathway as a memory and trigger a feeling of pleasure.","5a7a9342-f0f5-4336-a887-dfb49e4ae007",{"id":621,"data":622,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":625},"eab2e7b0-f80d-4260-96e8-6690d647f7b9",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":623,"audioMediaId":624},"Let’s say your goal is to become a basketball player. You have an image in your head of yourself hitting the winning free throw in the NBA play-offs. You practice for hours and hours to hit free throws consistently.\n\n![Graph](image://0385f606-8489-47de-b885-196c0309bcec \"The prefrontal cortex helps top achievers learn towards their long-term goals. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nEvery time you hit that free throw, the image in your hippocampus matches up to that stored image on your prefrontal cortex. A little dopamine is released and the memory of how you threw the ball that time is recognized as more valuable by your hippocampus, which will encode it for long-term storage.","84a172a1-56fe-4d37-9a3e-4a3831d33d0e",[626,632,643],{"id":627,"data":628,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"fab2375d-7404-499e-8f03-51ce6e404ad8",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":629,"activeRecallAnswers":631},[630],"The prefrontal cortex helps the hippocampus encode memories by releasing what hormone?",[534],{"id":525,"data":633,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":634,"multiChoiceQuestion":635,"multiChoiceCorrect":637,"multiChoiceIncorrect":638,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":639,"matchPairsPairs":640},[521,524,526],[636],"Which part of the brain is responsible for dealing with high-level goals and delayed gratification?",[533],[530,532,534],[345],[641],{"left":533,"right":642,"direction":36},"Deals with high-level goals and delayed gratification",{"id":526,"data":644,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":645,"multiChoiceQuestion":646,"multiChoiceCorrect":648,"multiChoiceIncorrect":649,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":650,"matchPairsPairs":651},[521,524,525],[647],"Which chemical is associated with anticipated rewards?",[534],[530,532,533],[345],[652],{"left":534,"right":653,"direction":36},"Chemical associated with anticpated rewards",{"id":655,"data":656,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"orbs":659},"aa37dd5b-c4e2-4004-a969-fec392ac181e",{"type":28,"title":657,"tagline":658},"Learning Strategies – Managing Your Learning Through Forgetting and Repetition","A guide to understanding what makes a learning strategy effective or bad.",[660,758,851],{"id":661,"data":662,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":664,"introPage":672,"pages":678},"31b87739-8a36-4c0a-9629-f295603cca63",{"type":42,"title":663},"The Forgetting Curve",{"id":665,"data":666,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"49275a6b-8561-476e-b207-9cea1ef45c2a",{"type":36,"summary":667},[668,669,670,671],"The Forgetting Curve shows we forget 90% of new info within a month","Most forgetting happens in the first few days after learning","Spaced repetition helps beat the Forgetting Curve by spreading out study sessions","Self-testing with spaced practice boosts memory and reveals weak spots",{"id":673,"data":674,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"6764193b-3ff1-4018-87e6-2231eb507264",{"type":55,"intro":675},[676,677],"What is the formula for the forgetting curve?","How does spaced repetition help beat the forgetting curve?",[679,692,709,742],{"id":680,"data":681,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":684},"cb996326-6504-4c99-ac59-e7aacec62f0f",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":682,"audioMediaId":683},"Anyone who’s ever played a team sport will know that you don’t just run onto the field and hope for the best. Instead, you need both a coherent, high-level strategy, and an action plan for delivering on that strategy. Learning is no different.\n\nA good learning strategy will consider the three most important aspects of learning – motivation, knowledge retention, and the future transfer of knowledge. Some of the most effective learning techniques are counterintuitive: they go against common sense and what ‘feels’ right and natural, especially since they’re so different to how we learned at school.","92544753-273e-4328-b458-f8ac7d967d01",[685],{"id":686,"data":687,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"ca54cdf4-4a5d-45ab-82f0-8ea262a36312",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":688,"activeRecallAnswers":690},[689],"A good learning strategy includes motivation, knowledge retention and ...",[691],"Transfer of knowledge",{"id":693,"data":694,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":697},"f09ccad8-435f-4c68-9f76-27e1486fe7bd",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":695,"audioMediaId":696},"One of the core considerations that any learning strategy needs to address is the ‘Forgetting Curve.’ This was discovered by a 19th century psychologist called Hermann Ebbinghaus. Over several studies, Ebbinghaus discovered that, after a single learning session, humans are likely to forget 90% of the material within a month.\n\n![Graph](image://91fc8ed7-4abf-4734-909d-b0a16195161a \"Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve\")\n\nThis is interesting in itself – but the really crazy thing is that he found that this rate of forgetting followed a curve. The first few days saw most of the information being forgotten, and the later days and weeks saw a much slower rate of forgetting. He was actually able to plot his findings in a formula that can be represented on a graph. The formula goes R = exp(-t/S).\n\nWhat Ebbinghaus’s findings prove is that the first day or two after learning was absolutely crucial to retaining new information.\n\n![Graph](image://4ee6fd49-71da-4532-a8d2-61ec78a761f0 \"Herman Ebbinghaus. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")","f20421d5-1ac4-493d-bcdb-7d97c2fda4a1",[698],{"id":699,"data":700,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"bdcd0ffc-0cfc-4f8b-b451-0813e0c871b0",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":701,"multiChoiceCorrect":703,"multiChoiceIncorrect":705,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[702],"How much material is generally forgotten within a month of a training session?",[704],"90%",[706,707,708],"50%","60%","85%",{"id":710,"data":711,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":714},"912e8963-20d2-41d2-91a1-770ef04e6e3d",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":712,"audioMediaId":713},"Clearly, the forgetting curve presents a problem to those of us trying to learn. How can we prevent that massive loss of information in the first few days?\n\nWell, Ebbinghaus also studied this. He found that the golden rule to embed new knowledge in long-term memory is ‘spaced repetition.’ This is a study technique that involves reviewing material over a longer period, for example, by spreading out lessons or study sessions.\n\nThe optimal learning schedule is one where the intervals between retrieval practices become increasingly longer. For example, you might test yourself an hour after learning something, then a day after that, then a week after, and finally after a month.\n\nThis is called ‘expanding retrieval.’ The reason that this works is because retrieving information after you’ve forgotten it requires more work and allows you to go back through the consolidation process again.","f23c2563-4956-44c9-8d18-650ecbcfde3b",[715,722],{"id":716,"data":717,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"6ff7d79e-9feb-453c-a8eb-0190128099ac",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":718,"activeRecallAnswers":720},[719],"What learning technique is used to counteract the forgetting curve?",[721],"Spaced repetition",{"id":723,"data":724,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"e1dce3ce-66ad-41fe-a986-00b85d8abe2c",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":725,"multiChoiceQuestion":729,"multiChoiceCorrect":731,"multiChoiceIncorrect":733,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":737,"matchPairsPairs":738},[726,727,728],"90f8186c-4132-488f-865e-711192a1a058","a3afce2f-4537-4e4d-ba68-addb933a79d5","72275aa6-a7d2-48f6-b92a-aa7b8d28ef46",[730],"Which of the following best describes expanding retrieval?",[732],"Increasing the space between each review of the material",[734,735,736],"Putting different subjects side-by-side to vary and improve learning","Taking a short break from a problem before returning to it","Revisiting ideas over a long period of time to allow slow buildup of thought",[345],[739],{"left":740,"right":741,"direction":36},"Expanding retrieval","Increasing the space betwen each review of the material",{"id":743,"data":744,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":747},"df7c1ae3-7971-458f-b7ad-e6d027167a65",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":745,"audioMediaId":746},"Have you ever found yourself thinking that you’re an expert in an area – maybe you’ve studied it at university, or read half a dozen books on the topic – but when it comes up in conversation you find yourself unable to remember any interesting facts about it?\n\nThis is a cognitive bias called ‘the illusion of knowing.’ It happens because passive repetition, such as re-reading and highlighting, can cause us to overestimate our knowledge and understanding of the topic.\n\n![Graph](image://31d86022-b2aa-4319-80ee-61aad21e8f3a \"Flashcards can be useful for self-testing. Image: Public domain\")\n\nWhen we practice something actively then resume our practice after a period of time – ideally, just at the point where we feel we are on the brink of forgetting it – we are able to see our blind spots and identify areas that need improving.\n\nWant to really supercharge your learning? Combine spaced practice with self-testing. This will increase your self-awareness, or ‘meta-memory’, enabling you to focus harder on areas of difficulty during subsequent practice sessions. This is the logic behind the ‘smart session’ on Kinnu.","9537700d-a783-48a8-810c-08827d0d0224",[748],{"id":749,"data":750,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"5b7ef3a3-5ba9-4abd-8383-c83bf28ffa54",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":751,"multiChoiceCorrect":753,"multiChoiceIncorrect":755,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[752],"Which of these leads to 'the illusion of knowing'?",[754],"Passive repetition",[756,721,757],"Active recall","Self-testing",{"id":759,"data":760,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":762,"introPage":770,"pages":776},"316dba31-ac90-4e83-9c26-3ea1ead2d9e3",{"type":42,"title":761},"Learning in Varied Contexts",{"id":763,"data":764,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"dfb71171-4f7b-4f24-8bd3-53599216049c",{"type":36,"summary":765},[766,767,768,769],"Studying in different rooms boosts memory retention","Interleaving topics improves recall by about 40%","Mixing learning contexts sharpens your understanding","Varied learning conditions lead to deeper comprehension",{"id":771,"data":772,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"4cc91536-0429-4aa7-8341-1a0af9384e0b",{"type":55,"intro":773},[774,775],"Why does studying in different rooms help you remember better?","How can getting mixed up improve your learning?",[777,782,795,808,824],{"id":778,"data":779,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36},"54d193bc-af41-4f6f-95ec-0ec63cf34cc5",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":780,"audioMediaId":781},"![Graph](image://c226cdab-ec60-41bb-9b86-235e3e6635d6 \"Psychologist Robert Bjork. Image: UQx Think101, CC BY 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHow often have you been told to create a dedicated space for work or study to boost your learning and recall? Maybe you’ve been told that you should turn your desk into a perfect distraction free utopia. Well, the research shows this may not be such a good idea.\n\nIn 1978, a trio of psychologists led by Robert Bjork gave two groups of college students a list of 40 vocabulary words to revise. One group was instructed to study in a single room and the other group was instructed to divide their study sessions between two rooms.","972bb2cc-bc0e-42a4-834d-a87002c1ae78",{"id":783,"data":784,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":787},"d4b31e4c-9652-4850-ac23-e90d5d95d797",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":785,"audioMediaId":786},"The researchers then tested both groups to see how much of the material they had retained and found that the students who studied in two rooms performed far better than the students who studied the same words twice, in the same room.\n\nWhat was happening here? According to the study’s authors, when the external context is varied, the information we take in is enriched, which slows down forgetting.\n\nThis, they asserted, is because the brain subtly associates what it is studying with the background sensations it has while learning.","a198e980-7e78-4461-b8ac-d78a09bf1989",[788],{"id":789,"data":790,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"9da48096-ebfe-4281-8eea-37fd7452d7f2",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":791,"clozeWords":793},[792],"External variety in learning, such as changing rooms between studying, can lead to higher retention.",[794],"External variety",{"id":796,"data":797,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":800},"15767870-2425-4d38-85c0-d1f537faae2b",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":798,"audioMediaId":799},"Imagine sitting in your English class and your teacher suddenly asks you to name the capital of Mali. You might feel a bit annoyed (admittedly, this is an extreme example).\n\nBut the principle behind this – mixing your learning topics within different contexts, can actually be a great help to your learning. It’s called interleaving.\n\nYou might think that this will lead to confusion – but in fact it can be crucial to learning.\n\nInterleaving is a learning strategy that involves switching between topics and ideas in a short space of time. It sounds counterintuitive but jumping between topics has been found to improve recall by about 40%.\n\nRather than getting you into a rhythm, it encourages you to stay conscious of what exactly it is you are learning. This sharpens your discrimination skills, and also helps you recall the information without warning – which should be the aim of any learning.","72b42c64-f533-4f5a-9d75-4e1a36ac382e",[801],{"id":802,"data":803,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"1fb13137-b325-43d2-beef-d2aa3769284c",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":804,"activeRecallAnswers":806},[805],"What do we call switching between topics in a short space of time while learning?",[807],"Interleaving",{"id":809,"data":810,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":813},"8aebf883-b613-44e4-8b83-a6fefef0711e",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":811,"audioMediaId":812},"However, we still don’t know everything about interleaving. For instance, it’s been proven that interleaving doesn’t work with completely unrelated material, but it’s still not known how closely related the material needs to be for interleaving to work.\n\nOpponents of interleaving often say that it can lead to students getting confused. What happens if they mix up their geography with their math? Well, according to learning scientists, when it comes to learning, getting mixed up can actually be a good thing.","a9440581-0517-4261-902f-b14f17d3e8ae",[814],{"id":815,"data":816,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"ee06bee5-2e72-4b7c-825e-4144a725ffc8",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":817,"multiChoiceCorrect":819,"multiChoiceIncorrect":821,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[818],"Which of these do some people cite as a potential risk of interleaving?",[820],"Confusion",[822,215,823],"Overwork","Information overload",{"id":825,"data":826,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":829},"0b71209e-7ce4-4b3d-b981-2cfc53555241",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":827,"audioMediaId":828},"![Graph](image://359ccf1a-7fb7-4938-a106-7f04bb638753 \"Studying math can help with your geography. Image: Allice Hunter, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nVarying the conditions under which we learn makes learning harder but leads to better learning. This is because, when learning occurs under varied conditions, important ideas can be brought to mind in several different contexts.\n\nThis leads learners to have a deeper understanding of the concepts themselves, rather than just viewing them within specific contexts. For example – you may not really understand what you’ve learned in your statistics class until you have to apply that learning to calculate a country’s GDP per capita for your geography homework.","265b67f4-184b-491a-806d-c0c00b58d001",[830,841],{"id":831,"data":832,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"e3c0dda9-aca5-46aa-b83d-826c113254b2",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":833,"multiChoiceCorrect":835,"multiChoiceIncorrect":837,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[834],"Which of these is true of interleaving?",[836],"It makes it easier to apply information in new contexts",[838,839,840],"It makes it easier to learn new information","It should be avoided","It is always valuable regardless of the subject matter",{"id":726,"data":842,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":843,"multiChoiceQuestion":844,"multiChoiceCorrect":846,"multiChoiceIncorrect":847,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":848,"matchPairsPairs":849},[723,727,728],[845],"Which of the following best describes interleaving?",[734],[741,735,736],[345],[850],{"left":807,"right":734,"direction":36},{"id":852,"data":853,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":855,"introPage":863,"pages":869},"488d6a31-c197-4413-946e-1d5334b610c9",{"type":42,"title":854},"Incubation and Percolation",{"id":856,"data":857,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"cb8aa1c0-a618-4f63-a59f-f1f55d34d31c",{"type":36,"summary":858},[859,860,861,862],"Archimedes and Turing had breakthroughs away from their workspaces","Incubation means taking a short break to solve a single-solution problem","Percolation needs longer breaks to grasp complex, new concepts","Think of percolation like making pour-over coffee: slow and steady",{"id":864,"data":865,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"92d5374d-d353-4ac3-90f3-68ce43882b46",{"type":55,"intro":866},[867,868],"What is the main difference between incubation and percolation?","How does percolation help in understanding complex problems?",[870,875,908],{"id":871,"data":872,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36},"82763587-0363-4cd8-bf49-afcd18f7cb76",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":873,"audioMediaId":874},"Have you ever been stuck on a problem and found that leaving your desk and going for a walk actually helps? Maybe while ruminating you finally had your ‘eureka’ moment – after all, Archimedes made his great discovery in the bathtub.\n\nAlternatively, what if you had your big creative design breakthrough at the dinner table rather than sitting at the canvas? Alan Turing had his breakthrough on solving the Enigma code while having a drink in a pub. Bertrand Russell famously claimed he came up with logical proof for the existence of God while buying tobacco for his pipe.\n\n![Graph](image://4508b40a-8f6c-41e8-8e64-a1b8811eb35e \"Bertrand Russell. Image: Bassano Ltd, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nWell, the fact that good learning can come when you aren’t consciously working is not just something that we know empirically: it is also scientifically proven. This is due to the phenomena of incubation and percolation. These are two similar ways of processing information that operate on different timeframes.","f023443d-a8d1-4e24-a62a-234ed33ca712",{"id":876,"data":877,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":880},"fb8a911b-ed41-416a-a5d2-262cbfd2991e",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":878,"audioMediaId":879},"Incubation involves walking away for a short amount of time whereas percolation involves a longer absence from the content. However, both processes are great for problem-solving.\n\nIncubation means setting aside a problem for a period of time to allow it to be processed unconsciously. This is a useful strategy for problems that, at their core, have a single solution that is not readily apparent.\n\n![Graph](image://7c0aea26-b75d-46dd-ace2-6bca80a4b9c0 \"A stroll can be a good method of incubation. Image: Public domain\")\n\nIncubation is a fast-acting solution when you’re feeling stuck. It involves taking a short break to take a step back from a problem, and allowing your mind to wander. This can often be as simple as standing up and changing your physical position, going for a walk or doing the dishes, before coming back to a piece of work.","85c54dd5-cea4-4e42-981e-f57bfa7b388f",[881,890,897],{"id":882,"data":883,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"fc249fad-27ff-4ede-bdb7-3e7e93183f0a",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":884,"binaryCorrect":886,"binaryIncorrect":888},[885],"Which of these works over a shorter timespan?",[887],"Incubations",[889],"Percolation",{"id":891,"data":892,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"eb2a6c06-2edb-407a-b94b-4ed3357d807b",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":893,"clozeWords":895},[894],"Incubation is best for closed problems with a single solution",[896],"single",{"id":727,"data":898,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":899,"multiChoiceQuestion":900,"multiChoiceCorrect":902,"multiChoiceIncorrect":903,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":904,"matchPairsPairs":905},[723,726,728],[901],"Which of the following best describes incubation?",[735],[741,734,736],[345],[906],{"left":907,"right":735,"direction":36},"Incubation",{"id":909,"data":910,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":913},"bf4b92d2-84de-400a-b1e7-0a1e4d011ccb",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":911,"audioMediaId":912},"If we want to solve problems that are more complicated, we are going to need a more intricate solution. Often, learning a new area of study requires a set of ‘threshold concepts.’ These are the essentials necessary to understand the whole field. In order to establish threshold concepts, a significant amount of processing time is necessary.\n\nWe might need an hour, a day, a week, or even more to give our ideas room to breathe. This idea is called ‘percolation.’ One way to think about percolation is to think about a pour-over coffee filter. If you pour too much water into the filter it will overflow, and you’ll be left with a hot mess.\n\n![Graph](image://cc4c0422-cf91-4815-b4ad-def5a268eb41 \"A pourover coffee filter. Image: HungryHuy, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe way to get the perfect cup of coffee is to pour the water in a little at a time, allowing it to sink through, before you add a little more. Percolation requires longer breaks than incubation, but it is better for instilling totally new and complicated concepts.","8d184648-5dba-4600-8167-72b89f6400b9",[914,921],{"id":915,"data":916,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"031625de-5a51-4575-b4d6-48c2dd5e776b",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":917,"activeRecallAnswers":919},[918],"What kind of problems is percolation good for?",[920],"New, complicated problems",{"id":728,"data":922,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":923,"multiChoiceQuestion":924,"multiChoiceCorrect":926,"multiChoiceIncorrect":927,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":928,"matchPairsPairs":929},[723,726,727],[925],"Which of the following best describes percolation?",[736],[732,734,735],[345],[930],{"left":889,"right":736,"direction":36},{"id":932,"data":933,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"orbs":936},"6c2c814a-f1de-4f44-a0fa-61b2cfa0c31d",{"type":28,"title":934,"tagline":935},"Techniques of the Memory Masters","How the world’s greatest minds use techniques to perform incredible feats of memory – and how understanding these techniques can impact your own learning.",[937,1039],{"id":938,"data":939,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":941,"introPage":949,"pages":955},"1080cfd5-869b-418a-9066-d3f8b243ec60",{"type":42,"title":940},"Memory Champions and Mnemomnics",{"id":942,"data":943,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"c1a0afe1-3c8c-4533-b517-baa160718122",{"type":36,"summary":944},[945,946,947,948],"Memory Athletes compete in events like Speed Cards and binary memorization","Chunking groups info into smaller bits, like remembering 'Roy G Biv' for rainbow colors","Elaborative encoding uses silly images to link new info with what you already know","Combining images in elaborative encoding helps remember multiple items at once",{"id":950,"data":951,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"6ed10a60-106a-442c-bd11-999c9d4cf8fe",{"type":55,"intro":952},[953,954],"What is the headliner event at the World Memory Championships?","How does elaborative encoding help in memorization?",[956,973,986],{"id":957,"data":958,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":961},"e7cb95a6-2b31-4462-9328-b9977af9fced",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":959,"audioMediaId":960},"On the second Sunday of December each year, a small but dedicated group of enthusiasts from around the world gather to perform astonishing feats of memory. This is the World Memory Championships.\n\nCompetitors known as ‘Memory Athletes’ fight it out in several disciplines. There are competitions in binary memorization, names and faces, and date memorization, among others. The headliner event – the sport’s version of the 100 meter sprint – is called ‘Speed Cards.’ The athletes compete to memorize the order of a shuffled pack of 52 cards in the quickest time possible.\n\n![Graph](image://2048bdae-3987-46e5-ada5-b616d357cd8a \"Cards laid out for speed cards. No machine-readable author provided. Mahatma~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims)., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe world record? Just 12.7 seconds. Other athletes have successfully recalled over 7000 random digits after just 30 minutes of memorizing.\n\nThese memory athletes have figured out methods for extraordinary levels of memorization, that anyone can master with enough practice. Understanding and applying these memorization techniques can be extremely helpful in many different kinds of learning.","cc4169c6-818e-4ed0-a2d3-52f566c014f3",[962],{"id":963,"data":964,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"abda6070-ff7a-4b80-b83f-531d9d065327",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":965,"multiChoiceCorrect":967,"multiChoiceIncorrect":969,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[966],"What is the main event at the annual World Memory Championships?",[968],"Speed cards",[970,971,972],"Names and faces","Binary digits","Date memorization",{"id":974,"data":975,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":978},"0ac207d2-82f9-42ee-89bd-0cccd7a803d8",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":976,"audioMediaId":977},"The methods used by memory athletes all work on the same principle: compression. The aim is to store the smallest possible amount of data needed to remind you of each item you want to memorize.\n\nThere are several methods for doing this, collectively known as ‘mnemonic devices.’\n\nThe first of these is called chunking. Chunking is the process of grouping related bits of information together to reduce the number of things you need to remember. The aim of chunking is to allow one piece of information to act as a kernel, within which can be stored more detailed information. For example, if you tried to remember all the colors of the rainbow in a list, you would need to store seven items.\n\n![Graph](image://4b7fc973-f1b3-4930-a3a5-1f46d39845d2 \"the colors of the rainbow: ROY G BIV. Image: Oren neu dag, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHowever, if you just remember the name ‘Roy G Biv,’ you can more easily remember the colors in relation to each other. It works because most of us only have the capacity to store five-nine items in our short term memory. With chunking, an item like ‘Roy G Biv’ is the only thing we need to remember – but it’s all we are likely to need to jog our memory for several further items.","3b1cbda8-dfe0-40be-a412-71ef9c2effac",[979],{"id":980,"data":981,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"3684516c-37ef-4b6f-a2a5-cc233d3d7789",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":982,"clozeWords":984},[983],"Chunking is a mnemonic device that works by grouping related bits of information together",[985],"mnemonic device",{"id":987,"data":988,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":991},"c3ec4e7a-bc5e-45db-b2eb-b11fb761036b",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":989,"audioMediaId":990},"Another method for highly effective memorization is called elaborative encoding. Elaborative encoding is a kind of compression but it actually works by adding more information, not less. The aim is to align new information with images and places that you know well, to minimize the cognitive energy required to memorize it. So, for example – imagine you are a teacher learning your students’ surnames.\n\nThere’s a student called Miller, one called Rivera, and one called Kim. For Miller you might imagine him with a little windmill on his head; you could picture Rivera in a boat floating down a river; Kim might look like the cartoon character Kim Possible.\n\n![Graph](image://365a1209-0aa5-4854-8c3c-1be5e48356b5 \"AI-generated image, 'Kim Possible floating down a river past a windmill\")\n\nThese are obviously silly – but that’s kind of the point! For this to be even more effective – and this is where compression comes in – you’d want to combine all the images together. So imagine Kim Possible floating down a river past a windmill. And just like that, in one image you’ve remembered 3 names!","b5d84851-2997-4be9-bc8b-6baddf39bddc",[992,999,1018,1028],{"id":993,"data":994,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"c645d3ca-6990-4f09-892a-6196da6d7e46",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":995,"clozeWords":997},[996],"Elaborative encoding is a way of remembering information by adding imaginative details to it",[998],"Elaborative encoding",{"id":1000,"data":1001,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"38cb1100-c170-442f-bcc1-13547d232719",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1002,"multiChoiceQuestion":1006,"multiChoiceCorrect":1008,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1010,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1014,"matchPairsPairs":1015},[1003,1004,1005],"9fe6489d-d3f6-4de6-81da-eb22dc0dce8a","6c7497fc-14fa-4290-b180-0519a771b7e3","433aaea1-dd8c-4296-9bea-82bcaf01c964",[1007],"Which of the following best describes chunking?",[1009],"Memory technique to reduce number of items to remember",[1011,1012,1013],"Memory technique that adds more information for effective memorization","Forcing the brain to recall information rather than reading it","Storing the minimum data for you to memorize something",[345],[1016],{"left":1017,"right":1009,"direction":36},"Chunking",{"id":1003,"data":1019,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1020,"multiChoiceQuestion":1021,"multiChoiceCorrect":1023,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1024,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1025,"matchPairsPairs":1026},[1000,1004,1005],[1022],"Which of the following best describes elaborative encoding?",[1011],[1009,1012,1013],[345],[1027],{"left":998,"right":1011,"direction":36},{"id":1004,"data":1029,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1030,"multiChoiceQuestion":1031,"multiChoiceCorrect":1033,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1034,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1035,"matchPairsPairs":1036},[1000,1003,1005],[1032],"Which of the following best describes compression?",[1013],[1009,1011,1012],[345],[1037],{"left":1038,"right":1013,"direction":36},"Compression",{"id":1040,"data":1041,"type":42,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1043,"introPage":1051,"pages":1057},"70716a93-3f20-4f2f-a0ab-102a4d78f596",{"type":42,"title":1042},"Mind Palaces and Spatial Memory",{"id":1044,"data":1045,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"011999d0-3043-43f3-924f-d87a257e7bf5",{"type":36,"summary":1046},[1047,1048,1049,1050],"The Mind Palace technique links abstract info to familiar places","Simonides discovered the Mind Palace after a banquet disaster","Visualizing info in specific rooms boosts memory recall","Memory athletes use Mind Palaces to memorize cards and numbers",{"id":1052,"data":1053,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"2647d568-ba13-478a-9deb-dff9e94ebcf3",{"type":55,"intro":1054},[1055,1056],"How did Simonides discover the Mind Palace technique?","How can you use visualization to enhance your Mind Palace?",[1058,1071,1088],{"id":1059,"data":1060,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1063},"98fc97a8-6bad-4792-b55e-2eec8de25f44",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1061,"audioMediaId":1062},"The most effective and well-known of elaborative encoding techniques is to associate abstract information with familiar physical space. This is what is sometimes known as the ‘Mind Palace’ technique.\n\nAccording to legend, this method was first discovered by the Greek poet Simonides in 500 BC. Simonides was at a banquet, and stepped outside for a few minutes. While he was outside, the building collapsed, killing everyone inside. Not only were the unlucky diners killed, but their bodies were unrecognizable.\n\n![Graph](image://dbb3a129-3aaf-46e7-b500-e9d35c9ecf88 \"The poet Simonides. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nHowever, Simonides was able to recall who everyone was at the banquet purely by the position they were sitting in. This gave rise to the theory that it would be easier to recall things when they are associated with a physical place.","3119c1bb-ee07-474a-adb9-85b9bad81039",[1064],{"id":1065,"data":1066,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"d2700d7e-4fc2-4fb2-a73c-20a671455519",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1067,"activeRecallAnswers":1069},[1068],"What memory technique was first used by Simonides to remember the victims of a collapsed building?",[1070],"Mind palace",{"id":1072,"data":1073,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":1076},"5fbf81e3-7858-432d-a14c-2aad82dbea8e",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1074,"audioMediaId":1075},"As with so many things, the Greeks were onto something with this. Associating information with places is a highly effective way of encoding information.\n\nTo create your own mind palace, you need to imagine a building you are very familiar with – many people choose their childhood home – and ‘place’ bits of information in particular rooms of the building. For example, if you wanted to recall the periodic table, you could break it into groups and imagine each of them being stored in different rooms in the house.\n\nThe alkali metals might be found in the living room; halogens could be hanging out in your sister’s bedroom; noble gasses could be stored in the upstairs bathroom. You can then place each item within each group in a precise location in their room.\n\nThis is most effective when combined with visualization. So, for our noble gas bathroom, we could have a helium balloon hanging by the sink, with a neon sign above the bath. Krypton might be represented by some Superman-style kryptonite, sitting in the medicine cupboard.\n\n![Graph](image://155098ba-0a3e-4a75-a70b-7bc0915afdbb \"AI-generated image of a helium balloon above a bathroom sink\")\n\nIt might sound a bit whacky – it is whacky. But this is the exact method that allows memory athletes to memorize a pack of cards in seconds, or recall 200 random numbers one after the other.","1b15a7f1-cf15-41c5-8e41-7bc8e7b917a1",[1077],{"id":1078,"data":1079,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"4c8f6997-7d28-4a61-a92c-c2686e6834ed",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1080,"multiChoiceCorrect":1082,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1084,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1081],"When creating a Mind Palace you should use ...",[1083],"A familiar space",[1085,1086,1087],"An imaginary space","An unknown space","A famous space",{"id":1089,"data":1090,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":1093},"9c6aeea0-8486-4c66-8d70-4c8acfa0431b",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1091,"audioMediaId":1092},"Generation is another strategy you can use to consolidate memory. Generation means forcing your brain to reach out for the information, rather than reading it somewhere. It’s called ‘generation’ because it’s all about generating an idea from your memory, rather than reading it.\n\nA small-scale example includes filling in a missing word in a text, rather than reading the text in its entirety. This forces your brain to actively recall the information that it has stored somewhere, or that it can logically deduce.\n\nThis is the thinking behind one of our question types in Kinnu, which you’ll have experienced on this pathway.\n\nThis simple exercise has been shown to boost learning and memory and make the mind more receptive to new learning. This is because many of us perceive our learning to be most effective when it is experiential —that is, learning by doing as opposed to reading a text or listening to a lecture.","74519d32-22eb-45d0-9ab2-e5a4225ba77f",[1094],{"id":1005,"data":1095,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1096,"multiChoiceQuestion":1097,"multiChoiceCorrect":1099,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1100,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1101,"matchPairsPairs":1102},[1000,1003,1004],[1098],"Which of the following best describes generation?",[1012],[1009,1011,1013],[345],[1103],{"left":1104,"right":1012,"direction":36},"Generation",{"id":1106,"data":1107,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":164,"orbs":1110},"6c290083-bb53-4836-870b-008699a0b741",{"type":28,"title":1108,"tagline":1109},"How We Learn Socially - Imitating, Collaborating, Storytelling","This tile introduces the concept of social learning. Discover how informal learning, storytelling and community can be powerful drivers of learning.",[1111,1205,1270,1324],{"id":1112,"data":1113,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1115,"introPage":1123,"pages":1129},"5e17a718-0473-48f0-bbfd-6fe515fe654e",{"type":42,"title":1114},"Albert Bandura and Social Learning",{"id":1116,"data":1117,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"3786173d-bd65-4475-a589-1c629fcd5acc",{"type":36,"summary":1118},[1119,1120,1121,1122],"Humans are unique because we learn by watching others","Babies focus on faces before objects, showing social learning starts early","Bandura's Bobo doll experiment showed kids imitate violence without rewards","Bandura proved learning is social, not just about rewards",{"id":1124,"data":1125,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"d6ff99a3-cf13-438b-bd74-8e58aa7bdfd8",{"type":55,"intro":1126},[1127,1128],"What did the Bobo doll experiment show about how kids learn?","Why is social learning important for human development?",[1130,1162,1188],{"id":1131,"data":1132,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1135},"48f739bb-25bb-4bb2-98dc-f4894691ff1b",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1133,"audioMediaId":1134},"There are surprisingly few ways in which humans are unique from other animals. But one of the most remarkable ways that we truly are different is in our tendency to learn socially. Human beings exhibit what cognitive neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene refers to as “social attention sharing.”\n\n![Graph](image://6bf0452e-5418-4561-83ad-d5e5d43584ab \"Babies tend to look at faces before anything else. Image: Public domain via PxHere\")\n\nOur attention systems and learning are highly dependent on the signals we receive socially. Babies gaze at faces and make eye contact before focusing their attention on the object the adult is looking at – in other words they are naturally more interested in the people around them than they are in learning things. Shared attention determines what children learn.\n\nThis phenomenon was best illustrated in a series of experiments by the Canadian-American psychologist Albert Bandura.","8589c925-89a9-4c47-a73d-942dda95118f",[1136,1143],{"id":1137,"data":1138,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"c0d833b4-e099-4994-b60f-959624cca36a",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1139,"activeRecallAnswers":1141},[1140],"What phenomenon is demonstrated by babies choosing to gaze at faces rather than objects?",[1142],"Social attention sharing",{"id":1144,"data":1145,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"f48fcd74-a70a-46e0-a56b-a4b0ad896184",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1146,"multiChoiceQuestion":1150,"multiChoiceCorrect":1152,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1154,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1158,"matchPairsPairs":1159},[1147,1148,1149],"f988acc5-f4f4-4d72-abbf-4e0edb1ce36a","062890f6-8157-447d-8d1b-da2621a6cf22","ab402caf-5913-4c77-9889-e3d398b2212c",[1151],"Who is the scholar that describes human learning as 'social attention sharing'?",[1153],"Stanislas Dehaene",[1155,1156,1157],"Albert Bandura","Lev Vygotsky","Patrick Lewis",[345],[1160],{"left":1153,"right":1161,"direction":36},"Refers to human learning as 'social attention sharing.'",{"id":1163,"data":1164,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1167},"f7bbbf55-9a81-4265-9af6-9610703a9bfb",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1165,"audioMediaId":1166},"Albert Bandura is best known for his 1961 Bobo doll experiment, where he made a film in which an adult was shown “beating up a Bobo doll and shouting aggressive words.” The movie was then shown to a group of children, who were given a Bobo doll to play with afterwards.\n\nThe children who had seen the violent film clip were more likely to beat the doll; imitating the words and actions of the adult. This was a significant study as it departed from the insistence of the theory known as behaviorism.\n\nBehaviorism argued that all behavior could be explained by reinforcement and reward. If a child was violent, it was because they had learned that violence gave them rewards. However, the children in the study had received no incentive or encouragement to beat up the doll – they were simply imitating the behaviors they had observed.","c6954fcc-9275-497e-9e4c-6bedc4377c03",[1168,1177],{"id":1169,"data":1170,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"dcc68314-e873-4a47-b623-753a259318ed",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1171,"binaryCorrect":1173,"binaryIncorrect":1175},[1172],"Which of these best describes the theory of behaviorism?",[1174],"Behaviors can be explained by reinforcement and reward",[1176],"Behaviors can best be explained by understanding cognitive processes",{"id":1147,"data":1178,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1179,"multiChoiceQuestion":1180,"multiChoiceCorrect":1182,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1183,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1184,"matchPairsPairs":1185},[1144,1148,1149],[1181],"Who is the psychologist that conducted the Bobo doll experiment and proposed that imitation is a key cornerstone of learning?",[1155],[1153,1156,1157],[345],[1186],{"left":1155,"right":1187,"direction":36},"Conducted Bobo doll experiment, proposed that imitation is a key cornerstone of learning.",{"id":1189,"data":1190,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1193},"c16b0251-f1ac-4375-9787-80e89d26a5b1",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1191,"audioMediaId":1192},"So, despite having no extrinsic or intrinsic incentive to beat up the doll, these children were imitating the behaviors of the people around them. Bandura concluded from this that there was more to the story of learning than just reinforcement and reward – there must be some way in which we are naturally included to imitate the behaviors of those around us.\n\nIn 1971, Bandura proposed that imitation was a key cornerstone of how we learn and develop behaviors: learning is social. Something in our brain chemistry makes us look at those around us and imitate them – whether or not it has a clear benefit to us. This is different to the behaviorist view, which would say we only learned behaviors that had a clear reward, or learned to avoid behaviors that had a bad outcome.\n\nWhen you think about it, social learning makes a lot of evolutionary sense. The chances are, the older members of your family or tribe know a lot better than you do about how to survive and reproduce. If you simply imitate their behaviors, it makes for a far less risky way of learning about the world than by leaving everything to trial and error.","54f7758e-515c-43b0-a0c7-54685981f8e7",[1194],{"id":1195,"data":1196,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"ae0d34e6-be27-4840-a9b2-6cd559063c98",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1197,"multiChoiceCorrect":1199,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1201,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1198],"What did Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll experiment suggest?",[1200],"Children imitate behaviors even when there is no incentive or punishment",[1202,1203,1204],"Children require reinforcement or reward to learn behaviors","Children have an innate aggressive drive","Children are only capable of learning through imitation",{"id":1206,"data":1207,"type":42,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1209,"introPage":1217,"pages":1223},"944468b7-90de-4777-8aec-d6feba818a6d",{"type":42,"title":1208},"Lev Vygotsky and Socio-Cultural theories of learning",{"id":1210,"data":1211,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"bfd16f40-4f87-4d38-9859-f450dbc5290b",{"type":36,"summary":1212},[1213,1214,1215,1216],"Lev Vygotsky created the socio-cultural theory of psychology","The zone of proximal development is where learners can grow with help","Learning is boosted by teachers, peers, and our own drive to improve","Informal learning is social, self-directed, and free from grades",{"id":1218,"data":1219,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"09b31289-bf6e-475d-9a6a-6dce5dd8a089",{"type":55,"intro":1220},[1221,1222],"What is the 'zone of proximal development'?","How does informal learning differ from formal learning?",[1224,1248,1253],{"id":1225,"data":1226,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1229},"f69d10a1-423e-4193-95e8-1ec08b45b542",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1227,"audioMediaId":1228},"Lev Vygotsky was a Soviet psychologist who invented the socio-cultural theory of psychology. Vygotsky had a deep interest in the role of the social environment in shaping learning.\n\n![Graph](image://a76731f3-f28e-401d-874b-062d1aa23cc0 \"Lev Vygotsky. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nHe is most famous for his theory of the ‘zone of proximal development.’ This is the area of knowledge that lies just beyond what a learner knows for sure, but which they can usually figure out with some assistance.\n\n![Graph](image://87fc01d3-b91b-4e5e-8a2f-0e0e15ad85bd \"The zone of proximal development. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nVygotsky believed that getting learners to explore that area, with some guidance from people with greater mastery of it, was the optimal learning strategy.","7687c7af-b01a-4a9f-83e1-fab1c284cfa5",[1230,1237],{"id":1231,"data":1232,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"abb82a48-18d6-4e19-a7cc-059cec0f7c6a",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1233,"activeRecallAnswers":1235},[1234],"What term is used to describe the area of knowledge that lies just beyond what a learner knows already?",[1236],"Zone of proximal development",{"id":1148,"data":1238,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1239,"multiChoiceQuestion":1240,"multiChoiceCorrect":1242,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1243,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1244,"matchPairsPairs":1245},[1144,1147,1149],[1241],"Who is the psychologist known for developing the socio-cultural theory and the concept of 'zone of proximal development'?",[1156],[1153,1155,1157],[345],[1246],{"left":1156,"right":1247,"direction":36},"Invented socio-cultural theory of psychology and the 'zone of proximal development'",{"id":1249,"data":1250,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42},"53eaa438-24bd-468f-b91a-8aacc50d8163",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1251,"audioMediaId":1252},"The impetus to move beyond the zone of existing knowledge to the zone of proximal development, said Vygotsky, can come from the scaffolding of our teachers, but also from our peers, our parents, or our own psychological need to do better, know more, and achieve more.\n\nHe emphasized the active role of learners in the learning process. In short, we don’t just learn from the people trying to help us learn: our whole human environment has to be primed for us to learn.\n\nFor example, when a child learns to solve math problems, they may initially struggle to grasp new concepts on their own. Obviously, having a great teacher will help with that. But Vygotsky argued that a similarly important factor would be the other children in the class. Ideally, that child would be surrounded by children who were slightly more advanced than they are – whose knowledge fell into that child’s zone of proximal development.","cdf60553-8252-48d3-9258-c77d70492d5f",{"id":1254,"data":1255,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":1258},"c6098bc6-cc6e-4a39-b447-7863de016130",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1256,"audioMediaId":1257},"Another example of applying socio-cultural learning in practice would be different forms of informal learning.\n\nInformal learning refers to learning that occurs outside of a structured, formal classroom environment. In contrast to formal learning, informal learning is highly socially collaborative and learner-directed. Imagine that rather than having to learn a set of facts about the Vietnam War for your history test, your teacher simply asked you to come to the next class with five facts about the Vietnam War, and an explanation for why you found them interesting. Informal learning like this encourages learners to pursue what interests them.\n\nAnother feature that sets informal learning apart from formal learning is its removal from external assessment. Practitioners who support informal learning believe that the formal learning system of grading and testing as a tool for measuring performance impedes learning and is detrimental to learners’ confidence and motivation. Graded tests can also, ironically, lead to more cheating. In the fact-finding task above, cheating wouldn’t really be possible.","8537029f-4077-43de-a2b6-24e6a7196035",[1259],{"id":1260,"data":1261,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"656f6e70-e0f7-40ec-a069-c0fde2e410a4",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1262,"multiChoiceCorrect":1264,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1266,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1263],"Which of these homework assignments would be an example of informal learning?",[1265],"Find five interesting facts about the moon",[1267,1268,1269],"Calculate the surface area of the moon","Read Neil Armstrong's account of landing on the moon","Prepare a presentation on the Apollo missions",{"id":1271,"data":1272,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1274,"introPage":1282,"pages":1288},"7fa08f4b-aa0a-425d-a3e7-bec3f4ce3087",{"type":42,"title":1273},"The Power of Storytelling in Learning",{"id":1275,"data":1276,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"001dcc7f-194f-49e7-825b-7652a337e05f",{"type":36,"summary":1277},[1278,1279,1280,1281],"Homer's epic poems were passed down from memory for over 100 years","Our brains are wired to remember stories better than random facts","The cortex has an intrinsic narrative drive to make sense of experiences","Storytelling in learning taps into our brain's natural ability to connect information",{"id":1283,"data":1284,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"f7dff1fe-79f3-42fc-80cf-7abf8aaf0385",{"type":55,"intro":1285},[1286,1287],"Why is it easier to remember stories than isolated facts?","How does the brain's 'intrinsic narrative drive' help us make sense of experiences?",[1289,1294,1311],{"id":1290,"data":1291,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36},"89492dcf-50c7-4cec-84af-e05d9fa13de8",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1292,"audioMediaId":1293},"Many of history’s greatest memory masters were also storytellers. You may have heard of Homer’s epic poems, the *Odyssey* and *Iliad*. These were composed at some time in the late 8th or early 7th century BCE – more than two and a half thousand years ago.\n\n![Graph](image://7a05f40e-dbd2-4954-84cb-ee41e9b32fe1 \"Homer. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nWe say ‘composed’, not ‘written’, because they probably weren’t written down in full until the 6th century, after Homer’s death. That means that for over one hundred years, these poems – each of which are tens of thousands of lines long – were passed on entirely from memory.\n\nSo both Homer and the many storytellers who memorized his work must have had incredible memories. If we look at how the brain processes stories, we’ll see that this is no coincidence.","b0c43754-4dec-4259-8fa3-7e0da5cc415d",{"id":1295,"data":1296,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":1299},"70ee467f-6922-44a4-a668-5d8b5b92a9f6",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1297,"audioMediaId":1298},"Our brains are extremely good at retaining stories. It’s much easier to retain a story – even an extremely long, detailed one – than it is to remember an equivalent amount of disconnected information.\n\nNeuroscience can help us understand why. There is an ‘intrinsic narrative drive’ in the cortex; it needs to weave stories out of our disparate experiences, in order to make sense of them. For the psychologist Patrick Lewis, “without the story form, humans would have endless unconnected, chaotic experiences.”","24378db4-2459-427f-ae06-b06a8e7ec5bc",[1300],{"id":1149,"data":1301,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1302,"multiChoiceQuestion":1303,"multiChoiceCorrect":1305,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1306,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1307,"matchPairsPairs":1308},[1144,1147,1148],[1304],"Who demonstrated the significance of storytelling in the process of learning?",[1157],[1153,1155,1156],[345],[1309],{"left":1157,"right":1310,"direction":36},"Demonstrated the importance of storytelling in learning",{"id":1312,"data":1313,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":1316},"84e4f57f-6df3-4ce9-b335-aca546d2a0a4",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1314,"audioMediaId":1315},"![Graph](image://f4235445-4c99-4555-9788-4961bb3adbd7 \"Learning through stories is an important part of education. daveparker, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAs with so many other points we’ve discussed, this tendency to weave our learning into narratives makes sense if you think of it from an evolutionary standpoint. Imagine you need to remember the route through a forest that avoids the local wolves. It will be far easier to remember the story your grandfather told you about someone who took the wrong, perilous paths, than to just remember isolated facts like ‘left at the lake’.\n\nWe all have a need to connect our information together, and narratives are an extremely effective way of doing this.\n\nBy using storytelling in learning contexts – whether in the classroom, or in committing facts to memory by using metaphor – we’re tapping into a part of our brain that’s primed to make connections and weave stories.","5965b88d-0923-490e-954e-025771dba845",[1317],{"id":1318,"data":1319,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"3cef086f-af13-47d5-ac29-dce616880011",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1320,"clozeWords":1322},[1321],"Our brains are better at remembering stories, because they tie together disordered information",[1323],"disordered",{"id":1325,"data":1326,"type":42,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1328,"introPage":1336,"pages":1342},"1fd29000-9594-4e15-885d-6d4649b2b05d",{"type":42,"title":1327},"Communities of Practice",{"id":1329,"data":1330,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"83743925-a7ac-4584-98b0-2f81edcac00c",{"type":36,"summary":1331},[1332,1333,1334,1335],"A community of practice is a group of people who share a passion and regularly use their knowledge","Guilds in medieval Europe were early examples of communities of practice","A community of practice involves active practitioners, unlike a community of interest","Online learning platforms can create virtual communities of practice",{"id":1337,"data":1338,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"6f1d7617-10b0-4536-a1e4-95e886cc10ad",{"type":55,"intro":1339},[1340,1341],"What’s the key difference between a community of practice and a community of interest?","How did medieval guilds function as early communities of practice?",[1343,1356,1361,1376],{"id":1344,"data":1345,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1348},"578892d8-5f86-4e1e-a511-d28a3ba79744",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1346,"audioMediaId":1347},"A community of practice is a group of people who share a concern or a passion for something and regularly use their existing knowledge. The concept has been studied in depth by Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger; many consider it to be one of the most exciting areas of developmental psychology.\n\n![Graph](image://51a73805-4891-4e8e-9fef-2dfa17147878 \"Jean Lave, a leading proponent of Communities of Practice. Image: Raymond Johnson from Broomfield, CO, USA, CC BY-SA 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nEducational theorist Etienne Wenger and cognitive anthropologist Jean Lave believed that members of a community of practice learn from each other and have an opportunity to develop through the process of sharing information and experiences with the group. It is not just learning but teaching that helps you remember things.","ee8fcc25-fcfb-4064-9eae-6b5941954815",[1349],{"id":1350,"data":1351,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"a3e60da1-bf59-4de7-990b-ed7bf0ba87a1",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1352,"activeRecallAnswers":1354},[1353],"Communities of practice are ...",[1355],"Groups of people who are active in a similar field",{"id":1357,"data":1358,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36},"93445698-4acc-479d-ba6c-897753bae389",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1359,"audioMediaId":1360},"Communities of practice (CoPs) have existed for centuries. For example, in medieval Europe, artisans would club together to form guilds – groups that were set up to share trade secrets and cooperate in their field. If you were in, say, the clothworkers guild, you’d meet with other clothworkers to share your ideas, and mutually benefit from the pooling of expertise.\n\n![Graph](image://cb2dadbd-b896-4515-a9f3-482679a39701 \"A coat of arms from a medieval 'guild' an early example of a community of practice. Image: fabricant Augis ; Scan= Christian28TMA, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAccording to Wenger and Lave, this kind of gathering of practitioners is beneficial to all of them – not only do you have the opportunity to learn from others, you’ll also improve your own practice simply through the process of teaching others.","ae467185-def6-473f-b607-71d9cda56cec",{"id":1362,"data":1363,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":1366},"5c5951bd-4385-4aa6-a06f-314c7a710eee",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1364,"audioMediaId":1365},"CoPs have evolved in type and nature with developments in technology. They can evolve naturally as a result of the members' common interest in a particular domain or area, or they can be created deliberately with the goal of gaining knowledge related to a specific field.\n\nIt can be useful to distinguish between a community of practice and a community of interest. A community of interest means hobbyists and observers, whereas a community of practice is a group of people who are active practitioners.\n\nA book club would be an example of a community of interest. However, a writer’s club, where people share what they’d written each week, would be a community of practice. Basically, the distinction is about the level of active engagement.\n\nIt could be healthy to think of a classroom as a CoP – a group of people not just passively learning but actively helping each other to learn, for the benefit of all.","2f70ddee-fa8a-410f-9015-39e325f0c0f4",[1367],{"id":1368,"data":1369,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"29358ce7-2b57-493e-aae6-962edf3b05f6",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1370,"binaryCorrect":1372,"binaryIncorrect":1374},[1371],"A book club is an example of what?",[1373],"A community of interest",[1375],"A community of practice",{"id":1377,"data":1378,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42},"6c7d49d9-aaf6-4b9f-8161-31556e6dc522",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1379,"audioMediaId":1380},"Communities of Practice can be physical or virtual. Online learning is an example of the latter. Online learning harnesses the principles of social learning by encouraging learners to collaborate and share information through discussion forums and mandatory self-introductions.\n\nIn the case of Kinnu, we have a community of practice in the form of our Discord server, where learners compare their progress, give each other tips, and generally chat about the content of our pathways. If you haven’t checked it out yet, we strongly suggest you do!\n\nFrom our earliest days at elementary school we are taught not to share our answers with our classmates. But a wealth of research suggests that this is all wrong – students collaborating can actually be a far more effective way to learn than to leave it all to themselves.","563a7144-a54f-4a4a-ba6b-5ed715a0f7b0",{"id":1382,"data":1383,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"orbs":1386},"c59ec880-d549-4e3f-89df-ba6ec7e45e78",{"type":28,"title":1384,"tagline":1385},"Learning and Memory","In this tile, we’ll explore the relationship between learning and memory and introduce you to memory systems, processes, and pathways.",[1387,1469,1573],{"id":1388,"data":1389,"type":42,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1391,"introPage":1399,"pages":1405},"d6be7faf-b8e1-4f7a-8820-428be1f027a7",{"type":42,"title":1390},"Understanding Learning and Memory",{"id":1392,"data":1393,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"09d9f7e5-0286-49c1-b82b-6d36f98e9222",{"type":36,"summary":1394},[1395,1396,1397,1398],"Learning is acquiring a skill; memory is knowing you have it","Memory works through encoding, storage, and retrieval","Short-term memory holds 5 to 9 items for 15 to 30 seconds","Long-term memory stores info for a long time, sometimes forever",{"id":1400,"data":1401,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"0f864806-970c-4a1b-9bfa-1a0801ae3f82",{"type":55,"intro":1402},[1403,1404],"What is the process called when the brain converts sensory perceptions into chemical and electrical charges?","Why is encoding crucial for learning?",[1406,1421,1434,1439,1456],{"id":1407,"data":1408,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1411},"86bdab7e-c92f-403d-a50a-1174de063767",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1409,"audioMediaId":1410},"Many people would consider the ideas of learning and memory to be interchangeable terms. However, there is a subtle difference. Take learning to ride a bike. You might remember the moment you learned to ride a bike, but the memory of this moment is different from the knowledge you learned about how to ride a bike.\n\n![Graph](image://e50b0b48-37b9-4c40-9432-d4092187b3b9 \"Learning to ride a bike is an act of both learning and memory. Image: Public domain via Pexels\")\n\nThe way we know that this distinction is real is that there are lots of bits of knowledge that you learned at some point, but you can’t remember the specific moment you learned them. According to the American Psychological Association, learning means acquiring a skill, whereas memory is being aware that you’ve acquired it.\n\nLearning is inseparable from memory as, without the ability to retain what we’ve learned, we cannot progress or apply what we’ve learned to our lived experience. So, understanding how memory itself works is pretty essential to understanding learning.","3d1ad7fa-ef83-43ba-8c52-a44786d73bc6",[1412],{"id":1413,"data":1414,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"970d3787-eea9-4b68-a709-676f6be64595",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1415,"binaryCorrect":1417,"binaryIncorrect":1419},[1416],"Your mental image of the moment you learned to ride a bike is an example of ...",[1418],"Memory",[1420],"Learning",{"id":1422,"data":1423,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":1426},"ec82ad39-3f48-4b37-b17d-0e06b3a57d99",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1424,"audioMediaId":1425},"There are three main processes that characterize how memory works: encoding, storage and retrieval. Let's imagine learning is like putting things inside of your backpack. Encoding is when you first put something into your backpack, storage is whether or not it stays in the backpack while you walk and retrieval is your ability to quickly find what you're looking for.\n\nUnfortunately, unlike a backpack, our memory only holds onto about 5% of the things we put in it, that is - unless we routinely reach out to look for them. That’s why all three memory processes are so important.","7b4038af-4bbf-411a-a8a9-b809a42e5779",[1427],{"id":1428,"data":1429,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"9b3971bc-6b95-4c9b-b09c-a4530bfbc068",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1430,"activeRecallAnswers":1432},[1431],"What percentage of information that has only been absorbed once is likely to be held in the memory?",[1433],"5%",{"id":1435,"data":1436,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36},"4380c93a-40c0-44c8-890c-2a395f26174e",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1437,"audioMediaId":1438},"In the first stage of memory formation, the brain converts sensory perceptions into chemical and electrical charges. This process is called ‘encoding’ because it is putting what you see, smell and taste into code. The new encoded representations in the brain are called memory traces.\n\n![Graph](image://d46d5bcd-b195-4058-9777-52a373f8f8d3 \"Encoding a memory is like using tracing paper to get the outline of the image. Image: Public domain via Wellcome Collection\")\n\nImagine that you’ve got a beautiful photograph of a beach scene. When you encode it, you trace over the top of it to store the outline. The second stage of memory is storage, which is how items are consolidated into long-term memory. After being placed in our short-term memory, the things we understand from the world around us are then grouped together and reorganized so we can remember them. For example, if you see a cute cat, the memory trace of it might be stored alongside other cute cats.","ea2dd14e-ad76-4053-9ff7-7c7ce8c39f53",{"id":1440,"data":1441,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":1444},"13060d44-1679-4993-8573-005b4ae0e0a6",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1442,"audioMediaId":1443},"Currently, the scientific literature classifies memory into four main types: sensory, working, short-term, and long-term memory. The information we take in from our environment via our senses is stored by our sensory memory. Working memory then processes this information, converting it into short or long-term memory.\n\nShort-term memory, as the name implies, is information quickly processed. Short-term memories typically last for 15 to 30 seconds. Ever wondered why you lost your train of thought in the middle of a conversation while thinking about something else? Well, it’s because most adults have the capacity to store only 5 to 9 items in our short-term memory.\n\nOnce the memory traces, or rough notes, are encoded in our short-term memory, they are either discarded, or consolidated and moved into long-term memory. Long-term memory enables us to store information for longer periods – sometimes forever.","d44a08e9-cec3-4e97-a8b2-70d900372104",[1445],{"id":1446,"data":1447,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"32a05958-ae6b-412d-ba10-6b321bc9f826",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1448,"multiChoiceCorrect":1450,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1452,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1449],"How long are items typically held in our short-term memory?",[1451],"15-30 seconds",[1453,1454,1455],"30-45 seconds","25-40 seconds","45-60 seconds",{"id":1457,"data":1458,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":1461},"48af4d2b-204a-4213-bfc1-60256adffec2",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1459,"audioMediaId":1460},"The final stage in the memory process, retrieval, involves extracting information, skills and knowledge stored in our long-term memory. These are referred to as memory systems.\n\nSometimes, words or facts may elude us because they were never stored in our long-term memory in the first place; other times, forgetting is due to an inability to retrieve the information from memory.\n\nIf we cast our minds back to the traced image analogy, if encoding is tracing the photograph, and storage is putting the trace into the filing cabinet, then retrieval would be like going and getting the trace out of the filing cabinet to look at.\n\nOne example of retrieval in the real world would be recalling our revision notes when we are in an exam.","acdd52dd-8b00-458d-8b6d-2442e935b5d7",[1462],{"id":1463,"data":1464,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"c85fdcbb-0de7-4e85-a47c-af0ecbb36051",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1465,"activeRecallAnswers":1467},[1466],"What name is given to the process of fetching an encoded memory from your long-term memory?",[1468],"Retrieval",{"id":1470,"data":1471,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1473,"introPage":1481,"pages":1487},"9bc46e94-ab90-4474-90b6-3d594cbcf3ff",{"type":42,"title":1472},"Memory Systems and Types",{"id":1474,"data":1475,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"c8d58577-a6c6-4f73-b4f9-21abac4f5580",{"type":36,"summary":1476},[1477,1478,1479,1480],"Declarative memory is conscious and includes facts and events","Semantic memory is knowing facts like dates and names","Episodic memory is recalling personal events and experiences","Procedural memory is unconscious and includes skills like riding a bike",{"id":1482,"data":1483,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"b8b96585-7628-4efe-92fa-ef3eddbc966e",{"type":55,"intro":1484},[1485,1486],"What type of memory helps you remember how to ride a bike?","How does procedural memory differ from declarative memory?",[1488,1503,1547],{"id":1489,"data":1490,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1493},"4d4a845b-55a4-406a-9365-68c30dc417c5",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1491,"audioMediaId":1492},"Have you ever wondered why some knowledge seems impossible to remember, while other knowledge, once learned, seems to stick with us for life? Consider how easy it is to ride a bike even after decades of no practice. Then, consider how frequently you forget a word in the middle of a sentence or try to summon a name from memory and it eludes you.\n\nThis phenomenon puzzled researchers, who eventually began to question the idea that there was one unified system to store long-term memories. The earliest, and probably most influential, distinction of long-term memory came from the Austrian psychologist Endel Tulving, who proposed that it can be broken down into conscious and unconscious memory.\n\n![Graph](image://1092075b-0a9c-4a74-b010-21d34ac26699 \"Austrian psychologist Endel Tulving. Image: Public domain\")","2fbbc87d-2826-47ae-b584-522822253808",[1494],{"id":1495,"data":1496,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"1660efc9-b73c-4a27-8523-01af0a0773d2",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1497,"binaryCorrect":1499,"binaryIncorrect":1501},[1498],"Which of these is an accurate description of mainstream theory about long-term memory?",[1500],"There is more than one system that stores long-term memory",[1502],"There is one primary system that stores long term memory",{"id":1504,"data":1505,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":1508},"bac774ec-844b-44fb-aedd-14553239c0ca",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1506,"audioMediaId":1507},"When something is remembered consciously, it resides in the **declarative memory**. This is conscious memory – stuff that you have deliberately and consciously memorized. For example, information you wrote on flash cards and deliberately committed to memory for an exam. There are two kinds of declarative memory: semantic and episodic.\n\n![Graph](image://29373248-3369-4089-9bf2-f7bdc67c6c99 \"Dates are an example of declarative memory. Image: Public domain\")\n\nSemantic memory refers to facts that we know and commit to memory, such as dates, names, and birthdays. Episodic memory is our personal recollection of events. Semantic memory means knowing that the Earth is spherical; episodic memory means remembering the lesson where you were taught that the Earth is spherical.","caf61b2c-0397-4290-88ff-eefc632b46d6",[1509,1519,1538],{"id":1510,"data":1511,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"51cb087b-1fe0-4e5c-8fed-f9e8922b9139",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1512,"multiChoiceCorrect":1514,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1515,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1513],"What are the two kinds of declarative memory?",[421,419],[1516,1517,1518],"Working","Short-term","Sensory",{"id":1520,"data":1521,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"9db5dda3-a579-4adc-8fe1-09e8328b8d7e",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1522,"multiChoiceQuestion":1526,"multiChoiceCorrect":1528,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1530,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1534,"matchPairsPairs":1535},[1523,1524,1525],"70cc6c33-4c5b-481b-9011-f774db501bd0","baf5607d-e20b-4b2b-bf3e-6a10ba0373d3","cf375a5b-aebe-49c2-a420-9db19ffa0f0d",[1527],"Which of the following best describes declarative memory?",[1529],"Memory that can be consciously recalled.",[1531,1532,1533],"Memory of facts.","Memory of events and experiences.","Memory of how to do things.",[345],[1536],{"left":1537,"right":1529,"direction":36},"Declarative memory",{"id":1523,"data":1539,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1540,"multiChoiceQuestion":1541,"multiChoiceCorrect":1542,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1543,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1544,"matchPairsPairs":1545},[1520,1524,1525],[437],[1531],[1529,1532,1533],[345],[1546],{"left":443,"right":1531,"direction":36},{"id":1548,"data":1549,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":1552},"fd54a482-1cbd-47d5-82b1-24c74b7d8ca7",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1550,"audioMediaId":1551},"In addition to conscious, declarative memory, there is also procedural memory – the things we remember unconsciously. Declarative memory includes facts and concepts, whereas procedural memory is made up of habits and skills.\n\n![Graph](image://184d9bc2-1950-4b76-9ff2-e88e76b42808 \"Playing an instrument is an example of procedural memory. Image: Public domain via Pxfuel\")\n\nThe knowledge we tap into when we ride a bike is stored in our procedural memory. Broadly, we can think of the difference between the two memory systems as remembering versus knowing. These are the channels we want to sharpen to enhance learning.\n\nThere are big debates about whether or not the same techniques should be used for different types of memory systems. This remains unresolved – a good bet for the time being is to try to incorporate multiple techniques for both kinds of memory systems.","c7ec534b-db2a-4445-9f5a-f56afd67e666",[1553,1562],{"id":1524,"data":1554,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1555,"multiChoiceQuestion":1556,"multiChoiceCorrect":1557,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1558,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1559,"matchPairsPairs":1560},[1520,1523,1525],[426],[1532],[1529,1531,1533],[345],[1561],{"left":432,"right":1532,"direction":36},{"id":1525,"data":1563,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1564,"multiChoiceQuestion":1565,"multiChoiceCorrect":1567,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1568,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1569,"matchPairsPairs":1570},[1520,1523,1524],[1566],"Which of the following best describes procedural memory?",[1533],[1529,1531,1532],[345],[1571],{"left":1572,"right":1533,"direction":36},"Procedural memory",{"id":1574,"data":1575,"type":42,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1577,"introPage":1585,"pages":1591},"cc21b2fb-daee-41e3-ab12-76453f473ae3",{"type":42,"title":1576},"Memory Disorders and the Role of Sleep",{"id":1578,"data":1579,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"e705f53d-083d-43b6-bd73-676614507b9f",{"type":36,"summary":1580},[1581,1582,1583,1584],"The hippocampus is crucial for forming new declarative memories","Henry Molaison's surgery led to anterograde amnesia, preventing new memory formation","Procedural memory (like motor skills) can be retained without a hippocampus","Sleep helps consolidate memories, with REM aiding procedural memory and deep sleep enhancing declarative memory",{"id":1586,"data":1587,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"e4f72b9b-ce47-43f4-aa53-2479f551ce51",{"type":55,"intro":1588},[1589,1590],"How does sleep deprivation mess with your ability to learn?","What sleep stage boosts your memory for facts?",[1592,1604,1619],{"id":1593,"data":1594,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":1597},"8c3ec161-0a95-43f2-8857-65dcbd91a322",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1595,"audioMediaId":1596},"Different areas of the brain are involved in memory storage. The part of the brain that governs new declarative memory formation is the hippocampus.\n\nEarlier in this pathway, we spoke about Henry Molaison. In 1953, Molaison unwittingly ‘invented neuroscience.’ Molaison had suffered debilitating epilepsy since childhood, and it was common medical practice at the time to remove parts of the brain to cure it. In a risky procedure known as a bilateral medial temporal lobectomy, his hippocampus was surgically removed.\n\nAs a tragic, unexpected side effect of the surgery, Molaison developed a condition known as anterograde amnesia – Molaison lost the ability to form any new memories. Every day he woke up, for decades afterwards, he could only remember his life before the operation. Anterograde amnesia meant that Molaison lost the ability to store or retrieve new experiences, meaning he lost the ability to form new memories.","edacb10b-142e-40c4-a211-06588f6f3983",[1598],{"id":1599,"data":1600,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"437732af-329e-4aa0-8e99-f486c3b86e9a",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1601,"clozeWords":1603},[1602],"The case of Henry Molaison helped scientists study what happens when the hippocampus is removed.",[329],{"id":1605,"data":1606,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1609},"66df018e-3c06-4b5f-8441-9370aaaa500b",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1607,"audioMediaId":1608},"Through a decades-long collaboration with Molaison, Suzanne Corkin, a young postgraduate neurology researcher, discovered that Molaison had retained the memories that existed before the procedure but he had lost the ability to transfer the experiences he had post-surgery from short-term into long-term memory. In other words, throughout their 46-year relationship and the many tests Corkin conducted on him, it was always Molaison’s first time meeting the researcher.\n\nA series of experiments revealed that Molaison was able to acquire new motor skills, such as writing backwards while looking at his hand in a mirror. More significantly, despite not remembering having met Corkin before, he was still able to write backwards.\n\nThis was a ground-breaking discovery as it proved that we use different parts of our brain for mental and motor skills, and for declarative and procedural memory. Molaison’s ability to acquire new motor skills without a hippocampus showed that his procedural memory had remained intact.\n\nHis tragic inability to recognize Corkin’s face, despite having met her many hundreds of times, proved that his declarative memory had been lost when his hippocampus was removed. Subsequent studies of amnesic patients who acquired new motor skills by, for instance, learning to drive, confirmed Corkin’s findings about the distinction between procedural and declarative memory pathways, marking a breakthrough for the field of neuroscience.","79ae62d7-5341-487d-9caf-52c4df47877e",[1610],{"id":1611,"data":1612,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"328951c4-fe28-49d6-905d-886fef055330",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1613,"multiChoiceCorrect":1615,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1617,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1614],"When his hippocampus was removed, what kind of memory could Henry Molaison no longer form?",[1616],"Declarative",[1618,1517,419],"Procedural",{"id":1620,"data":1621,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":1624},"66e77e28-8e6e-4f75-9d40-be55efa2a7e0",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1622,"audioMediaId":1623},"Have you ever wondered where the phrase ‘to sleep on it’ came from? The answer may lie in neuroscience. Research has shown that sleep aids learning and memory in two distinct ways. First, when we’re sleep-deprived we cannot focus our attention optimally and, as a result, we cannot learn efficiently. Second, sleep itself plays a role in the consolidation of memory, which is critical for learning new information.\n\nRather than being a period of inactivity, our brain remains active while we sleep; running a specific algorithm that replays the important events it recorded during the previous day, and gradually transferring them into a more efficient compartment of our memory.\n\nIn other words, ‘sleeping on’ something is a powerful tool to boost learning and memory, and different sleep stages are beneficial for different tasks: REM sleep helps with procedural memory consolidation, and slow-wave, or ‘deep’ sleep, enhances declarative memory consolidation.","e77c8644-6619-404f-b417-090346da841e",[1625,1634],{"id":1626,"data":1627,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"6281407b-3b68-4a54-a8ae-b3058fda822d",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1628,"binaryCorrect":1630,"binaryIncorrect":1632},[1629],"Which of these would be stored in the procedural memory?",[1631],"Habits",[1633],"Facts",{"id":1635,"data":1636,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"e687c355-82cc-4eb6-885a-4753294dd5e7",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1637,"clozeWords":1639},[1638],"While we are asleep, our brain plays back a specific algorithm that replays the important events it recorded during the previous day.",[1640],"important events",{"id":1642,"data":1643,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"orbs":1646},"634c0758-c97d-44c6-8ff4-3d589fce999f",{"type":28,"title":1644,"tagline":1645},"Visual Memory and the Mind’s Eye","Learn about visual memory, visual discrimination, and perceptual learning – and what having a ‘good eye’ really means.",[1647,1712],{"id":1648,"data":1649,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1651,"introPage":1659,"pages":1665},"93d2282e-3dc1-4a2d-81f3-bf064489859a",{"type":42,"title":1650},"Understanding Visual Memory and Pattern Recognition",{"id":1652,"data":1653,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"9801c652-2db9-45a4-b806-5ba6fd4cc27d",{"type":36,"summary":1654},[1655,1656,1657,1658],"Hand-eye coordination relies heavily on visuo-spatial working memory","Chess grandmasters use mental snapshots to visualize the board in meaningful chunks","Strong visual memory helps people see details and recognize complex patterns","Building detailed mental snapshots requires career-long experience and intuition",{"id":1660,"data":1661,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"33a6dfab-ef7c-44cf-805a-d66b46e020cc",{"type":55,"intro":1662},[1663,1664],"How did chess grandmasters use visuo-spatial memory to improve their game?","What advantage does strong visuo-spatial memory give in recognizing patterns?",[1666,1682,1695],{"id":1667,"data":1668,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":1671},"4e3df0fc-25e7-4f4c-b329-c856e918a8e7",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1669,"audioMediaId":1670},"Have you ever had that moment, where you’re walking through the park, and the kids playing soccer accidentally send the ball your way? The ball lands at your feet, and suddenly all eyes are on you.\n\nFor many, this moment fills them with dread. Most of us have a sense of whether we ‘have a good eye’ – being instinctively good at something without really needing to think about it. And if we don’t, kicking that ball back might not be our finest moment.\n\n![Graph](image://a4da717c-1fae-44e2-964e-f9b1d0966d68 \"The ball lands at your feet. What do you do? Image: Man's foot touching soccer ball by Marco Verch under Creative Commons 2.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/\")\n\nWhile there’s an element of genetic good luck in being good at sports, you might be surprised just how much of our hand-eye coordination comes down to our working memory.\n\nMore specifically, this is what’s known as the ‘visuo-spatial’ working memory. No-one is born with it, and it can only really be developed by putting in many hours of hard craft?","78526fbc-dee4-4413-9484-98be19ac9be6",[1672],{"id":1673,"data":1674,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"03936352-6ff0-4682-a92f-037057ac10be",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1675,"multiChoiceCorrect":1677,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1679,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1676],"Hand-eye coordination often comes down to what aspect of memory?",[1678],"Visuo-spatial working memory",[1680,1681,443],"Short-term memory","Unconscious memory",{"id":1683,"data":1684,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1687},"a0a8809b-1b87-43eb-b213-d35eaad0000d",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1685,"audioMediaId":1686},"In the 1960s, a Dutch psychologist and chess grandmaster by the name of Adriaan de Groot conducted a series of studies on chess grandmasters.\n\nHis studies found that the most proficient players were able to ‘memorize a chess position after seeing the board for less than 5 seconds’ – in other words, to create a ‘mental snapshot’ of the board to aid their strategy.\n\n![Graph](image://a5526604-b3f4-47f9-a72d-aa5d9c806c42 \"Adriaan de Groot. Image: See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nIn a follow-up to de Groot’s study, a pair of researchers at Carnegie Mellon University—William G. Chase and Herbert A. Simon—found that, surprisingly, this skill had nothing to do with having a superior short-term memory. Instead, the players memorized and visualized the board in ‘more meaningful chunks’ than the novices.\n\nThis shows that the innate quality of your working memory isn’t actually that important. It’s the way you use it that matters. In theory, if they learned to apply their brainpower in the right way, anyone could become a chess grandmaster.","a9275d60-865a-4893-b027-aaa371c6774c",[1688],{"id":1689,"data":1690,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"274fc725-8413-4f08-a5e5-d956fea602d7",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1691,"clozeWords":1693},[1692],"De Groot's study found that chess players create mental snapshots of the board in a very short space of time",[1694],"mental snapshots",{"id":1696,"data":1697,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1700},"1474769b-83c0-4e46-a809-983f968007c0",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1698,"audioMediaId":1699},"So, people with strong visual memory are able to rapidly create mental snapshots that they can use to visualize their next move. But how is this actually helpful in the immediate term?\n\nWell, Benedict Carey, in his book How We Learn, likens visuo-spatial memory to having an infrared camera. People with strong mental snapshots are able to see details that the ordinary eye cannot.\n\nThe superior level of detail that these people can visualize means that they are able to recognize more complex patterns. Carey suggests that these people are able to take the most “meaningful set of clues from a vast visual tapestry.”\n\nExperts in all fields have highly developed skills at discriminating between relevant and irrelevant information. To develop this ability to build detailed mental snapshots you need career-long experience, making mistakes, and building intuition.","ba670226-27f8-4138-9bd5-3af7eb0345bb",[1701],{"id":1702,"data":1703,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"07a335e1-0671-45b0-b65e-4803ec30c1d5",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1704,"multiChoiceCorrect":1706,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1708,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1705],"Having a strong visual memory is like looking at things with what, according to Bernard Carey?",[1707],"An infrared camera",[1709,1710,1711],"A magnifying glass","A telescope","A slow-motion camera",{"id":1713,"data":1714,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1716,"introPage":1724,"pages":1730},"13144538-4f72-4925-a826-1c8c8b83f145",{"type":42,"title":1715},"Perceptual Learning and Visual Memory",{"id":1717,"data":1718,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"46861f7b-bf5a-48c5-a59f-f4d4d543bc2d",{"type":36,"summary":1719},[1720,1721,1722,1723],"Eleanor Gibson's 'scribble experiment' showed that reading-trained kids could spot symbol changes better","Perceptual learning trains your brain to notice key details, making learning active, not passive","Pilots using perceptual learning modules mastered complex instrument panels in just one hour","Visual memory is crucial for learning tasks like reading and math; 80% of learning happens through it",{"id":1725,"data":1726,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"4a3bf1aa-08ff-4111-a1fa-71066bf1e0bd",{"type":55,"intro":1727},[1728,1729],"How did Eleanor Gibson's 'scribble experiment' change our understanding of perceptual learning?","How do perceptual learning modules (PLMs) help pilots learn faster?",[1731,1745,1760,1777],{"id":1732,"data":1733,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":1736},"52817986-2e4a-4a1f-bbf2-3b3905260eca",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1734,"audioMediaId":1735},"Eleanor Gibson is a psychologist whose research came to prominence around the middle of the 20th century. She conducted a series of experiments on young children, then on older subjects, to measure the extent to which they were able to cognitively discriminate.\n\nGibson’s method for studying this has become known as the ‘scribble experiment.’ Children aged 4 to 5 were shown a set of alphabet-like scribbles, then a second set of the same scribbles, where some had slightly changed.\n\nTheir task was to identify which ones had changed and which were the same. They were usually unable to. When the experiment was tried on older children who could read, they were almost universally able to.\n\n![Graph](image://59ac94dc-1802-420d-8485-a2e76a0723e2 \"The scribbles used by Gibson. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThis proved that the children who had already been taught to read were better at perceiving differences in symbols. That might sound inconsequential but was actually a seismic discovery in developmental psychology.","1cd2f679-5877-44cd-84e3-aaddfeb5db9a",[1737],{"id":1738,"data":1739,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"963995aa-b4e3-4ca6-bb20-7f492258624c",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1740,"activeRecallAnswers":1742},[1741],"Which famous experiment proved the idea of perceptual, or visuo-spatial, learning? What happened in it?",[1743,1744],"The scribble experiment","Children who had been taught to read were better at identifying changes in scribbled symbols than those who had not",{"id":1746,"data":1747,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1750},"07c8cfca-3d79-48d7-bfbb-9c8c2056e9ef",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1748,"audioMediaId":1749},"Our ability to learn through visual perceptions can be trained and developed. Previously many had thought that only your rational, declarative memory could be trained. Gibson’s study showed that you could train your visuo-spatial memory as well.\n\nIn 1969, Gibson published a book called Principles of Perceptual Learning and Development, which brought together all her work and established a new branch of psychology: perceptual learning.\n\nPerceptual learning means aiming to remember the distinct characteristics of the things you are learning, and being able to perceive more as a result. This will only work if you can memorize distinctive information about a specific item.\n\nPerceptual learning is, therefore, an active process, rather than a passive absorption. It’s like the difference between looking and simply seeing, or the difference between hearing and actually listening.\n\nTo learn, we have to pay attention. Our brain finds the most crucial ‘perceptual signatures’ and filters out the rest. These perceptual signatures then enter our working memory and our unconscious brain.\n\n![Graph](image://96e05fd4-f366-4461-9c7c-6e656d5c6a13 \"Children playing chess in Cuba. Image: Adam Jones Adam63, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe Grand Masters in Simon’s chess study considered fewer moves than the novices because they had developed such a good eye that it instantly pared down their choices, making it easier to zoom in on the most effective strategy.","3e47a9a7-5124-4f4e-902b-6f8be0248e0b",[1751],{"id":1752,"data":1753,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"4f42c778-0463-40e4-bd4c-5e48f6c633ea",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1754,"binaryCorrect":1756,"binaryIncorrect":1758},[1755],"Perceptual learning involves seeking out ...",[1757],"Perceptual signatures",[1759],"Significant differences",{"id":1761,"data":1762,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1765},"7a01927a-435f-4ed8-addb-a8c0b22febb3",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1763,"audioMediaId":1764},"It’s only in the past two decades or so that scientists have begun to exploit Gibson’s findings for our benefit.\n\nOne example of this can be seen in training for pilots. One of the hardest parts about learning to fly planes is that you have to monitor many different dials on the instrument panel, all at once. This is a classic perceptual task, requiring the ability to draw the important information from a complex snapshot in an extremely short time frame.\n\n![Graph](image://90a6266a-3f69-4045-a9a4-88d46c1dc92e \"Hmmm... which one is which? Image: Public domain via Pixabay\")\n\nPreviously it was thought that this could only be attained after years of practice to develop the perceptual signatures. To solve this, scientists developed a computer program called a perceptual learning module, or PLM, which rapidly exposes pilots to the perceptual signatures needed to visualize complex instrument panels.\n\nAfter only one hour of training, novices could read the panel as quickly and accurately as pilots who had accumulated an average of 1,000 flying hours.\n\n![Graph](image://790dda1f-4cef-4401-b131-36ebeaa4e7ac \"Examples of the images used in PLMs for flight training. Image: Public domain via Pixabay\")\n\nThese methods have since been successfully applied in various fields, including laparoscopic surgery, dermatology, radiology, and cardiology.","b565daf6-dac7-4c7a-9890-da393b888269",[1766],{"id":1767,"data":1768,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"ded24e02-f9b9-4c1e-8d7d-15ad5809c0e8",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1769,"multiChoiceCorrect":1771,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1773,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1770],"What computer program helps people to learn perceptual signatures?",[1772],"Perceptual learning module",[1774,1775,1776],"Perception application","Perceptual learning program","Digital perception trainer",{"id":1778,"data":1779,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1782},"8cf5098f-17f3-43d0-bf3c-03d490802625",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1780,"audioMediaId":1781},"In cognitive science, visual memory is the relationship between perceptual processing and the encoding, storage and retrieval of the resulting representations, or memory traces. The ability to remember what we see is important to process short-term memory into long-term memory.\n\nAs we've discussed, pilots who had trained using the perceptual learning module were able to learn much more quickly, thanks to perceptual learning.\n\nWhen we develop our perceptual skills, learning becomes automatic, and self-correcting: it becomes significantly easier to learn. Visual memory is necessary for most academic tasks, including reading, spelling, reading comprehension and math.\n\nIt has been estimated that 80% of learning occurs via our visual memory system. On the flipside, when a child has poor visual memory, learning – both in formal and informal settings – can become difficult. The importance of visual memory for learning cannot be overstated.","3d26afb7-4372-4b10-89b9-4a14c6d18c49",[1783],{"id":1784,"data":1785,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"e5778b05-367b-42c0-91d8-6b942ac100fc",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1786,"activeRecallAnswers":1788},[1787],"Why is it important to develop our perceptual skills in order to learn?",[1789],"They help us to learn automatically",{"id":1791,"data":1792,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"orbs":1795},"2f13d7f8-32d0-4359-a8d3-35e329c2daf3",{"type":28,"title":1793,"tagline":1794},"Motivating Yourself to Learn","Researchers and educators have long been puzzled by the issue of motivation. This tile reveals some of the key motivators in learning.",[1796,1856,1921],{"id":1797,"data":1798,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1800,"introPage":1808,"pages":1814},"2dbcbdc0-7c3f-44d7-bd04-80e904e8f112",{"type":42,"title":1799},"Understanding Motivation",{"id":1801,"data":1802,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"12be8efc-8b4a-4a60-9adf-0b04bd4183bc",{"type":36,"summary":1803},[1804,1805,1806,1807],"Procrastination is common when trying to study for a test","Intrinsic motivation means doing something because you want to","Extrinsic motivation means doing something for a reward","Intrinsic motivation leads to higher grades and better health",{"id":1809,"data":1810,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"e1baccea-1ef9-48f3-be87-28094d7aedcb",{"type":55,"intro":1811},[1812,1813],"Why is intrinsic motivation considered the gold standard in learning?","How does intrinsic motivation impact student health and grades?",[1815,1828,1843],{"id":1816,"data":1817,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1820},"5e2ee161-f0ac-47b9-8db0-d6f992d431c9",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1818,"audioMediaId":1819},"Do you remember the last time you tried to study something for a test? If you’re like most people, you will have spent most of that time trying to motivate yourself to study, and then would have studied the actual content in no time at all.\n\nProcrastination is something we are all familiar with. Although cognitive psychologists have long since recognized the relationship between learning and motivation, they have – perhaps surprisingly – paid relatively little attention to motivation in learning. Studies on motivation have been conducted but there is no commonly accepted unifying theory of what is known to educational practice.","f0a4fe4c-7322-489d-ad17-f48c49a7aaa2",[1821],{"id":1822,"data":1823,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"9cf4bc7e-553e-4098-9db1-b7a37eed5943",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1824,"binaryCorrect":1826,"binaryIncorrect":1827},[1825],"There is a commonly accepted theory of the role motivation plays in learning.",[100],[102],{"id":1829,"data":1830,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1833},"12456210-1d7f-4ec6-a596-60452d96d772",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1831,"audioMediaId":1832},"Let’s examine the existing research on motivation as it relates to the science of learning. Psychologists have found that people are driven by two basic types of motivators: intrinsic and extrinsic motivators. Intrinsic motivation propels you to do something because you want to do it.\n\nFor example, if you’re writing an essay because you’re intellectually curious but there’s no deadline or test, you are intrinsically motivated. The primary motivation in this scenario is your interest in the topic and your desire to write about it.\n\n![Graph](image://59e1d46c-bf08-409c-951f-834ac6f22144 \"Cash prizes are an example of extrinsic motivation. Image: Publid domain via PxHere.\")\n\nExtrinsic motivation involves doing something because of an outcome, such as receiving a reward. If you’re writing the same essay to enter into a competition with a $100 cash prize, you are extrinsically motivated. Rather than being motivated by the task itself, you are motivated by the gains you could make from doing the task.","6b290977-7081-4e2b-b569-9e77f6379cde",[1834],{"id":1835,"data":1836,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"05b52ba2-fada-4da9-b9dc-b7df6a8c581a",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1837,"binaryCorrect":1839,"binaryIncorrect":1841},[1838],"Which of these is an example of extrinsic motivation?",[1840],"Writing a poem to win a poetry competition",[1842],"Writing a poem because you love poetry",{"id":1844,"data":1845,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":1848},"c2c0e41d-064a-4640-aa92-cc6abec06acb",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1846,"audioMediaId":1847},"Of course, in most situations we are motivated by a mixture of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. It’s also the case that one task that inspires great intrinsic motivation in one person will only work on extrinsic motivation for another.\n\nSome people get genuine pleasure out of spreadsheets (and there’s nothing wrong with that!), but many others won’t go near one unless they’re paid to.\n\nBoth intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can be highly valuable. Extrinsic motivation gets a bad rap, but it’s essential – the world needs people to do things that they don’t intrinsically care about.\n\nHowever, studies have found that, in a learning context, intrinsic motivation is the gold standard – the very highest achievers almost always have intrinsic motivation, and really care about their field. The advantages of intrinsic motivation include higher job satisfaction, higher productivity, and less susceptibility to burn-out than extrinsic motivators such as high pay – which is an external reward.\n\nIn learning contexts, students who are guided by intrinsic motivators, such as a passion for learning, generally have higher grades, tend to be less prone to depression, and may even have better physical health, than those who are motivated solely by external rewards.","2f9eca13-3491-419a-8dbd-539bcec809d3",[1849],{"id":1850,"data":1851,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"b039f1eb-01ca-489a-b933-5105cd5abaf4",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1852,"clozeWords":1854},[1853],"The very highest achievers usually demonstrate intrinsic motivation",[1855],"intrinsic",{"id":1857,"data":1858,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1860,"introPage":1868,"pages":1874},"8c5e346b-cc38-40d6-9a62-0c41684d3a84",{"type":42,"title":1859},"Emotion and Goal-Setting",{"id":1861,"data":1862,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"72dd0cc4-bc44-49e6-a664-104d1ccc1d46",{"type":36,"summary":1863},[1864,1865,1866,1867],"Emotions can boost or hinder motivation in learning","Punishment for mistakes kills curiosity and confidence","Learning goals are about gaining skills, not just grades","Performance goals limit risk-taking and creativity",{"id":1869,"data":1870,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"1c3c3b37-64c8-4143-ad8e-39b3a987c34b",{"type":55,"intro":1871},[1872,1873],"How does punishment affect motivation in learning?","What is learned helplessness?",[1875,1880,1893,1908],{"id":1876,"data":1877,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36},"696fe1e7-1e1a-4a4e-8f23-09dfa72d0b39",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1878,"audioMediaId":1879},"One of the most significant intrinsic factors that can affect motivation in learning and performance is emotion. Emotions may affect motivation positively or negatively. John MacBeath, a Cambridge Professor of Education, calls this “the linking of thinking and feeling.”\n\nIn today’s neuroscience, we have the technology to peer inside the brain and observe motivation and demotivation up close. This reveals what makes the brain light up in the emotional processing centers of the amygdala and limbic system.\n\n![Graph](image://8e2708f8-4140-4fe6-bef9-0de4e337c6e1 \"The limbic system is highly important for motivation in learning. Félix Vicq-d'Azyr, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis technology shows that positive emotions such as optimism and self-belief spark a bioelectrical network of activity which makes learning easier.","fc3a3069-9c85-42ec-a24d-318e7f10c49d",{"id":1881,"data":1882,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1885},"da5e079d-f5f1-47bd-b2cd-0f3e6a29095a",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1883,"audioMediaId":1884},"Have you ever been punished for getting an answer wrong? Whether it was your teacher at school or your boss at work during a critical meeting, we all know how being humiliated can make us feel – like we just want to give up.\n\nThe negative emotions that result from punishing rather than correcting errors makes it much more difficult to work. In schools around the world, according to the leading educational scientist Stanislas Dehaene, error feedback “has come to be synonymous with punishment and stigmatization, causing children to lose confidence and curiosity.”\n\n![Graph](image://8f7ad14b-dd00-4e10-b277-792a23025b1b \"Stanislas Dehaene. Per Henning/NTNU, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nRepeated punishment leads to ‘learned helplessness’. This means the learned belief that you’re incapable of affecting the outcomes of a situation. People reach this conclusion when they are consistently told that they are incompetent. Learned helplessness has even been shown to inhibit learning in animals.\n\nEliminating punishment mechanisms is a key way to ensure that potential curiosity is not wasted.","33f293fa-098c-481f-99c6-003a574a5d2f",[1886],{"id":1887,"data":1888,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"f0e21ca3-9c9b-4dae-af20-fe165d531526",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1889,"activeRecallAnswers":1891},[1890],"What term is used for the paralysis experienced by those who have received too much harsh feedback?",[1892],"Learned helplessness",{"id":1894,"data":1895,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1898},"167c7dee-f658-4eae-a3cc-57b180837487",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1896,"audioMediaId":1897},"Have you ever set yourself a goal when learning? Perhaps you wanted to learn to build a website with CSS. Perhaps you want to understand how an internal combustion engine works. Or you might have set yourself a target for the grade you want to get for your end of year exams. While these may sound like similar aims, they actually fall into two different categories of educational goals.\n\nThese are ‘performance-oriented’ and ‘learning-oriented’ goals, and different people respond to them differently. When people aim to learn for specific knowledge or skill improvements, they are learning-oriented. On the other hand, when people learn with the aim of achieving good results in tests or other metrics, they are performance-oriented.\n\nAs a general rule, learning-oriented targets are better ones to set than performance-oriented targets. It's better to set a goal about what you want to understand than about a specific score you want to achieve.","92abdbd0-6fea-474d-abe5-2a4194716dca",[1899],{"id":1900,"data":1901,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"4ad29f4b-9d7e-41ed-86f1-b608fee15b12",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1902,"binaryCorrect":1904,"binaryIncorrect":1906},[1903],"Having the goal of speaking semi-fluent French is an example of what type of goal?",[1905],"Learning-oriented",[1907],"Performance-oriented",{"id":1909,"data":1910,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":1913},"690190b9-024e-439d-8074-ce9b29c089f0",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1911,"audioMediaId":1912},"An interesting thing to consider with this is that performance and learning orientation vary by discipline. You might be results-oriented in maths, and learning-oriented in geography, or vice versa. If you give it some thought, you probably know which ones you are already!\n\nCompared to learning goals, performance goals are self-limiting. When you’re performance-oriented, you’re working to prove your credentials. Because performance goals are so obviously on a ‘pass-fail’ basis, you select challenges you’re confident you can meet.\n\nThose who are learning-oriented work to increase their ability by acquiring new knowledge or skills. Because of this, according to Stanislas Dehaene, they “pick ever increasing challenges, and \\[…\\] interpret setbacks as useful information that helps \\[them\\] to sharpen \\[their\\] focus, get more creative, and work harder.” Performance orientation, on the other hand, is more likely to create a fear of risk-taking and a fear of failure. This can be overcome by focusing more on learning-oriented goals.","a454eb63-ae43-4834-a753-4eba218c270c",[1914],{"id":1915,"data":1916,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"623582da-cda6-43da-87e9-4a38cdddbd04",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1917,"clozeWords":1919},[1918],"Performance orientation can often create fear of risk-taking and of failure.",[1920],"risk-taking",{"id":1922,"data":1923,"type":42,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1925,"introPage":1933,"pages":1939},"f11f5810-a1e7-4817-b026-405ef1b7920f",{"type":42,"title":1924},"Social Impact and Gamification",{"id":1926,"data":1927,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"0c41411e-03a9-461f-9bef-f12befe24cb4",{"type":36,"summary":1928},[1929,1930,1931,1932],"Learners are more motivated when they see their work's social impact","Challenges need to be just right – not too easy, not too hard","Making mistakes 20% of the time keeps learners motivated","Gamified learning, like Duolingo, uses neuroscience to keep you engaged",{"id":1934,"data":1935,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"ab003714-8a73-4d04-b458-f1ed6bc67c08",{"type":55,"intro":1936},[1937,1938],"How does Duolingo keep learners engaged?","What is the optimal success rate for motivation in learning?",[1940,1945,1958,1973],{"id":1941,"data":1942,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"02614a78-ddc8-49b7-be96-a55214154212",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1943,"audioMediaId":1944},"Studies have found that learners tend to be more motivated when they can see the usefulness of what they’re learning and use that information to do something that has an impact on others – especially their local community.\n\nIn one study, sixth-grade students in an inner-city school were asked to describe the highlights of their previous school year to an anonymous interviewer, focusing on anything that made them feel ‘proud,’ ‘successful,’ or ‘creative.’ The schoolchildren frequently mentioned projects that had a strong positive social impact.\n\nSocial opportunities – feeling that one is contributing something to others – are another powerful motivator in learning. In a study of first-grade learners in an inner-city school, researchers found that the schoolchildren were ‘highly motivated’ to draw pictures and write stories that they could share with others.\n\nSo, next time you’re learning, take the time to step back. Think about why you’re learning it and try to tie it back to your own social opportunities. If you do, it will help you stay motivated and learn better.","7b000dec-5808-42ea-8c7e-17a9a8019656",{"id":1946,"data":1947,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":1950},"6286e623-cf4b-460b-975f-fe85b25213e2",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1948,"audioMediaId":1949},"Our perceptions play a big role in shaping how motivated we are to solve problems. To motivate us and sustain our interest, challenges need to be at the appropriate level of difficulty. If they are too easy, the task becomes boring. Conversely, if they are too difficult, we’ll end up feeling defeated and frustrated.\n\nLearners tend to be more motivated when they have worked hard and perceive a task to have taken more effort on their part.\n\nIn the study of sixth-grade inner-city learners, the schoolchildren had to work hard. One of the projects involved learning about geometry and architecture to create blueprints to build a playhouse for their community. The activities that required more effort from the learners led to greater self-reported satisfaction.\n\nIn other words – it needs to be possible for people to make errors, in order for them to feel motivated by getting things right. The same study actually reported an optimal success rate for motivation of \\~80%. That means that when learners are getting things wrong around 20% of the time, they’ll be optimally motivated.","8c43a621-1bf0-4a8d-9c24-c1dd70dc8186",[1951],{"id":1952,"data":1953,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"4a9df9b4-d795-4229-a0bb-20f4b0d6c39f",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1954,"clozeWords":1956},[1955],"People are often more motivated to learn when they can see strong social impact from their work",[1957],"social impact",{"id":1959,"data":1960,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1963},"3bd3ab8a-854f-480e-83a2-934ee951d88f",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1961,"audioMediaId":1962},"Robert Bjork and his wife Elizabeth have written extensively on what they call ‘desirable difficulties’ in learning. Based on their research, some of the conditions under which we learn will result in more frustration than techniques that feel more intuitive and natural. They may even produce less immediate success.\n\nHowever, all desirable difficulty techniques lead to better long-term retention.\n\nSome techniques, including retrieval practice and testing, interleaving, spacing, and changing locations, fall under the umbrella of desirable difficulties. These techniques are hard, but they yield better results than techniques that make learning feel effortless, like re-reading and highlighting.\n\nNo planned and carefully designed pain, no gain!","17348e3b-4f21-4ba0-b420-ccb1bb27f039",[1964],{"id":1965,"data":1966,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"d8fc57c1-9e0e-4abb-89c7-85e60ce68005",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1967,"multiChoiceCorrect":1969,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1971,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1968],"According to a study of sixth-grade learners, what is an optimal success rate for motivation?",[1970],"80%",[707,706,1972],"70%",{"id":1974,"data":1975,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":1978},"bb97826e-b359-4ad7-8daa-b17edcd66a4c",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":1976,"audioMediaId":1977},"The motivation factors we’ve been discussing – especially managed difficulty, learning-oriented goals, and the value of positive emotions – are all factors in the exciting new field of gamified learning.\n\nIn the past few years, cognitive research around learning and motivation has been combined with game design and web development to produce digital gamified learning.\n\nWell-designed gamified learning can take care of all of the different motivation factors we’ve discussed and deliver content in a way that is optimally engaging.\n\nThe most famous example of this is Duolingo, which implements a neuroscience-backed approach to keeping people engaged in learning new languages.\n\nHere at Kinnu, we aim to do the same, but to help you learn anything you want. Our gamification features are built to trigger all of the motivation factors discussed in this tile, to make sure people keep the focus that’s so essential to truly mastering areas of knowledge.","79607ad5-afa2-4b20-8054-595d946a717a",[1979],{"id":1980,"data":1981,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"a8253918-2644-4fd5-9632-08fbd2c8c93e",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1982,"binaryCorrect":1984,"binaryIncorrect":1985},[1983],"Which of these is an example of desirable difficulty?",[807],[1986],"Punishment for the wrong answer",{"id":1988,"data":1989,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"orbs":1992},"9e3478a7-bd29-4d18-8728-17ad33981f3d",{"type":28,"title":1990,"tagline":1991},"Debunking Myths","Learn about some of the common myths associated with learning and why they don’t hold up.",[1993,2047],{"id":1994,"data":1995,"type":42,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":1997,"introPage":2005,"pages":2011},"6707ab65-d28b-440d-8ec8-b343b42566f0",{"type":42,"title":1996},"Debunking Some Myths",{"id":1998,"data":1999,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"a8681e41-f958-423d-b17f-85a4969c0f9a",{"type":36,"summary":2000},[2001,2002,2003,2004],"The science of learning is new and evolving","Multitasking is a myth; it slows us down","Intentional self-interruption can boost memory","The Zeigarnik effect shows we remember unfinished tasks better",{"id":2006,"data":2007,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"8b2179a4-f448-470e-8ef7-014e69ab93f2",{"type":55,"intro":2008},[2009,2010],"What is the Zeigarnik effect?","Why is multitasking considered an illusion?",[2012,2017,2034],{"id":2013,"data":2014,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36},"44f5ff73-140c-41e7-a1a9-5e4fea0850b5",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2015,"audioMediaId":2016},"Much of what we currently know about learning is based upon what we’ve been taught at school and by our parents. But plenty of what we assume about learning is wrong. In this tile, we’ll debunk some of the biggest myths many people hold about learning.\n\nLearning science is actually a relatively new field. It wasn’t until the mass expansion of education in the 19th century that learning became accessible to the masses. As a result, the science of learning has historically been too niche for sustained academic study.\n\nMoreover, many of the fields upon which the science of learning is predicated, like evolutionary studies and brain imaging, are relatively recent. This means that we’re only just beginning to debunk some of the things that we thought we knew about learning.","70e18603-866c-4bbe-a63d-d1f920186e94",{"id":2018,"data":2019,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":2022},"b76d5f89-3e4c-484b-88df-e03f90538742",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2020,"audioMediaId":2021},"When we speak about the ability to multitask, we’re talking about our capacity to pay attention. When we engage our attention and executive control, we’re accessing our working memory.\n\nThe multitasking myth is tied to our own lack of awareness of our mental limits. According to cognitive neuroscientist Stanislas Dehaene, the idea that we can simultaneously process two tasks is an illusion. In other words, ‘multitasking’ – in the sense of literally processing multiple tasks – is impossible.\n\n![Graph](image://dfca1c08-4b53-4863-9ecf-fd2233287ead \"Multitasking is technically impossible. Image: Public domain via Freepik\")\n\nIn any multitasking situation, whenever we have to perform multiple cognitive operations, at least 1 of the operations will be slowed down or forgotten. This is because, when we try to do several things simultaneously, the central executive, which is the system that directs attention and prioritizes what is important, loses track. The distraction of multitasking slows us down or wastes our efforts.\n\nThe reason we believe we can multitask is that we are unaware of the huge delay it causes – what he refers to as a ‘dual-task delay.’","a0c849f9-c218-4251-8add-6cb0293a74e2",[2023],{"id":2024,"data":2025,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"8d708c3c-f2a9-4d51-8428-fc1be10c7043",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2026,"multiChoiceCorrect":2028,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2030,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2027],"What is the maximum number of tasks that can be cognitively processed at once?",[2029],"1",[2031,2032,2033],"2","3","4",{"id":2035,"data":2036,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":2039},"74f74ef7-f769-40f1-8559-1887579acfe6",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2037,"audioMediaId":2038},"Distractions can, of course, be detrimental to learning. But research shows that, in some circumstances – especially when it takes the form of intentional self-interruption – distraction can actually facilitate learning.\n\nIn 1927, a young psychology student of Lithuanian descent, named Bluma Zeigarnik, conducted a series of experiments to analyze how much information people retained when they were interrupted halfway through.\n\n![Graph](image://cd20570a-363f-497b-96c2-ee837078e7fc \"Bluma Zeigarnik. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nZeigarnik found that people remembered about 90% more of the small jobs they hadn’t completed as a result of being interrupted, than those they had completed.\n\nAfter running even more trials, Zeigarnik found that she could maximize the effect of interruption on memory by stopping people at the moment when they were most engrossed in their work. This is known as the Zeigarnik effect. Stopping a task halfway through leads to greater retention than signing it off as done.","51678a53-2dc1-48a9-81aa-bbc7dd407fcb",[2040],{"id":2041,"data":2042,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"91be2df8-02b6-49ff-9c5f-96735612839a",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2043,"clozeWords":2045},[2044],"The Zeigarnik effect is where people remember more from the tasks that they haven't completed",[2046],"haven't completed",{"id":2048,"data":2049,"type":42,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":2051,"introPage":2059,"pages":2065},"6670497b-f381-4641-8401-d4088508044f",{"type":42,"title":2050},"The learning styles and brain sides myths",{"id":2052,"data":2053,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"0b70cb34-6b67-4a2a-9500-99adc5d64e1d",{"type":36,"summary":2054},[2055,2056,2057,2058],"Learning styles don't improve educational outcomes","Teaching methods should match the topic, not the learner","Brain sides don't dictate learning abilities","Experience shapes thinking more than brain anatomy",{"id":2060,"data":2061,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"72980a44-f16e-4db7-84a0-81134e1b1a70",{"type":55,"intro":2062},[2063,2064],"What did Harold Pashler's 2008 study reveal about learning styles?","Why is the idea of left-brain vs. right-brain dominance a myth?",[2066,2083],{"id":2067,"data":2068,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":2071},"052d0582-a415-4906-af00-59d362d1e76b",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2069,"audioMediaId":2070},"A common myth is that everyone has different learning styles. Many people believe that some people learn best audibly, some learn best visually and some learn best while moving. However, a study by Harold Pashler in 2008 found little evidence to support the idea that instruction tailored to individual students' learning styles results in better educational outcomes.\n\nInstead, Pashler's research suggests that the effectiveness of different instructional methods (media) is more likely to depend on the nature of the material being taught (the topic), rather than on the preferred learning style of the individual learner.\n\nIn other words, certain types of material may be more effectively taught using visual aids, while other types of material may be better suited to verbal explanation, regardless of the individual learner's supposed 'learning style.'\n\nTherefore, it's more about matching the teaching strategy (or medium) to the topic at hand, rather than to individual learning styles. It's a significant shift in perspective that has implications for educational practice and learning strategy design.","8f89fa06-34ed-46e1-980f-6c609ac3ca2a",[2072],{"id":2073,"data":2074,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"20ce6799-83ac-474d-a238-bf49361e08db",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2075,"multiChoiceCorrect":2077,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2079,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2076],"Which of these is a proven myth?",[2078],"People having different learning styles",[2080,2081,2082],"The benefits of interleaving","The role of the hippocampus in memory-formation","Gamified learning",{"id":2084,"data":2085,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":2088},"4f1d26d4-69f8-4785-a305-acd4eab9ab63",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2086,"audioMediaId":2087},"When it comes to learning, many people believe that there is a difference between people who have a left dominant brain and a right dominant brain. They think that which side of the brain is dominant in a person will dictate that person’s innate ability to learn certain subjects or types of content.\n\n![Graph](image://18c95181-8c3e-43a6-823b-c61173533056 \"The 'Left-Brain, Right-Brain' Theory. Image: Chickensaresocute, CC BY-SA 2.5 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis is both literally and figuratively untrue. Each hemisphere of the brain is involved in both emotional and logical thinking. There’s also little in people’s brain anatomy that is likely to predispose them to a more creative and lateral, or a more logical and literal way of thinking – these are traits that are much more influenced by experience and learned behavior.\n\nThis is equally true with our capacity to learn – everyone is born with a similar learning ability, and there is nothing about the architecture of the brain that makes learning in a given area easier or harder between different individuals.","5783680e-a7e9-443f-9e33-a6d3a675f953",[2089],{"id":2090,"data":2091,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"a1f93651-0a98-4cb1-91ca-9460cf6238c2",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2092,"clozeWords":2094},[2093],"There is little in the architecture of the brain that makes learning easier for some people",[2095],"easier",{"id":2097,"data":2098,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"orbs":2101},"e3be36cb-22f0-4c00-92e6-55cecfbd3b6a",{"type":28,"title":2099,"tagline":2100},"Cognitive Load","How cognitive load can get in the way of learning, and how to harness it for your own good.",[2102,2152,2232,2282],{"id":2103,"data":2104,"type":42,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":2106,"introPage":2114,"pages":2120},"374aef21-3597-4d82-b494-9f98a1623a25",{"type":42,"title":2105},"Cognitive Load and Schemas",{"id":2107,"data":2108,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"7f6083c7-3f31-4740-907e-bab127a1173c",{"type":36,"summary":2109},[2110,2111,2112,2113],"Cognitive load is the mental processing power you have at any given time","Schemas are mental patterns that help you organize and understand information","Too much cognitive load disrupts the formation of new schemas","Learning happens when new information refines and builds on existing schemas",{"id":2115,"data":2116,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"bcccfa78-fd82-44d5-b5ae-ff1ffd80752b",{"type":55,"intro":2117},[2118,2119],"What is a schema in cognitive psychology?","How do schemas help us understand new information?",[2121,2134,2147],{"id":2122,"data":2123,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":2126},"46caccc7-dd2c-4d34-a650-cb730d024650",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2124,"audioMediaId":2125},"Have you ever tried to learn something and failed because it suddenly got too hard? Have you ever given up after the introduction to a course in a new area, because you no longer understood what was going on? The chances are you have – well over 90% of people typically drop out of an online course within the first few weeks.\n\nCognitive load theory suggests that people have a limited amount of cognitive resources, or mental processing power, which affects how much information they can take in and remember at one time. The theory has been used to explain a variety of phenomena, including why people have difficulty multitasking and why many people complain about their short-term memory.\n\nIf you’ve ever walked into a room and immediately forgotten why you were there, or opened your phone to message someone and instead found yourself scrolling through Reddit ten minutes later, then you’ve experienced what having too much cognitive load feels like.","5f5b35f8-f5df-4ebf-9982-9400a804c977",[2127],{"id":2128,"data":2129,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"3e3968c5-a345-4454-acca-c546439cee16",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2130,"activeRecallAnswers":2132},[2131],"What is the name of the theory that suggests people have a limited amount of cognitive resources, or mental processing power?",[2133],"Cognitive load theory",{"id":2135,"data":2136,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":2139},"097811c3-1437-4a5b-be5d-96bdd432a0f0",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2137,"audioMediaId":2138},"To understand cognitive load, we need to first understand the role that schemas play in forming long-term memory. The reason cognitive load is so problematic is that it complicates the process of schema-formation.\\\nThe most influential researcher on cognitive load theory is the Australian psychologist John Sweller. Sweller’s most famous assertion is that **“If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned.”** It sounds simple, but many educational practices and assessment systems don’t take this basic principle into account.\n\nA schema is an encoded pattern of knowledge that helps us organize information and make sense of the world. It does this by organizing knowledge and memories into groups, making it easier to categorize future knowledge. If we’re trying to do too many things at once, this process gets disrupted.","5d508c53-5e9c-4f28-b689-67e1921a0c60",[2140],{"id":2141,"data":2142,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"3be97471-0441-4380-b434-3240f6ba3d20",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2143,"clozeWords":2145},[2144],"A schema is an encoded pattern of knowledge that helps us make sense of the world",[2146],"schema",{"id":2148,"data":2149,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42},"190df31c-2cb0-4684-b8aa-b3a1e1a13afe",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2150,"audioMediaId":2151},"Schemas, at their most basic, could be thought of as stuff that you ‘just know’ in a particular area.\n\nSay you get invited to a party, at a house you’ve never been to before. Despite having no knowledge of what will actually happen at this party, you still have a rough idea of what to expect – drinks, food, conversation, maybe some music.\n\nThis is because you have a schema of what constitutes a party in your head, based on prior experience. These schemas are what form the building blocks for new knowledge.\n\nWhen you learn new information, your starting point is your pre-existing schemas about the topic. Adding to our long-term memory is a process of refining those schemas, and then building on them further.","7d1931ec-f4ff-43f9-b12a-1f479e4a5109",{"id":2153,"data":2154,"type":42,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":2156,"introPage":2164,"pages":2170},"082da838-36d6-4034-b8a3-7ec4c26c4582",{"type":42,"title":2155},"Processing and Managing Information",{"id":2157,"data":2158,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"b156f98b-d3aa-438f-9f80-b15fb6473bc6",{"type":36,"summary":2159},[2160,2161,2162,2163],"Working memory can hold about four items for 20 seconds","Cognitive load limits our brain's ability to process new info","Intrinsic cognitive load comes from the complexity of the info itself","Extraneous cognitive load comes from how info is presented",{"id":2165,"data":2166,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"1abcb162-6adf-4286-a97e-5203aa2e03e1",{"type":55,"intro":2167},[2168,2169],"What is element interactivity?","How can you reduce element interactivity when learning complex topics?",[2171,2183,2195,2200,2215],{"id":2172,"data":2173,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":2176},"2fd271f4-2e82-4e9b-952b-ad8f688baac0",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2174,"audioMediaId":2175},"In order to understand how our brain creates schemas of information, and ultimately builds long-term memory, we need to consider two points – working memory and processing power. Let’s start with working memory.\n\nImagine you’re learning how to write basic code. Your teacher has just taught you how to write a ‘for’ loop, and also a ‘while’ loop. You need to retain this knowledge in your memory if you want to use it in the lesson.\n\nWorking memory is the primary structure that processes incoming information from the environment but it is very limited in capacity and duration. When presented with a list of items, most people can remember around four of them a few seconds later, and usually they can only retain those four for about 20 seconds.\n\n![Graph](image://9dd7e70a-10f2-45e5-9093-0898fa50827c \"Working memory processes incoming items. Image: Public domain via PikPNG\")\n\nSo working memory would be the part of your brain that retained the ‘for’ and ‘while’ loop in your head until you came to use them. However, at the end of the lesson your teacher also gives you a problem to solve, without specifying how to use these loops. This is where mere memory isn’t enough – you need to use your brain’s processing power.","5ec8a904-3518-48e2-b13b-83a97c997e5c",[2177],{"id":2178,"data":2179,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"e41a3d52-11d6-48c3-ba12-d9b5d89dd687",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2180,"clozeWords":2182},[2181],"Working memory can generally store about 4 items for about 20 seconds",[2033],{"id":2184,"data":2185,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":2188},"c08174bf-322b-4073-ab23-82272927af0c",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2186,"audioMediaId":2187},"Like working memory, your brain’s processing power can only handle small bits of new information at a time. In fact, we can only process two to three items of new information at once. This means that learning new things can be very hard, particularly when we have to remember several concepts at the same time, as is often the case in mathematics or the sciences.\n\n![Graph](image://7eb897cd-9374-4406-9166-141820300806 \"Holding information in your working memory is like juggling. Image: Juggling, Tim Pierce, CC BY 2.0 via Flickr, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/\")\n\nCognitive load is the term used to describe this twin problem – that, in terms of both processing and working memory, our brains can only handle so much information at once.","4117c782-b25c-4947-bb9b-3c59596e5a29",[2189],{"id":2190,"data":2191,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"e3716ddd-82d3-4953-807f-0d5cfe29cfd3",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2192,"activeRecallAnswers":2194},[2193],"What term describes how our brains can only handle so much information at once?",[215],{"id":2196,"data":2197,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42},"09b5eac3-1ce6-4f63-8fa1-9b1826613b0c",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2198,"audioMediaId":2199},"Holding information in your working memory is much like juggling. You can handle three, or at a push four pieces of information at once – any more will bring things crashing down. Sure, there are people out there who can juggle nine burning chainsaws, just as there are people who can write quantum theory or play Rachmaninoff on piano.\n\nBut for most of us, three to four ‘balls in the air’ at once in our working memory is about the maximum cognitive load that we can handle.","05943753-2449-4488-8917-dd8421669e43",{"id":2201,"data":2202,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":2205},"23e141da-3806-4bb2-8479-9be3f04bfba1",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2203,"audioMediaId":2204},"There are two ways that information can create cognitive load in our brains.\n\nIntrinsic cognitive load is caused by the nature of the information to be learned, irrespective of how it is presented or taught. This is learning that cannot really be simplified – the subject matter is inherently complex. For example, most people find mathematics, physics and chemistry as topics with the highest cognitive load.\n\n![Graph](image://8c1c1fed-bb27-454e-9f10-57894061192c \"Pure math is a subject with very high intrinsic cognitive load. Image: Yulia Meshkova, CC BY 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nExtraneous cognitive load comes from the way information is presented, rather than from the information itself. The art of good teaching is the art of minimizing this extraneous cognitive load. Fortunately, there is a well-established playbook to help with this. Let’s look at some techniques.\n\nWorking memory can store around four individual elements at a time. However, imagine you are learning a completely new topic - let’s say quantum computing.\n\nYou might start learning about qubits, vectors, computational states, the bracket notation, and superposition. Feeling lost already?\n\nTo explain anything about quantum computing, all of these terms need to be comfortably held in your working memory to understand just a simple sentence.","1fca3599-5353-45c5-a3b2-4a3afa661bca",[2206],{"id":2207,"data":2208,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"9dd330cc-51f9-4930-bbc5-9be664dd46ee",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2209,"binaryCorrect":2211,"binaryIncorrect":2213},[2210],"Which of these would cause intrinsic cognitive load?",[2212],"Information that is by its nature hard to process",[2214],"Information that is presented in a difficult-to-process way",{"id":2216,"data":2217,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":2220},"36a3e9ed-f671-4885-9835-b5fd2ab4bd17",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2218,"audioMediaId":2219},"The previous problem about remembering quantum terms is an example of element interactivity - the elements that must be processed simultaneously in working memory because they are logically related. Like juggling, when we have more elements than we can handle, we have to let some balls fall.\n\nElement interactivity can be reduced if the interacting elements are first taught separately. The best way to teach quantum mechanics would not be to hit the reader with a list of terms, as above, but instead to break down each of those terms first.\n\nThis would gradually allow the learner to build up their schema for these different concepts, before building on them with higher-level concepts.\n\nSo, cognitive load is harmful because it disrupts our capacity to group and organise information into schemas, the essential structures of long-term memory.","ab3f62ea-e2d1-44aa-946f-14446da83cde",[2221],{"id":2222,"data":2223,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"48bbd853-97c9-4d99-9593-afdd7e56bb34",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2224,"multiChoiceCorrect":2226,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2228,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2225],"What term is used to describe the level to which elements of a piece of knowledge must be processed simultaneously?",[2227],"Element interactivity",[2229,2230,2231],"Element coordination","Element retrieval","Element retention",{"id":2233,"data":2234,"type":42,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":2236,"introPage":2244,"pages":2250},"58b75226-4116-4192-89a4-e74682c2052a",{"type":42,"title":2235},"Multimodal Learning and Problem Solving",{"id":2237,"data":2238,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"f1ffc303-e046-43dc-8a4c-5de6552db627",{"type":36,"summary":2239},[2240,2241,2242,2243],"Our brain processes auditory and visual info separately, boosting memory","Combining spoken teaching with visuals helps info stick better","Avoid redundancy: don't narrate written text; use labels directly on visuals","Split attention makes learning harder; keep related info close together",{"id":2245,"data":2246,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"b6b7b967-efb3-4537-b55b-a556fb065f84",{"type":55,"intro":2247},[2248,2249],"What is the 'redundancy effect' in multimodal learning?","How does 'split attention' impact memory retention?",[2251,2264,2277],{"id":2252,"data":2253,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":2256},"e538b806-0982-45c5-b905-82c2edbd751b",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2254,"audioMediaId":2255},"One aspect of our brain that actually is pretty good at handling multiple elements at once is our ability to process different modes of information. **Our working memory is multimodal**. This means that there is a different processor in our brains that deals with what we hear (auditory information) and with what we see (visual information).\n\nOne model of working memory describes it as having an audio loop and a sketchpad. If we are careful about the design, we can stick more than just four things into our memory using the combination of both auditory and visual channels.","b14e704e-d88a-436a-be28-5012b4aaee88",[2257],{"id":2258,"data":2259,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"1e5c6a0f-29af-49db-86ff-81d0a7f903e0",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2260,"activeRecallAnswers":2262},[2261],"What term is used to describe processing auditory and visual information simultaneously?",[2263],"Multimodal processing",{"id":2265,"data":2266,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":2269},"358285c8-4a62-4af6-bb5f-e0daee50e899",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2267,"audioMediaId":2268},"The easiest way to create multimodal learning is to complement spoken teaching with visual cues. It’s easy for learners to process images at the same time as listening to a lecture – and doing so actually allows more information to enter into their working memory without the same damaging cognitive load.\n\nHowever, these should not replicate each other (i.e., audio should not be a narration of written text) as this causes a ‘redundancy effect.’ Imagine you are labeling a pie chart describing people’s favorite scent. If you would like for people to remember that 60% of people prefer floral, while 25% of people love woody and only 15% like oriental, then you should put the label of each of these percentages directly next to their segments of the chart.","1153c2dd-9394-4680-9748-beb59fcd2729",[2270],{"id":2271,"data":2272,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"3785d3e7-f2be-4798-983f-a604a51860b9",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2273,"clozeWords":2275},[2274],"Split attention occurs when learning content is presented in a disordered way",[2276],"Split attention",{"id":2278,"data":2279,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36},"de473c7e-830e-4859-8ea7-bcff9bc185b8",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2280,"audioMediaId":2281},"Unfortunately, Microsoft Excel won’t do this by default – instead putting the labels down in the corner of the chart. This small difference can actually make remembering the information much harder. This is called the ‘split attention’ effect, and fixing it can be one of the quickest ways to make information more memorable.\n\n![Graph](image://bbc8c6a7-d466-466b-a08e-2c4f0a06b722 \"A pie chart with labels along the side, rather than by the slices, is much harder to process\")\n\nSplit attention occurs when content forces learners to split their attention between at least two sources of information. For learning, we need to mentally integrate disparate sources of information. Whenever possible, information should be presented so that disparate pieces of information are situated close together. Forcing the learner to find the links in a bunch of disorganized information creates major extraneous cognitive load.","482c0302-1d4a-451a-a5aa-f50c5d368529",{"id":2283,"data":2284,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":2286,"introPage":2294,"pages":2300},"c58ad31e-c95e-48de-9551-8722a96e3a64",{"type":42,"title":2285},"How to Mitigate Cognitive Load",{"id":2287,"data":2288,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"d678e7fc-08bb-415c-b03d-af4165913a00",{"type":36,"summary":2289},[2290,2291,2292,2293],"Worked examples and goal-free problems help manage cognitive load","Goal-free problems let you explore broadly without a specific goal","Adaptive fading reduces unnecessary info as you get better","Borrowing and reorganizing knowledge shapes your understanding",{"id":2295,"data":2296,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"e9ef8589-b6e8-404c-960a-5e739bc0d454",{"type":55,"intro":2297},[2298,2299],"What is a goal-free problem?","How does adaptive fading help reduce cognitive load?",[2301,2314,2330,2345,2358,2363],{"id":2302,"data":2303,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":2306},"64ef43d4-6cea-4412-824d-786e8b1fb555",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2304,"audioMediaId":2305},"Limited working memory is a big obstacle when solving problems – it’s hard to keep all that information in there while you are also processing potential solutions. There are two ways to overcome this: worked examples and goal-free problems.\n\nThe first is to provide worked examples that show a step-by-step, expert solution to a problem for the learner to emulate. In other words, this is learning by copying. Of course, the problem with this is that it is easy for learners to skip straight to the solution, without understanding the mechanics of how it was achieved.\n\nOne approach to prevent such passive learning is a paired approach of study and example, then solving a problem, or using completion problems - that is, partial worked examples where the learners need to complete some key solution steps on their own.","a670215c-cf1c-4d00-b8fe-a63c0d6d36e4",[2307],{"id":2308,"data":2309,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"ae4d1daf-0f6d-4fbe-8daa-5c434e60c584",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2310,"activeRecallAnswers":2312},[2311],"What is the term for step-by-step, expert solutions that a learner emulates?",[2313],"Worked examples",{"id":2315,"data":2316,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":2319},"27a81831-f471-4e2c-bb01-63700f676c8a",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2317,"audioMediaId":2318},"Another approach to problem-solving that avoids too much cognitive load is to create **a goal-free problem**. This means replacing a conventional goal-oriented problem with a problem with a non-specific goal. For example, rather than asking someone a question such as ‘Here is a triangle, find the length of the hypotenuse,’ you would say ‘Here is a triangle, tell us everything you can about it from the information given.’\n\nThis style of teaching has two advantages – firstly, it allows learners to develop schemas more naturally, without having to cloud their cognitive load too much with the thought ‘I need to solve x problem.’ It also allows them to develop broader schemas, because they can’t work backwards to solve just one problem – they have to think about a broad range of possible problems and solutions.","7ef5a3ce-e967-446d-9807-0feec1fad87d",[2320],{"id":2321,"data":2322,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"3ee457b3-4a53-431c-8abf-72e12e104edb",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2323,"multiChoiceCorrect":2325,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2327,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2324],"Which of these allows learners to develop broader, more natural schemas?",[2326],"Goal-free problems",[2328,807,2329],"Open problems","Intrinsic achievements",{"id":2331,"data":2332,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":2335},"b41b073e-dc5f-4150-8cf3-71d51a7a01ec",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2333,"audioMediaId":2334},"Intrinsic cognitive load that exceeds working memory capacity disrupts learning. While extraneous cognitive load can be decreased by presenting material in a smart way, there is not much that can be done to lower intrinsic cognitive load. Intrinsic cognitive load should be **optimized rather than decreased.**\n\nFor example, if intrinsic cognitive load requires fewer working memory resources than available, increasing the intrinsic cognitive load can actually enhance learning. This can be achieved by increasing element interactivity (e.g. introducing two simple and related concepts together, or reducing/varying the level of support in worked examples or problem-solving).\n\n![Graph](image://3b7ec0c4-5482-4626-b0e0-bdefff8a1bd3 \"Some topics, such as quantum mechanics, simply have high intrinsic cognitive load. Ansgar Hellwig, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAnother approach is to help learners develop basic and specific prior knowledge (e.g. definitions, vocabulary and basic concepts) through pre-training before material with high element interactivity is introduced. This is what we are currently working on with Kinnu - we build and consolidate your knowledge over time, so that you can continue learning increasingly complex concepts.","92c206b4-8f38-49a7-a6fb-665964f124e1",[2336],{"id":2337,"data":2338,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"5b1d33ab-1c2a-4be9-8418-ef522a96c2e6",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2339,"binaryCorrect":2341,"binaryIncorrect":2343},[2340],"How is it best to approach intrinsic cognitive load?",[2342],"Optimizing it",[2344],"Eliminating it",{"id":2346,"data":2347,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":2350},"c283b0c0-2859-404a-ad0d-c03312b4b024",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2348,"audioMediaId":2349},"Many of the ways to reduce extraneous cognitive load work particularly well with learners who are completely new to a topic. Lowering extraneous cognitive load through better content and problem design are great places to start. However, once learners increase their expertise in a topic, **adaptive fading** should be used.\n\nEarlier we spoke about the redundancy effect. This can be a huge cause of cognitive load. It occurs when information is included that learners already know. Imagine you want to learn about the Battle of Stalingrad – but the first lesson you have about it starts with ‘what is a battle?’ Not only would this be frustrating, but it would also create cognitive load, making it harder to learn the non-obvious stuff.\n\nObviously, over time, that means fading out more and more stuff – you don’t need to keep answering ‘what’s an equilateral triangle?’ when you’re three years into your geometry course.","8292d175-7854-4d29-991e-fb7f304126b8",[2351],{"id":2352,"data":2353,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"c5e07d7d-ede6-4703-a77d-b8ce0b023e0a",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2354,"clozeWords":2356},[2355],"Adaptive fading is the technique of fading out the more basic, foundational content over time",[2357],"Adaptive",{"id":2359,"data":2360,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36},"de2943ac-1f49-4dbf-b7b3-1da8d75c3e43",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2361,"audioMediaId":2362},"If we want to avoid cognitive load and build better schemas, it’s also helpful to understand borrowing and reorganizing.\n\nThe borrowing and reorganizing principle is quite simple. It states that most of the information in our schemas is borrowed from other people’s schemas. This borrowed information is also reorganized by each person to better suit them and their environment.\n\nFor example, we discussed in an earlier orb how you probably understand the concept of a ‘party’ as a part of your schema. You weren’t taught this concept in school – you absorbed it from the people around you growing up, perhaps your parents, friends, and from popular culture. You ‘borrowed’ this knowledge from the schemas of those around you. In turn it formed a part of your own schema.\n\n![Graph](image://85340b18-323d-48b9-a912-d40e70c8af78 \"You probably didn't learn what a party was at school. Image: Public domain via Freepik\")\n\nThe ‘reorganization’ aspect is illustrated in the fact that your understanding of the word ‘party’ has some differences to that of your parents. You may have different ideas of what to wear, how to greet your friends, or what music to dance to.\n\nSo, even though your understanding of what a party is has come from them and other people, you’ve reorganized that knowledge in your schema to align with other values and priorities.","50681f08-3d9d-4c9c-8ce4-c5c6629e6bde",{"id":2364,"data":2365,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":2368},"889ddd5e-c278-46b1-9d07-6269749f8f64",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2366,"audioMediaId":2367},"While borrowing and reorganizing knowledge accounts for a large amount of learned concepts, it does not actually allow for the creation of completely new ideas. Cognitive load theory suggests that totally new information is created in the brain through the ‘randomness-as-genesis’ principle.\n\nA simple way of understanding randomness-as-genesis is that it is basically guessing until something sticks. To return once again to the party example – maybe you were never taken to any parties as a child, and your parents didn’t socialize much. In this instance you have no prior schema about what parties are and what people do at them.\n\nThe only way to learn in this scenario is by trial and error. So you go to as many parties as you can, trying out different behaviors and topics of conversation. Each time you come up with your own idea of what to do at a party, and you have those theories validated or disproven over many iterations.\n\nThis is randomness-as-genesis – your brain naturally selecting what does and doesn’t work from a series of randomly generated ideas over time.","a7d403cf-ca0d-47b1-a21f-19da709a1b0a",[2369],{"id":2370,"data":2371,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"1675bf49-fcb3-4f1e-8741-93bba8b3b629",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2372,"activeRecallAnswers":2374},[2373],"What principle of adding knowledge to our schemas works by randomly guessing until something works?",[2375],"Randomness-as-genesis",{"id":2377,"data":2378,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"orbs":2381},"0051c7cb-d95a-41c6-bb24-d3743688b7cf",{"type":28,"title":2379,"tagline":2380},"How Creativity Works","Here we explore creativity, its role in learning, and how it too can be learned.",[2382,2475,2560],{"id":2383,"data":2384,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":2386,"introPage":2394,"pages":2400},"1b3c8453-b9b6-4650-96b6-26cc9348f8b7",{"type":42,"title":2385},"Understanding Creativity",{"id":2387,"data":2388,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"b75c7e0b-2e75-4eb5-8ae2-62225b0dd7cb",{"type":36,"summary":2389},[2390,2391,2392,2393],"Creativity is about rearranging existing ideas to form new patterns","Ancient Greeks valued art that conformed to rules, not originality","Creative minds like Einstein and Picasso spent a decade mastering their fields","True innovators excel in domain mastery, motivation, and creativity-relevant skills",{"id":2395,"data":2396,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"1a5ea896-1633-4805-985b-f8a28d0975a9",{"type":55,"intro":2397},[2398,2399],"Why did ancient Greeks value conformity in art?","Which part of the brain encourages creative thinking?",[2401,2418,2433,2438,2455,2470],{"id":2402,"data":2403,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":2406},"ac250352-6d33-4b97-b9c5-346b1bfa5079",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2404,"audioMediaId":2405},"There’s a simple and a complex answer to the question ‘what is creativity?’ The simple answer: it’s creating stuff. Creativity means dreaming up original thoughts, expressing them in original ways, and devising new solutions to problems.\n\nThe more complex answer: creativity is the rearrangement of existing ideas and thought processes to form new patterns. In that sense, there is nothing truly ‘new’ created by creativity – just new ways of organizing pre-existing ideas.\n\n![Graph](image://b78dae36-4764-4802-bb43-c2a836ac45b6 \"Greek sculptures were not praised for their originality. Image: Carole Raddato from FRANKFURT, Germany, CC BY-SA 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis is something that the ancient Greeks understood. There was actually no word for ‘creativity’ as we know it in their language. For them, the best works of art were not the most original, but the ones that best conformed to their rules of artistic composition.\n\nThinking about creativity in these terms – as mastery of concepts and processes, rather than origination of new ideas – will actually be very helpful when we consider the cognition that underpins it.","b4f7c5b5-7a00-4111-b55c-f3ba138cde4d",[2407],{"id":2408,"data":2409,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"8dc25257-6c7a-4792-9bd9-3d0e2f60673c",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2410,"multiChoiceCorrect":2412,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2414,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2411],"Which of these best describes how the Greeks viewed creativity?",[2413],"The ability to master concepts and processes",[2415,2416,2417],"The ability to dream up highly original ideas","The ability to challenge artistic norms","The ability to think outside the box",{"id":2419,"data":2420,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":2423},"681e9017-699e-46b5-87e9-13bc6a9acfd8",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2421,"audioMediaId":2422},"Thinking about creativity in these terms – as mastery of concepts and processes, rather than origination of new ideas – will actually be very helpful when we consider the cognition that underpins it.\n\nHuman societies have required a combination of conformity and creativity in order to survive and reproduce. This makes evolutionary sense. In a primitive society, total conformists would seriously struggle with unexpected threats and events. Research has shown that the strongest indicator of someone’s survival instinct isn’t their IQ, but their ability to think creatively.\n\nEqually, a society made up of totally individual, creative people constantly reinventing every social norm would, historically, struggle to maintain stability. A small village of hunter-gatherers requires some conformity to norms in order to survive. This evolutionary necessity is hard-coded right into our brain.","aad656c0-7c41-47b8-af96-6af74cd2181f",[2424],{"id":2425,"data":2426,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"51458932-666e-4467-8a32-192cc4dc801b",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2427,"binaryCorrect":2429,"binaryIncorrect":2431},[2428],"What is the better indicator of someone's survival instinct?",[2430],"Creativity",[2432],"IQ",{"id":2434,"data":2435,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36},"741c2965-83da-4215-bb79-cda14e518afd",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2436,"audioMediaId":2437},"You might have heard of your ‘left brain’ and your ‘right brain.’ Supposedly, the left brain is conformist, cautious and rational, whereas the right brain is creative, visionary and risk-taking. It’s actually a lot more complicated than that – while there is some evidence that these 2 brain sides perform different functions, they are actually in constant communication with one another.\n\nIt is true, however, that there are parts of the brain that work to encourage you to think creatively – such as your frontal cortex and hippocampus – and others that encourage you to conform to what you already know – such as the amygdala.","5db8ece7-0cfe-4e2c-bde6-3b5299fc12a1",{"id":2439,"data":2440,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":2443},"f225e7dd-6bfe-4bee-b0e4-63b5d2df7060",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2441,"audioMediaId":2442},"The idea that people can be ‘right-brained’ or ‘left-brained’ goes hand-in-hand with another pernicious myth. This is the myth that creative, innovative people are simply born that way.\n\nOne of the most interesting studies on this topic is Howard Gardner’s Creating Minds: An Anatomy of Creativity. Gardner studied the life and works of Freud, Einstein, Picasso, Stravinsky, T.S. Eliot, Martha Graham, and Gandhi, in order to figure out what made their creative minds tick.\n\n![Graph](image://46b54318-ee60-4929-a7b6-eaa647cab0dd \"T.S. Eliot spent many years mastering the traditions of poetry before he was succesfully creative himself. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nTo cut a long story short, the remarkable thing that all these people had in common was that their first great creative achievement only came after roughly a decade of dedicated, heads-down hard graft. Gardner isn’t the only thinker who’s suggested this – Malcolm Gladwell has famously argued that the thing that almost all of the greatest performers in their fields, from Michael Jordan to Michael Caine, have in common, is that they’ve put 10,000 hours into honing their craft.\n\nThis is true for the overwhelming majority of great creative minds – they’ve only achieved that creativity once they’ve mastered their field.","916b27ef-8f88-40eb-8f4a-dfb0a5551fff",[2444],{"id":2445,"data":2446,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"b7c55dd8-2ec4-4e14-80fa-8f606e23ea64",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2447,"multiChoiceCorrect":2449,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2451,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2448],"According to Howard Gardner, what did Picasso, Stravinsky, T.S. Eliot, and Gandhi have in common?",[2450],"They spent roughly a decade grafting at their craft before they achieved anything",[2452,2453,2454],"They spent 10,000 hours working at their craft before they achieved anything","They reached their achievements primarily through talent","They were succesful through a combination of luck and hard work",{"id":2456,"data":2457,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":2460},"f5f77fce-7ced-453d-a1b0-8e539db99ae4",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2458,"audioMediaId":2459},"We’ve established that mastery of their field is something that the strongest creative minds have in common. This is sometimes known as ‘domain mastery.’ But purely learning everything there is to know about your field is, of course, not the only component in becoming innovative within it.\n\nThere are several theories about what makes the difference. First, let’s look at the work of Teresa M. Amabile. Amabile argues that there are three factors at play. Domain mastery is one of these – the others being motivation and creativity-relevant skills.\n\nWe’ve covered what domain knowledge is, and motivation is self-explanatory – it’s simply how much the person wants to be creative in their field in the first place.","c295967c-cf37-4345-8058-dda3811f2e7e",[2461],{"id":2462,"data":2463,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"c8e8cf6e-a843-4894-8619-075b8a11a2de",{"type":29,"reviewType":42,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2464,"binaryCorrect":2466,"binaryIncorrect":2468},[2465],"Which of these is a creativity-relevant skill?",[2467],"Divergent thinking",[2469],"Intrinsic drive",{"id":2471,"data":2472,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36},"2b894785-2ffe-4584-aad1-e3eea12d4a8c",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2473,"audioMediaId":2474},"![Graph](image://916d15b7-3171-44c4-b6cc-571c197eff78 \"Amabile's 3 Aspects of Creativity. Image: Amabile, 1998, Public domain\")\n\nAmabile found that intrinsic motivation – a desire to do something for the sake of it – was more effective for creativity than extrinsic motivation – a desire to achieve something to gain some other prize.\n\nThe less intuitive piece of this puzzle is ‘creativity-relevant skills.’ These are learnable skills such as divergent thinking, risk-taking, and lateral thinking.\n\nCreativity-relevant skills are skills about *how* to think – as opposed to domain mastery, which is more about *what* you know. People who excel in all three of these areas are the ones who become the true innovators in their field.","6b076589-ce84-466e-9eec-866250a5a4ac",{"id":2476,"data":2477,"type":42,"version":37,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":2479,"introPage":2487,"pages":2493},"9faee9bf-c329-434d-8c8c-3c0db5fb9be6",{"type":42,"title":2478},"Theories of Creativity",{"id":2480,"data":2481,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"89e3c09d-789f-4cbb-b7d9-889090702faa",{"type":36,"summary":2482},[2483,2484,2485,2486],"Ruth Noller’s theory of creativity includes knowledge, imagination, and evaluation","Childhood creativity predicts lifetime creative achievement better than IQ","Vertical thinking digs deep into one line of reasoning; lateral thinking explores many directions","Edward de Bono’s lateral thinking tools help break patterns and generate new ideas",{"id":2488,"data":2489,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"cd347c3e-6208-41f9-b9d0-008b5f7a3f69",{"type":55,"intro":2490},[2491,2492],"What is the main difference between vertical and lateral thinking?","How do lateral thinking tools help in generating creative ideas?",[2494,2507,2512,2517],{"id":2495,"data":2496,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":2499},"b234e0d5-732b-4532-8d87-33a7a987ea48",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2497,"audioMediaId":2498},"In addition to Teresa Amibile’s theory, discussed in the last tile, another theory for how creativity works comes from Ruth Noller. She argued for a slightly different three-ingredient theory than Teresa Amibile, who we discussed in the previous orb.\n\nNoller’s ingredients are **knowledge, imagination, and evaluation.** Knowledge is the same as the ‘domain mastery’ we have already discussed. Evaluation means the ability to process and analyze based on your knowledge, and to deduce new knowledge from your existing understanding. The trickier aspect of this formula is imagination. This refers to the ability to generate new ideas.","d3b322f6-b5ac-475c-9bc5-3cffabd6b8e1",[2500],{"id":2501,"data":2502,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"84bf920c-39c7-4da0-b370-26fca9f03676",{"type":29,"reviewType":37,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2503,"clozeWords":2505},[2504],"Ruth Noller's formula for creativity includes knowledge, imagination, and evaluation",[2506],"evaluation",{"id":2508,"data":2509,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36},"31fb90ce-88be-4e4c-80e4-4fc6dc9423ba",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2510,"audioMediaId":2511},"According to Noller, most children start out with heaps of imagination, and little knowledge or evaluation skills. By the time they leave education, this has been reversed, as we prioritize knowledge and evaluation as many studies show.\n\nA study on 300,000 students across all grade levels and over 35 years clearly showed a creativity loss over time. Another interesting finding in Noller’s research, which runs counter to some other theories, is that childhood creativity seems to be a stronger indicator of lifetime creative achievement than IQ tests. Those who scored higher in the test for imagination as children were more likely to become leaders in their fields.","cf73a69b-b808-405a-9634-af4728e659b6",{"id":2513,"data":2514,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36},"283c94b2-db0b-479c-8383-c7f2738164aa",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2515,"audioMediaId":2516},"The term ‘vertical thinking’ is used to describe an approach to problem-solving that follows one line of reasoning, digging deeper into that line of reasoning following analytical and sequential thinking. It is a very deliberate process that tries to use data and facts to solve the problem and avoid failure.\n\nAs you may have guessed by now, vertical thinking is not how creative thinkers normally approach problems. The opposite is true – creative thinkers normally follow what is described as lateral thinking, a term originally coined by the psychologist Edward de Bono. This is also one of the ‘creativity-relevant skills’ important to Teresa Amibile’s theory of creativity.","52b07006-161d-4504-94c0-f22a7da19d6e",{"id":2518,"data":2519,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":37,"reviews":2522},"c1d68c44-ac62-4c72-b1c5-ab1a9c884c10",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2520,"audioMediaId":2521},"In lateral thinking, we move in different directions, away from obvious, well-known patterns of thought, to solve problems. To do this, De Bono suggests using 4 different types of ‘lateral thinking tools.’\n\n![Graph](image://8eab15ae-2e26-4e95-80d7-bd441411db04 \"Edward de Bono. Image: Open Media Ltd, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThese include: idea-generating tools to break current thinking patterns; focus tools to broaden where to search for new ideas; harvesting tools to ensure getting more value from the generated ideas; and treatment tools to consider real-world constraints. You can think of lateral thinking as helping you to get the right idea to start working on, then vertical thinking to start polishing that idea and getting it right.","1283c5ec-a475-4f20-825d-7b26324102ac",[2523,2530,2549],{"id":2524,"data":2525,"type":29,"version":42,"maxContentLevel":36},"04362f9f-48ab-400b-902c-1e4fe1ad8384",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2526,"activeRecallAnswers":2528},[2527],"What did Edward de Bono suggest using to improve our creativity?",[2529],"Lateral thinking tools",{"id":2531,"data":2532,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"fcfe3be3-f0e3-4518-bf2a-6da5634a2287",{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2533,"multiChoiceQuestion":2537,"multiChoiceCorrect":2539,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2541,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2545,"matchPairsPairs":2546},[2534,2535,2536],"a6abc13e-d97b-4d2d-8ce1-84d0afc96059","91556350-b041-468b-9016-355da82812ef","82b59eef-c9b1-47ab-8d41-e4aabbf080b2",[2538],"Which of the following best describes vertical thinking?",[2540],"An approach to problem-solving that uses data and facts",[2542,2543,2544],"An approach to problem-solving that seeks new, creative solutions","A thought process used to generate creative ideas","A thought process used to evaluate and refine ideas",[345],[2547],{"left":2548,"right":2540,"direction":36},"Vertical thinking",{"id":2534,"data":2550,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2551,"multiChoiceQuestion":2552,"multiChoiceCorrect":2554,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2555,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2556,"matchPairsPairs":2557},[2531,2535,2536],[2553],"Which of the following best describes lateral thinking?",[2542],[2540,2543,2544],[345],[2558],{"left":2559,"right":2542,"direction":36},"Lateral thinking",{"id":2561,"data":2562,"type":42,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"summaryPage":2564,"introPage":2572,"pages":2578},"5073b978-83e3-4697-8626-d0c62f814dd4",{"type":42,"title":2563},"Practical Creativity",{"id":2565,"data":2566,"type":36,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"aeb290c3-f88b-4417-a30d-ea0d3206a7df",{"type":36,"summary":2567},[2568,2569,2570,2571],"Creativity thrives when we stop second-guessing ourselves","Aim for lots of ideas, not just good ones, during brainstorming","Positive moods boost creative thinking","Creativity isn't just for 'creative types' – it works best in large, diverse groups",{"id":2573,"data":2574,"type":55,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":24},"3567149f-68b4-4ffd-9ee5-88d9c3bc97b9",{"type":55,"intro":2575},[2576,2577],"How does deferring judgment impact group creativity?","What common myth about creativity and time pressure did Amabile debunk?",[2579,2584,2597],{"id":2580,"data":2581,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42},"dfc50294-92b6-4eae-82ee-81f8ccc505f0",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2582,"audioMediaId":2583},"Neuroscience tells us that we are more creative when the self-monitoring part of our brain is less active. In other words, when we start second guessing ourselves, we kill the momentum of coming up with new ideas. This applies not only to our own thinking, but when thinking creatively in groups. This is why ‘deferring judgment’ is an essential part of any divergent thinking and brainstorming activity.\n\nThe rule, then, is to aim for quantity and not quality during divergent thinking. Use any tools that can help you and others come up with more ideas.\n\nDo exercises to get random ideas into the discussion; generate random words or pictures for inspiration; imagine a situation where the facts were completely different – such as ‘what if we were building this product for a blind person.’ In fact, even being intentionally wrong can sometimes have real creative value.\n\nAs Sam Altman, CEO of the company behind ChatGPT, puts it: “be wrong most of the time, and breathtakingly right once in a while.”","aff7204f-f7c5-439a-87fb-95290a29093e",{"id":2585,"data":2586,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":42,"reviews":2589},"d4c31399-806f-4949-b549-548238041aa5",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2587,"audioMediaId":2588},"Another great summary of the quantity over quality principle comes from Linus Pauling, a Nobel prize winner, when he said “The best way to have a good idea is to have a lot of ideas.”\n\nWhile open-ended divergent thinking is an important step in creativity, it is not the only one. For a creative idea to be properly executed, it’s important to have a step of convergent, critical thinking as well.\n\nWe need to start being conscious of reality and its constraints. In convergent thinking, we start evaluating the potential of each idea against success criteria.\n\nThis does not mean focusing solely on what is bad in an idea. A number of studies have shown that a positive mood leads to stronger and more creative ideation.\n\nWe want to keep thinking of new ideas, and looking into their potential, while also taking real-life considerations and success criteria into account. We also want to remind ourselves of the original objectives when doing so, as we may go a bit astray during the divergent thinking phase.","3dfe02e5-6bf7-4100-b3a7-d45a0bcdab68",[2590],{"id":2591,"data":2592,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"5273913b-03d9-40b6-b457-40d2a34226df",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2593,"activeRecallAnswers":2595},[2594],"According to Nobel prize winner Linus Pauling, what is the best way to have a good idea?",[2596],"To have lots of ideas",{"id":2598,"data":2599,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":36,"reviews":2602},"bdac5867-7853-4d10-993d-2106cd89bd15",{"type":24,"contentRole":42,"markdownContent":2600,"audioMediaId":2601},"In addition to her discussion of the three elements of creativity, Amabile has done research into creating the right environment for creativity. This has shattered some myths about the environment for creativity, especially in an organizational context.\n\nOne of the myths Amabile challenged was the myth that creativity comes from creative types. Many organizations tend to silo their creativity and innovation into research and development or similar functions. This is actually damaging – creativity works best through network effects, and the larger the pool for brainstorming, the better.\n\nThe second myth that she challenged was that money is a creativity motivator. The participants that she studied focused on finding passion in the work that they did; they hardly talked about money and reward. They felt most creative when they were making genuine progress on projects, when they were making contributions.\n\nAnother myth is that time pressure helps creativity. She found that deadlines tend to seize people up and stifle the divergent thinking necessary for innovative thought.\n\nA final myth is that fear forces breakthroughs. She found that people tended to not be creative when they were angry or in fear. In fact, she found that there was a strong correlation between people feeling happy and at ease, and their creative ability.","1b0bc5aa-94c8-45a7-8998-99214ec354a5",[2603,2610,2620],{"id":2604,"data":2605,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},"58a896cc-7092-4919-9ff6-e9c602283fcc",{"type":29,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2606,"activeRecallAnswers":2608},[2607],"Which style of thinking requires that we start evaluating the potential of each idea against a success criteria?",[2609],"Convergent thinking",{"id":2535,"data":2611,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2612,"multiChoiceQuestion":2613,"multiChoiceCorrect":2615,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2616,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2617,"matchPairsPairs":2618},[2531,2534,2536],[2614],"Which of the following best describes divergent thinking?",[2543],[2540,2542,2544],[345],[2619],{"left":2467,"right":2543,"direction":36},{"id":2536,"data":2621,"type":29,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":36},{"type":29,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2622,"multiChoiceQuestion":2623,"multiChoiceCorrect":2625,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2626,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2627,"matchPairsPairs":2628},[2531,2534,2535],[2624],"Which of the following best describes convergent thinking?",[2544],[2540,2542,2543],[345],[2629],{"left":2609,"right":2544,"direction":36},{"left":4,"top":4,"width":2631,"height":2631,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":2632},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":2631,"height":2631,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":2634},"\u003Cg fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\">\u003Cpath d=\"M12.586 2.586A2 2 0 0 0 11.172 2H4a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v7.172a2 2 0 0 0 .586 1.414l8.704 8.704a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 3.42 0l6.58-6.58a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 0-3.42z\"/>\u003Ccircle cx=\"7.5\" cy=\"7.5\" r=\".5\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",1778179168607]