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health.",[36,139],{"id":37,"data":38,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":39},"948b8f53-e549-4fba-ac22-6ca7f066a1db",{"type":26,"title":27},[40,61,80,99,120],{"id":41,"data":42,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":46},"e42e14e6-fcbb-428a-aa74-c2d51b58dc6a",{"type":25,"title":43,"markdownContent":44,"audioMediaId":45},"What Is Neurodiversity?","The ‘neurodiversity’ paradigm is a concept that recognizes and celebrates the diversity of human brains and minds.\n\nWhen it was first coined, the term offered an alternative to the traditional medical model. Neurodiversity advocates acknowledge that neurocognitive differences are normal variations rather than disorders or deficits that must be cured or eliminated.\n\n ![Graph](image://e00f3954-268a-424e-a2df-657de04b6c7b \"A young child with a developmental disability\")\n\nAdvocates argue that neurodivergent conditions should be accepted and accommodated just like any other form of diversity. The fundamental premise is that, just as society recognizes diversity when it comes to race, gender, and sexual orientation, it should also recognize and value diversity in the ways that people think, learn, and communicate.\n\nNeurodiversity is not an exact science, and the debate over its definition continues. So does the debate over who is considered neurodivergent. According to the traditional perspective, it includes the autism spectrum, ADHD, learning disabilities, and tic disorders.\n","775db6d9-32b7-4703-9050-613855bcba73",[47],{"id":48,"data":49,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"8c7b7c5d-9091-4901-9c3f-4a4a8247dd8e",{"type":50,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":51,"activeRecallAnswers":56},11,[52,53,54,55],"What are the four conditions often grouped together as 'neurodiverse'?","What conditions are typically included in the concept of 'neurodiversity'?","What are the four conditions that are typically recognized as part of the 'neurodiversity' paradigm?","What are the four neurocognitive differences that are accepted and accommodated under the 'neurodiversity' concept?",[57,58,59,60],"Autism","ADHD","Learning disabilities","Tic disorders",{"id":62,"data":63,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":67},"729fe6eb-cb49-4d4f-a66a-190b29ed05bb",{"type":25,"title":64,"markdownContent":65,"audioMediaId":66},"Neurodiverse, neurodivergent, and neurotypical","There are endless natural variations in the way our brains are made up. So, in that sense, the human species is inherently ‘neurodiverse’. No two brains or nervous systems are exactly the same, after all.\n\nHowever, the neurodiversity paradigm goes beyond recognizing this biological fact, by also acknowledging the value that ‘neurodivergence’ brings.\n\nNeurodivergence refers to someone’s neurological difference from what is considered “normal” or “typical” for their age group. Some dislike this term because they find that it highlights being different and assumes that there is a normal.\n\nFinally, the word ‘neurotypical’ has been used as an umbrella term for those who do not have any major neurological differences in comparison to the norm.\n\nNick Walker, author of Neuroqueer Heresies, explains that we should never refer to people as being neurodiverse. After all, diverse doesn’t mean different from the majority, but made up of multiple different types. So by definition, individuals can never be diverse on their own.\n\nWalker suggests that the term neurodiverse should only be used to describe groups of people who differ neurocognitively from each other. A classroom full of autistic students is not neurodiverse, but one where neurotypical and neurodivergent students are mixed together is.","a77157a8-870d-4b93-89ad-17e732c61058",[68],{"id":69,"data":70,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"6cbece4d-06b1-4cea-8258-516015a41107",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":71,"binaryCorrect":76,"binaryIncorrect":78},[72,73,74,75],"What term refers to someone’s neurological difference from what is considered “normal” or “typical” for their age group?","What is the term used to describe someone's neurological difference from the average for their age group?","What is the term used to describe someone's neurological difference from the norm for their age group?","What is the term used to describe someone's neurological difference from what is expected for their age group?",[77],"Neurodivergence",[79],"Neurology",{"id":81,"data":82,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":86},"5259f6b7-2e34-4a64-8f86-2d1833da5c58",{"type":25,"title":83,"markdownContent":84,"audioMediaId":85},"Defining Normal and Abnormal","\n ![Graph](image://3a22e424-6303-43d2-9eed-7a6f25c3f88a \"A man with a physical disability\")\n\nThe concept of “normal” is often used to define what is socially acceptable and desirable in society. But who gets to decide what normal is?\n\nThe ‘bell curve’, or ‘normal distribution’, can serve as a reference to determine what is common in a particular population. It is a statistical tool that helps to define a range of frequently occurring values and can be used to identify outliers or extreme values that fall outside this range.\n\nHowever, although the bell curve itself is a statistical concept, the interpretation of what is considered normal is not always clear-cut or objective. It can be subject to bias and is heavily influenced by cultural, historical, and societal factors.\n\nFor instance, what is considered a normal weight or height can vary across cultures and time periods.\n\nDespite this, the use of the bell curve to define normality can still be helpful in many situations, such as in the diagnosis and treatment of certain medical and mental health conditions. It allows clinicians to compare an individual's characteristics to those of the general population and identify any significant deviations or abnormalities.\n","6bfbd14f-006c-44bc-ba5f-5ea55b16816a",[87],{"id":88,"data":89,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"907d2baa-1532-4d14-b0e0-dea64fa6dfe6",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":90,"binaryCorrect":95,"binaryIncorrect":97},[91,92,93,94],"What statistical tool helps to determine how significant an individual's neurodivergence is?","What can be used to illustrate an individual's neurodivergence?","What kind of analytical tool can be used to compare an individual's characteristics to those of the general population?","What tool is used to identify any significant deviations from the norm?",[96],"A bell curve",[98],"A personality test",{"id":100,"data":101,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":105},"f1f36ad1-a24b-4ad9-8a76-a133bae9e9af",{"type":25,"title":102,"markdownContent":103,"audioMediaId":104},"The Social Construct of Normality"," ![Graph](image://15428dc8-bfee-47aa-ba3f-5aaa68082839 \"Gabor Maté\")\n\nThe idea that there is one single definition of what it means to be normal can be damaging. In his book, *The Myth of Normal*, psychologist Gabor Maté argues that things we consider normal – like stress, adversity, and trauma – are often toxic.\n\nSince what is considered normal tends to change over the years, it has been proposed that the concept of ‘normal’ is a social construct. To understand this perspective, we don’t even have to go back so far into the past.\n\nAs recently as the 1970s, homosexuality was categorized as a mental disorder in the Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Similarly, in the Southern United States before the Civil War, a Louisiana physician named Samuel Cartwright once pathologized the desire of slaves to escape slavery as a medical disorder called ‘drapetomania’. \n\nToday, we would be quick to call these things absurd, but at the time, this was passed off as objective science.\n\nIn his book, The Power of Neurodiversity, psychologist Thomas Armstrong suggests that many of the things that we consider disorders in some way violate the specific values that are currently upheld in our society. An example is when being able to read became more important and expected after the Industrial Revolution, turning dyslexia into a “problem”.\n\n","dd83d119-2b4d-439b-b10f-6317db287f2d",[106],{"id":107,"data":108,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"86f182d3-0625-4c49-8ccd-9a4213df6c93",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":109,"multiChoiceCorrect":114,"multiChoiceIncorrect":116},[110,111,112,113],"What was homosexuality categorized as in the Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) in the 1970s?","What did the DSM classify homosexuality as in the 1970s?","How was homosexuality viewed in the DSM in the 1970s?","What was the DSM's designation for homosexuality in the 1970s?",[115],"A mental disorder",[117,118,119],"A normal behavior","A physical disorder","A moral failure",{"id":121,"data":122,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":126},"de120710-fba3-4322-8fa9-e8a306232fa8",{"type":25,"title":123,"markdownContent":124,"audioMediaId":125},"An Interconnected Spectrum","Binary ‘normal versus abnormal’ thinking doesn’t acknowledge the complexity and interconnectedness of neurocognitive differences. Neurodiversity challenges this by recognizing that these differences are part of a spectrum rather than two distinct categories.\n\nThis is in contrast to certain medical conditions like Multiple Sclerosis and cancer which have clear diagnostic criteria and a binary classification of whether an individual has the condition or not.\n\nIn a 2016 paper, Harvard University professor Elise Robinson and colleagues, showed that the same genes involved in predisposing people to autism appear to influence social skills in the wider population too.\n\nShe likens viewing someone as either having or not having a neurodivergent condition to trying to pick a point where you say someone is tall or not.\n\nIn other words: the line at which we say someone is affected or unaffected is arbitrary – there is no clear cut-off point.\n\nSimilar to many mental health conditions, we all lie on a spectrum.","375cd8ea-ac23-4088-b78d-05bc7880ebc5",[127],{"id":128,"data":129,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"1b7f207e-82e9-4812-93b5-f137577ce128",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":130,"binaryCorrect":135,"binaryIncorrect":137},[131,132,133,134],"There is a clear cut-off point between neurotypical and neurodivergent people.","There is a definitive line between neurotypical and neurodivergent people.","There is a clear distinction between neurotypical and neurodivergent people.","There is a precise boundary between neurotypical and neurodivergent people.",[136],"False",[138],"True",{"id":140,"data":141,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":143},"04512460-ad39-427e-b659-5818a5d3d4b8",{"type":26,"title":142},"Language and Neurodiversity",[144,163,180,195],{"id":145,"data":146,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":150},"2a6ffc95-3664-4aba-a6e4-182ae8f551f2",{"type":25,"title":147,"markdownContent":148,"audioMediaId":149},"Language: person-first or identity-first?","‘A person with autism’ or ‘an autistic person’. What do you think is the more appropriate term?\n\nThis is the difference between person-first language and identity-first language.\n\nPerson-first language is frequently used in professional settings, but it has faced opposition from both self-advocates and scholars. Critics argue that being neurodivergent is an inherent part of someone’s identity – it is fundamental in shaping who they are and how they interact with the world, and it cannot be separated from the person.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://00e7b82b-9e61-4663-94d1-6066b41ae842 \"A lesbian couple\")\n\nThey liken it to other descriptors like ‘Lesbian/Gay/Bisexual/Transgender/Queer,’ ‘African-American,’ or ‘Jewish.’ If you wouldn’t say ‘people with homosexuality’ or ‘adults living with blackness’, then why would you say ‘people with autism’? Using identity-first language is often seen as more empowering – it fights the idea that being neurodivergent is something to be ashamed of.\n\nIn contrast, many supporters of person-first language find that it prioritizes the person’s individuality over their condition. They believe that it acknowledges that a person is, first and foremost, a person. \n\nUltimately, the choice of language should be left up to the individual and should be based on their own preference and self-identification.\n","87abae7f-bb64-4d70-8c79-4df1117c3cee",[151],{"id":152,"data":153,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"475d5ecf-cb0e-49b7-b47f-62fad24d303a",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":154,"binaryCorrect":159,"binaryIncorrect":161},[155,156,157,158],"The phrase 'person with autism' is an example of ...","What type of language is used in the phrase 'person with autism'?","What type of language is the phrase 'person with autism'?","What is the name of the language used to describe a person with autism?",[160],"Person-first language",[162],"Identity-first language",{"id":164,"data":165,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":169},"60b7ace2-8ee3-4b72-b65d-8474e44eb1ae",{"type":25,"title":166,"markdownContent":167,"audioMediaId":168},"The Strengths-Based Approach","The strengths-based model of neurodiversity (SBMN) aims to identify and nurture individual strengths. It started as a response to the limitations of the medical model which traditionally focused on researching and correcting deficits – be they real or perceived. \n\nThe SBMN draws on several developments in psychology and psychiatry, including positive psychology, positive psychiatry, and Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, which suggests that human abilities are more diverse than proposed by most current IQ tests.\n\n ![Graph](image://b5210caa-9075-4d93-bc35-ba9dd05ae0db \"A group therapy session\")\n\nOne common misunderstanding about the strengths-based approach is that it ignores or downplays the challenges and difficulties that neurodivergent individuals face. This has led some to worry that it may be used to justify not providing necessary support and services.\n\nHowever, strengths do not nullify difficulties. The SBMN acknowledges that neurodivergent people may face unique challenges, and it seeks to support them in overcoming these while also building upon their strengths.\n\nAfter all, both the denial of ability and the denial of difficulty can be problematic.\n\n","0bd555be-4fb7-45ad-8b82-b9e5b577c123",[170],{"id":171,"data":172,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"3c22cfcd-f7e8-433a-8c5f-b5a576b2260e",{"type":50,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":173,"activeRecallAnswers":178},[174,175,176,177],"Which model of neurodiversity has been proposed as an alternative to the medical model, and focuses on individual strengths? ","What model of neurodiversity emphasizes individual strengths?","What model of neurodiversity has been suggested as a replacement for the medical model, and focuses on individual strengths?","What model of neurodiversity seeks to identify and nurture individual strengths?",[179],"The strengths-based model of neurodiversity (SBMN)",{"id":181,"data":182,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":186},"73cf68ce-c8c9-450e-92e0-f3640abf900b",{"type":25,"title":183,"markdownContent":184,"audioMediaId":185},"The Challenges of Being Neurodivergent"," ![Graph](image://9ece9d7f-299b-49dd-a523-877d3d5e75da \"Bullying\")\n\nMany of the challenges that neurodivergent people face stem from societal expectations and treatment. Society generally expects individuals to conform to certain standards of behavior and communication. Neurodivergent individuals may struggle to meet these expectations, which can lead to social isolation, discrimination, and feelings of inadequacy.\n\nFor example, autistic people may have difficulties with social norms and sensory processing. This can make it hard to navigate social situations and engage in typical activities. However, these challenges are often exacerbated by societal expectations that prioritize extroverted behavior and require individuals to constantly interact with others.\n\nSimilarly, someone with ADHD may struggle with focus and attention, which can impact their academic or professional performance. However, they may also be labeled as lazy or unmotivated, rather than receiving the support they need to succeed.\n\nFurthermore, neurodivergent individuals may face stigma and discrimination, which can further worsen their challenges. This stigma can manifest in many forms, including bullying, employment discrimination, and negative media portrayals.\n\n","3c648fcb-0ae5-462e-8ba6-03e6207d7b98",[187],{"id":188,"data":189,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"7b2a90d8-84b5-4568-8f59-df9fdd60a1d6",{"type":50,"reviewType":190,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":191,"clozeWords":193},4,[192],"Societal expectations for socially acceptable behavior can create problems for autistic people.",[194],"socially acceptable",{"id":196,"data":197,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":201},"1de6781a-d003-4698-99be-c1d428a4ee0b",{"type":25,"title":198,"markdownContent":199,"audioMediaId":200},"Methods for Understanding Neurodiversity","While there is still a lot left to be discovered, there are several tools at our disposal to better understand neurodiversity.\n\n ![Graph](image://4f05944a-e534-480c-aed0-288862b1b39b \"A pair of twins\")\n\nCase studies, experiments, and observation methods are often used to gain a better understanding of neurodiversity. An example would be observing neurodivergent people interacting with their peers to understand if and how they process social cues differently.\n\nBrain imaging techniques can reveal structural and functional differences between neurotypical and neurodivergent brains.\n\nSurveys and questionnaires provide valuable insight into how individuals perceive themselves and others around them – allowing researchers to gain a deeper understanding of what it means to be ‘neurodiverse’.\n\nFinally, twin studies help us separate nature from nurture. By comparing twins with similar or identical genetic makeup, scientists can better identify potential environmental factors that could influence an individual’s behavior and neurocognitive abilities.\n\nImportantly, all these research tools can be carried out as longitudinal studies, allowing researchers to track changes over time. This is particularly useful for studying conditions like autism and ADHD which may manifest differently at different stages of life.\n\n","0dc4b293-b146-4413-adfd-02b5f6190db1",[202],{"id":203,"data":204,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"55697b82-65e4-4c31-b47c-3fd1e509412a",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":205,"multiChoiceCorrect":210,"multiChoiceIncorrect":212},[206,207,208,209],"What research tool is useful for separating nature from nurture?","What type of study can help distinguish between genetic and environmental influences?","What method is used to differentiate between inherited and environmental factors?","What kind of research is used to differentiate between genetic and environmental influences?",[211],"Twin studies",[213,214,215],"Surveys and questionnaires","Observation methods","Case studies",{"id":217,"data":218,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"orbs":221},"0bc3ac29-41da-4f1b-aca3-331170ab939c",{"type":28,"title":219,"tagline":220},"The History of Neurodiversity","How society has understood an interacted with neurodivergence over the years.",[222,332,414],{"id":223,"data":224,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":226},"88865a39-b7a1-4c18-a858-f8f07fae2d01",{"type":26,"title":225},"Early Understandings of Neurodiversity",[227,261,278,299,313],{"id":228,"data":229,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":232},"56f096e8-448c-4236-91ba-f2c23c39ff2a",{"type":25,"title":225,"markdownContent":230,"audioMediaId":231},"\n ![Graph](image://57b9576c-fdcc-41e0-b116-cc3c2ada8438 \"Melchior Adam Weikard\")\n\nPrior to the 1900s, there was little understanding or discussion of neurodiversity as a concept, but that doesn’t mean that people didn’t experience certain behavioral and cognitive differences before then.\n\nFor example, the initial record of attention deficit can be traced back to 1775 when the German physician, Melchior Adam Weikard, published a book in which he described what he called ‘Mangel der Aufmerksamkeit/Attentio volubilis’. \n\n‘Mangel der Aufmerksamkeit’ means lack of attention, in English, whereas the Latin term 'volubilis' comes from the verb ‘volvere’ meaning to turn. Its literal definition is ‘easily rotating’, which can be extended to mean ‘fickle’ or ‘changing’. This image fits with the descriptions that many people with ADHD give regarding their attention and ideas; constantly rotating and never settling for long. In later books, Weikard also described how sensory stimuli capture a patient’s attention and divert him from his thoughts.\n\nSimilarly, behaviors consistent with autism were described long before the diagnostic category was officially named and defined in the 1940s.\n","3131f820-5ced-4bd8-885b-9a1a288b870b",[233,247],{"id":234,"data":235,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"644d9ed7-d9ac-45ff-bab4-e2d679d67895",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":236,"multiChoiceCorrect":241,"multiChoiceIncorrect":243},[237,238,239,240],"The Latin word 'volvere' featured in the earliest description of ADHD. What does it mean?","What is the literal definition of the Latin word 'volvere', featured in the earliest description of ADHD?","What does the Latin word 'volvere' mean in the context of the earliest description of ADHD?","What is the meaning of the Latin word 'volvere', used in the earliest description of ADHD?",[242],"Easily rotating",[244,245,246],"Quickly rotating","Slowly rotating","Rotating infinitely",{"id":248,"data":249,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"f8065792-2e65-4d13-bad4-0b1f76ab57db",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":250,"multiChoiceCorrect":255,"multiChoiceIncorrect":257},[251,252,253,254],"In which decade was autism first defined?","When was autism first officially named and defined?","In which decade did the diagnostic category of autism first emerge?","When was the first official definition of autism established?",[256],"1940s",[258,259,260],"1950s","1970s","1890s",{"id":262,"data":263,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":267},"c2eec5f2-8978-43f8-b57e-ee33424d3b20",{"type":25,"title":264,"markdownContent":265,"audioMediaId":266},"The Wild Boy of Aveyron","Terms like \"idiocy\" and \"imbecility\" can be found in the Oxford English Dictionary as early as the 16th century.\n\nHowever, several cases show that some people who were deemed “idiots” had specific challenges with social communication – consistent with autism – rather than a general cognitive impairment.\n\nOne such famous case is Victor, the Wild Boy of Aveyron, a supposed feral child who was discovered in the woods near Aveyron in southern France in the 1800s. Victor was around twelve years old and went on to be studied extensively, including by French physician, Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard.\n\n ![Graph](image://691b389d-442d-4517-8225-72e67797a3aa \"Victor, the Wild Boy of Aveyron\")\n\nBelieving he could teach Victor things such as social awareness, speech comprehension, and literacy, Itard came up with an intensive educational program. Unfortunately, even after five years of continuous effort, Victor could only speak, read, and write a few words and phrases, and his social skills remained limited.\n\nWhile the results were disappointing, Itard’s work was later advanced through the work of his student, Édouard Séguin, a pioneer in the education of children with intellectual disabilities.\n\n","2d237514-626b-42b2-9cf3-a3da13cdcbdc",[268],{"id":269,"data":270,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"35962dee-e973-4623-963b-16fd5bce5c02",{"type":50,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":271,"activeRecallAnswers":276},[272,273,274,275],"Which French physician studied Victor, the Wild Boy of Aveyron?","Who was the French physician who studied Victor, the Wild Boy of Aveyron?","Who attempted to teach Victor, the Wild Boy of Aveyron, social awareness, speech comprehension, and literacy?","Who was the French doctor who worked with Victor, the Wild Boy of Aveyron?",[277],"Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard",{"id":279,"data":280,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":284},"d5c7d512-6ebc-47e1-933b-0aec6f631040",{"type":25,"title":281,"markdownContent":282,"audioMediaId":283},"Eugen Bleuler: Coining ‘Autism’","\nIn the early twentieth century, Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler spent his time studying several psychiatric disorders throughout continental Europe. One of these disorders would come to be known as schizophrenia.\n\nAt the time, it was still called ‘dementia praecox’ – a term that had been proposed by German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin. Bleuler eventually coined the term schizophrenia in 1908, and he defined it as a group of diseases rather than just one disorder. He laid out the main symptoms as the four A’s: associations, affect, ambivalence, and autism. \n\nHe used the symptom ‘autism’ to describe the social withdrawal and detachment from reality often seen in people with schizophrenia. In Greek, ‘autós’ means self, and with it, Bleuler alluded to the extreme withdrawal within self that he observed in his patients. He called this way of being ‘autistic thinking’ and defined it as self-centered rumination and retreat into fantasy.\n\nBy doing so, the term autism was coined.\n\n","40ffafa0-f967-43a5-bf25-6c683a486fac",[285],{"id":286,"data":287,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"d8d31e59-2169-4dee-bde2-346db2b2454c",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":288,"multiChoiceCorrect":293,"multiChoiceIncorrect":295},[289,290,291,292],"What term did German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin propose for the disorder that Bleuler eventually coined as schizophrenia?","What did Kraepelin call the disorder that Bleuler later named schizophrenia?","What was the original name for the disorder that Bleuler later referred to as schizophrenia?","What term did Kraepelin use to describe the disorder that Bleuler later named schizophrenia?",[294],"Dementia praecox",[296,297,298],"Bipolar disorder","Psychosis","Mania",{"id":300,"data":301,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":305},"63b74921-d13f-4c31-ad0a-43a9d254cec6",{"type":25,"title":302,"markdownContent":303,"audioMediaId":304},"Grunya Sukhareva"," ![Graph](image://2c504b46-fef4-4083-a9aa-90a46b88b9e9 \"Grunya Sukhareva. Image: A.V. Goriunov via Wikimedia\")\n\nIn 1924, Russian psychiatrist Grunya Efimovna Sukhareva, met a young boy at a Moscow clinic for an evaluation.\n\nThe child seemed to differ greatly from his peers. He had no interest in others, and he never played with toys. Having taught himself to read at age five, he instead passed his days reading everything he could get his hands on.\n\nAt the time, ‘autistic’ was still a relatively new adjective. At first, Sukhareva used it in the same way Eugen Bleuler did, but she eventually tried to characterize it more fully. After seeing several more boys with what she described as ‘autistic tendencies’, she published a paper in which she basically described the criteria for autism that is currently used in the DSM-5 – a handbook used by mental health professionals to diagnose and classify mental health conditions.\n\nNonetheless, it would take nearly a century before Sukhareva’s work would be recognized on a larger scale.\n\n","eb0eada8-d0c9-46bb-a1f0-bc9f1b105b5f",[306],{"id":307,"data":308,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"41df8f6c-1a51-4e92-8371-7845862c9b4e",{"type":50,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":309,"activeRecallAnswers":312},[310,311],"Grunya Efimovna Sukhareva is known for first describing which condition in 1924?","Which condition was first described by Grunya Efimovna Sukhareva in 1924?",[57],{"id":314,"data":315,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":319},"f87efb7f-7c04-461c-b2f0-6cada7cc1085",{"type":25,"title":316,"markdownContent":317,"audioMediaId":318},"Hans Asperger and Leo Kanner","In the 1940s, two pioneering figures in the field of neurodiversity emerged: Hans Asperger and Leo Kanner. Both were Austrian-born psychiatrists.\n\n ![Graph](image://704443eb-1430-4a61-9e69-fd6400e65a06 \"Hans Asperger\")\n\nKanner was one of the first to recognize autism as a distinct condition separate from schizophrenia, which he described in his paper Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact. It quickly became a classic in the field of clinical psychiatry.\n\nOne year after Kanner’s iconic article on autism, Asperger described what would be known as Asperger Syndrome, a mild form of autism characterized by difficulties with social interaction and communication. Kanner believed that autistic individuals had unique gifts such as exceptional memory recall or mathematical ability. He also pointed out that their distinctive characteristics were already familiar in stock characters from pop culture like the ‘absent-minded professor’ and Count Bobby, a fictitious aristocrat who was the butt of many Austrian jokes.\n\nOf course, many of their findings had already been described by Grunya Sukhareva two decades earlier.\n\n","6c7467a7-4108-4912-a609-f030ea005f6a",[320],{"id":321,"data":322,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"6c3fe69d-bb85-4b28-b18f-6cb47d0c0d35",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":323,"binaryCorrect":328,"binaryIncorrect":330},[324,325,326,327],"Which psychiatrist wrote the landmark paper Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact?","Who wrote the paper Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact?","Who was the author of the paper Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact?","Who was the Austrian psychiatrist who wrote the paper Autistic Disturbances of Affective Contact?",[329],"Leo Kanner",[331],"Hans Asperger",{"id":333,"data":334,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":336},"14a806b4-69ac-4367-a8f4-1dd24efc3212",{"type":26,"title":335},"The Eugenics Movement and Its Impact",[337,355,375,393],{"id":338,"data":339,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":343},"fd1b4925-b774-4a62-a401-961fdd9ab774",{"type":25,"title":340,"markdownContent":341,"audioMediaId":342},"The Eugenics Movement and the Nazi Aktion T-4 project","In the late 19th century, attitudes towards disability worsened as the eugenics movement gained a foothold in society.\n\n ![Graph](image://f8e2c524-cbeb-44da-86aa-5925e2d065d0 \"Charles Darwin. Image: Julius Jääskeläinen, CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nInspired by Charles Darwin's theory of evolution via natural selection, Francis Galton coined the term ‘eugenics’ in 1883. The term originated from the Greek word ‘eugenes’, which meant ‘good birth’. Galton's theory was based on the premise that human abilities are hereditary, and he wanted to improve the human gene pool through selective breeding. \n\nThere were two forms of eugenics: one promoted the reproduction of desirable traits whereas the other favored restricting the reproduction of negative ones.\n\nThe devastating impact of the eugenics movement is exemplified by Nazi Germany's Aktion T-4 project which was aimed at removing people with disabilities from the gene pool.\n\nThose deemed “unfit” for society were sent to euthanasia centers where they were subjected to medical experiments or received what the Nazis called ‘final medical assistance’ – a euphemism for death by lethal injection or gas chamber. \n\nAn estimated 275,000 people with disabilities were killed.\n","d41526f5-df0e-452e-8148-13ea7bd6fae2",[344],{"id":345,"data":346,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"0a0aa67c-4099-45a0-bd8e-bcd7564bcda5",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":347,"binaryCorrect":351,"binaryIncorrect":353},[348,349,350],"What did Francis Galton coin in 1883?","What term did Francis Galton create in 1883?","What did Francis Galton name in 1883?",[352],"Eugenics",[354],"Natural selection",{"id":356,"data":357,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":361},"0a535d31-0c84-4326-8e97-bde16d2c2439",{"type":25,"title":358,"markdownContent":359,"audioMediaId":360},"The Refrigerator Mother Theory","‘The refrigerator mother theory’ was a widely accepted belief in the 1950s and 1960s that autism was caused by cold, distant parenting. \n\n ![Graph](image://26a109ea-5fcc-4977-88f4-539ed4e6bb42 \"A mother embracing her child\")\n\nIn his papers on autism, Leo Kanner claimed that most autistic patients had been deprived of emotional warmth. He also observed that many parents had milder, but similar characteristics as their children. In particular, the parents he observed were perfectionistic and had limited interest in social interactions.\n\nDid this mean that their parenting style had caused their child’s condition? According to psychologist Bruno Bettelheim, the answer was yes!\n\nAs a fervent champion of ‘psychogenesis’, he believed that autism was the result of maternal aloofness – a ‘refrigerator mother’. Psychogenesis refers to the idea that psychological factors can cause or contribute to a disorder.\n\nThrough his book The Empty Fortress: Infantile Autism and the Birth of the Self, and the subsequent heavy promotion of it via interviews on national prime-time television shows and in popular magazines, the concept of ‘the refrigerator mother’ soon turned into a popularly accepted idea.\n\nThis misguided notion had devastating consequences for many families; mothers were blamed for their child's condition and felt immense guilt and shame.\n\n","ce047666-b557-4881-9fab-173467c3dc78",[362],{"id":363,"data":364,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"26786c7c-6320-4cbf-a437-4ff222b098dd",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":365,"multiChoiceCorrect":370,"multiChoiceIncorrect":371},[366,367,368,369],"What was the widely accepted belief in the 1950s and 1960s about the cause of autism?","What was the popularly accepted cause of autism in the 1950s and 1960s?","What was the widely accepted explanation for autism in the 1950s and 1960s?","What was the prevailing belief about the cause of autism in the 1950s and 1960s?",[358],[372,373,374],"The Cold Parent Theory","The Icebox Auntie Theory","The Subzero Sister Theory",{"id":376,"data":377,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":381},"4f5c5db2-3d6c-4c7f-b6c4-407ff263531c",{"type":25,"title":378,"markdownContent":379,"audioMediaId":380},"Bernard Rimland - Debunking the Refrigerator Mother Theory","\n ![Graph](image://682313be-4fe8-4bf2-b2ff-f4837200ead0 \"Bernard Rimland\")\n\nFrom the 1960s onwards, research psychologist Bernard Rimland, played a vital role in shifting the understanding of autism from being psychogenic to biogenic. \n\nAs the father of an autistic child, he had a deep-seated desire to uncover the true causes, and he rejected the idea that poor parenting was at fault.\n\nAfter founding the Autism Research Institute, he published the book, Infantile Autism, in which he established autism as an inborn condition rooted in genetics and neurology.\n\nConfronted with the daunting prospect of eternal institutionalization for children like his son, he teamed up with psychologist Ole Ivar Lovaas to develop innovative strategies to help autistic children thrive by training them to integrate seamlessly into society, just like their peers.\n\nBecause autism was still seen as a rare condition, research was virtually stagnant at the time. Through crowdsourcing the search for effective treatments, Rimland gave parents of autistic children new hope.\n\nHowever, critics have proposed that his unwavering promotion of biomedical \"cures\" ultimately proved to be a double-edged sword as it kickstarted an endless quest for a cure.\n","1332f113-a432-4d14-b045-e684fb2a7dfa",[382],{"id":383,"data":384,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"62aa1119-1e37-4c8a-b830-35b532b8f6f7",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":385,"binaryCorrect":390,"binaryIncorrect":392},[386,387,388,389],"Who is credited with shifting the understanding of autism from being psychogenic to biogenic?","Who proposed that autism is an inborn condition rooted in genetics and neurology?","Who rejected the idea that poor parenting was the cause of autism?","Who founded the Autism Research Institute and wrote the book Infantile Autism?",[391],"Bernard Rimland",[329],{"id":394,"data":395,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":399},"a4017f79-f178-434b-8c85-3d2bce85beb2",{"type":25,"title":396,"markdownContent":397,"audioMediaId":398},"Ole Ivar Lovaas and the ABA Approach","When Norwegian-American psychologist, Ole Ivar Lovaas, began studying autism in the 1960s, the dominant perspective on autism held that it was a form of neurosis.\n\nThe few autistic children who received treatment were given psychotherapy, which often had little effect. Others were misdiagnosed as schizophrenic or mentally disabled and institutionalized.\n\n ![Graph](image://2e9ca5b2-f414-46b9-bb0b-7f0dd3436a9c \"Electroshock therapy. Image: BruceBlaus, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nLovaas, on the other hand, took a behaviorist approach. He proposed the use of Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA), proclaiming that autism could be improved through rigorous behavior modification.\n\nLovaas’ work was highly influential in shaping public opinion, and the program he devised, known as the Lovaas model, became widely used as a form of therapy.\n\nFor the next two decades, he published numerous journal articles, including one in which he claimed that ABA therapies helped autistic children to become “indistinguishable from their normal friends.” Today, such statements have caused an uproar, as critics argue that it overly focuses on compliance. Some people, such as autistic writer and activist, Amy Sequenzia, have even labeled it “autistic conversion therapy.”\n\nIn a 1974 Psychology Today interview, Lovaas sparked further controversy when he discussed his use of aversive techniques, including the use of electroshocks. While the current Lovaas model uses only positive reinforcements to reward appropriate behaviors, the method remains controversial due to its focus on behavioral modification.\n","6e473733-023c-4053-bacb-eda483b333bc",[400],{"id":401,"data":402,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"3ba7f1d5-7541-465b-b670-0e4ad7a7347d",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":403,"multiChoiceCorrect":408,"multiChoiceIncorrect":410},[404,405,406,407],"What approach did Lovaas take to treating autism?","What form of therapy did Lovaas propose for treating autism?","What type of behavior modification did Lovaas advocate for autism?","What was the basis of Lovaas' approach to treating autism?",[409],"Applied Behaviour Analysis (ABA)",[411,412,413],"Psychotherapy","Cognitive Behavioral Therapy","Dialectical Behavioral Therapy",{"id":415,"data":416,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":418},"4201d702-134c-4461-92bb-2b3350f39cda",{"type":26,"title":417},"The Rise of Neurodiversity Advocacy",[419,438,457],{"id":420,"data":421,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":425},"0b2f9a2f-0cd7-45dc-b576-d006cc3c5a0d",{"type":25,"title":422,"markdownContent":423,"audioMediaId":424},"Don’t Mourn for Us and Driven to Distraction"," ![Graph](image://fc724355-1d1c-403b-b727-0223ed4590d1 \"Temple Grandin\")\n\nTemple Grandin and Donna Williams were the first autistic people to write for a broad audience. Grandin’s autobiography, Emergence: Labeled Autistic was first published in 1986, and Williams’ Nobody, Nowhere, was first published in 1991. Both memoirs broke new ground by showing the world that autistic people could articulate their own experiences and had rich inner worlds, but they were ultimately geared towards a neurotypical audience.\n\nThen Jim Sinclair’s monumental 1993 essay, Don't Mourn for Us, came along. Challenging the notion that autism is a tragedy that inevitably results in parental grief, Sinclair proposed that the grief does not stem from the child's autism in itself, but rather from the perceived loss of the normal child the parents hoped to have.\n\nOne year later, psychiatrists John Ratey and Edward Hallowell's book Driven to Distraction, helped increase awareness and understanding of ADHD. Filled with anecdotes and practical advice, the book quickly became a bestseller and had a significant impact on the public perception of ADHD.\n\n","d28ece7b-1cb4-4c82-89cf-938ef245f818",[426],{"id":427,"data":428,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"68713d55-9e84-4a26-8e6a-41b81300ff71",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":429,"binaryCorrect":434,"binaryIncorrect":436},[430,431,432,433],"What essay by Jim Sinclair challenged the notion that autism is a tragedy?","What essay by Jim Sinclair argued against the idea that autism is a source of grief?","What essay by Jim Sinclair contested the notion that autism is a misfortune?","What essay by Jim Sinclair contested the idea that autism is a tragedy?",[435],"Don't Mourn for Us",[437],"Driven to Distraction",{"id":439,"data":440,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":444},"238a7051-bc60-4d92-9f2c-77d7ff27303b",{"type":25,"title":441,"markdownContent":442,"audioMediaId":443},"Judy Singer - Coining the Word ‘Neurodiversity’","In the late 1990s, Australian sociology student, Judy Singer, stumbled upon a few disability studies when she realized a life-changing fact: she too had a “disability” in the family. More specifically: her.\n\nAt the time, Singer had not even heard of autism or Asperger’s Syndrome. Excited to uncover more, she started a literature search to find the experts. Unfortunately, she found nothing.\n\nRealizing she might have to be the expert herself, she signed up to write a thesis. Singer’s work was the first academic sociological research into the growing Autistic Self-Advocacy Movement.\n\nShe published her paper in 1998, and in it, she used the term ‘neurodiversity’, essentially coining it. She also proposed that the “‘Neurologically Different’ represent a new addition to the political categories of class/gender/race.”\n\nSinger had been corresponding with a writer named Harvey Blume, who further popularized the word neurodiversity in a 1998 issue of The Atlantic by stating, “Neurodiversity may be every bit as crucial for the human race as biodiversity is for life in general. Who can say what form of wiring will prove best at any given moment?”","da7333f0-c8f3-4c05-b2a4-53ba8f758c76",[445],{"id":446,"data":447,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"50c0cb85-1bbc-4125-927f-699e27dfe188",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":448,"multiChoiceCorrect":451,"multiChoiceIncorrect":453},[449,450],"Who coined the word 'neurodiversity' in 1998?","Who invented the term 'neurodiversity'?",[452],"Judy Singer",[454,455,456],"Harvey Blume","Anna Freud","Peter Singer",{"id":458,"data":459,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":463},"1df400ca-d4bb-4591-b6be-ac63bea65e45",{"type":25,"title":460,"markdownContent":461,"audioMediaId":462},"The “Ransom Notes” Affair","In 2007, the New York University Child Study Center (NYU CSC) launched the \"Ransom Notes” campaign – a controversial advertising stunt that greatly impacted the course of the Neurodiversity Movement.\n\n ![Graph](image://e2957da8-a94f-4f43-8be9-e4a568f275e6 \"A child experiencing depression\")\n\nPresented as a tool to raise awareness of various childhood psychiatric disorders, such as ADHD, autism spectrum, depression, and bulimia, the campaign consisted of images of children with messages written in a style meant to resemble a kidnapper's ransom note.\n\nOne example: “We are in possession of your son. We are making him squirm and fidget until he is a detriment to himself and those around him. Ignore this and your kid will pay…ADHD.”\n\nDue to the campaign’s stigmatizing nature, the backlash was swift and came from all over the world. With the help of the internet, Ari Ne’eman, founder of the Autistic Self Advocacy Network (ASAN), reached out to other disability rights organizations to successfully shut down the campaign.\n\nAlthough the neurodiversity movement had already existed for some time, the effective protest increased its visibility. It also marked the evolution from a paternalistic model of advocacy to one of self-advocacy.","e870a746-1cce-4314-bd19-ffbee43d9b2a",[464],{"id":465,"data":466,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"3756199a-19d2-4823-ac78-0ccd64e17341",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":467,"multiChoiceCorrect":472,"multiChoiceIncorrect":474},[468,469,470,471],"What was the name of the controversial advertising stunt launched by the NYU CSC in 2007?","What was the title of the advertising campaign launched by the NYU CSC in 2007 that caused a great deal of controversy?","What was the name of the advertising stunt created by the NYU CSC in 2007 that sparked a global backlash?","What was the name of the NYU CSC's 2007 advertising campaign that led to the growth of the Neurodiversity Movement?",[473],"The Ransom Notes campaign",[475,476,477],"Neurodiversity Movement","Autistic Self Advocacy Network","Child Study Center",{"id":479,"data":480,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"orbs":483},"3a0adc8b-25d5-4829-a755-726bc62c443e",{"type":28,"title":481,"tagline":482},"Learning Disabilities","How some people find it more difficult than others to process new information.",[484,544],{"id":485,"data":486,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":488},"40d272bf-548d-4982-8550-7f12f1342283",{"type":26,"title":487},"Understanding Learning Disabilities",[489,506,525],{"id":490,"data":491,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":495},"2b14f5f2-5b20-45bb-b035-81a40e0b2bc4",{"type":25,"title":492,"markdownContent":493,"audioMediaId":494},"What is a Learning Disability?","A learning disability (LD) is a lifelong neurological condition that affects the way someone processes and learns information. This can make it harder to learn new skills. Understanding new concepts can also take more time and effort.\n\nUnlike what some people may believe, having an LD is not just about intelligence. Simply scoring below 75 in intelligence tests – which indicates a significant limitation in intellectual functioning – will never lead to the diagnosis of an LD.\n\n ![Graph](image://521d85dd-23fb-4b6f-abbb-ae53af287435 \"A child with a learning disability. Image: Wellcome Library, London CC BY 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nIn fact, by definition, to be diagnosed with one, someone must have average or above-average intelligence – a great reminder that the full measure of someone’s potential cannot be gleaned from a single metric like IQ.\n\n","226ff5be-5448-488f-8916-2a81e89a77ef",[496],{"id":497,"data":498,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"8b2284ed-0224-4a70-8c41-02c165c2c2a7",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":499,"binaryCorrect":504,"binaryIncorrect":505},[500,501,502,503],"Learning Disability diagnosis is closely related to intelligence.","Having an IQ below 75 indicates a learning disability.","Having a learning disability is associated with having below-average intelligence.","Having an average or above-average IQ is a requirement for a learning disability diagnosis.",[136],[138],{"id":507,"data":508,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":512},"ebc3c01f-4970-4554-b50d-3326407f888d",{"type":25,"title":509,"markdownContent":510,"audioMediaId":511},"Different Types of Learning Disabilities"," ![Graph](image://9e0368d4-f562-46d9-a2d9-03f2ec146968 \"A dyslexic student\")\n\nDyslexia is the most common LD. It can affect people differently; some may struggle with reading comprehension while others have difficulty with spelling or writing.\n\nOther forms of LDs include dyscalculia and dysgraphia. Dyscalculia affects the ability to understand and work with numbers, whereas dysgraphia impacts handwriting and fine motor skills, in turn hampering one’s ability to form letters, for example.\n\nBesides these more commonly known conditions, there are also less well-known ones such as auditory processing disorder which affects the ability to process sound accurately; visual processing disorder which impairs the ability to interpret visual information; and nonverbal learning disability which impacts social skills.\n\nEach condition has its own unique set of challenges. For example, those with auditory processing disorder may need extra help focusing on lectures or conversations due to difficulty filtering out background noise.\n\n","4a6936b8-cfa8-48ac-81ca-c375ac30febd",[513],{"id":514,"data":515,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"852a2c94-747f-478c-b8ef-0c54b8e2d436",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":516,"binaryCorrect":521,"binaryIncorrect":523},[517,518,519,520],"What is the most common learning disability?","What is the most prevalent learning disability?","What is the most widespread learning disability?","What is the most commonly diagnosed learning disability?",[522],"Dyslexia",[524],"Dyscalculia",{"id":526,"data":527,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":531},"af4203e4-0550-486e-9e00-05e1813337fb",{"type":25,"title":528,"markdownContent":529,"audioMediaId":530},"Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences","In 1983, Howard Gardner revolutionized the way we think about learning and intelligence with his book, Frames of Mind.\n\nShaking up the established belief that there is a single intelligence that can be measured with one IQ test, Gardner proposed the concept of multiple intelligences - a recognition that there are many different ways of learning and knowing.\n\n ![Graph](image://0cad989f-7339-4b1b-afed-50e01687419a \"Howard Gardner\")\n\nStarting out with six, eventually, nine distinct types of intelligence were identified: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, visual-spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, and existential.\n\nGardner noted that our current educational system heavily favors language-based instruction and assessment. This one-size-fits-all approach doesn’t account for the fact that students learn in different ways and excel in distinct areas.\n\nRecognizing that individuals with LDs may have strengths in areas beyond traditional measures of intelligence, such as music or art, Gardner argued that “The broad spectrum of students – and perhaps the society as a whole – would be better served if disciplines could be presented in a number of ways and learning could be assessed through a variety of means.” \n\nWhile Gardner's theory had a wide impact, and helped shift understandings around LDs, it has also been widely criticised in recent years. The concept of multiple intelligences has been debunked in several studies. However, the high-level principle that intelligence is not a one-dimensional phenomenon remains influential.\n","86075b55-c65b-48a3-9259-2ba43d8db390",[532],{"id":533,"data":534,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"18c1afb1-a124-4bc2-92c0-3d76969306fd",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":535,"binaryCorrect":540,"binaryIncorrect":542},[536,537,538,539],"How many distinct types of intelligence were identified by Howard Gardner?","How many different kinds of intelligence did Howard Gardner identify?","How many types of intelligence did Gardner recognize in his book, Frames of Mind?","How many intelligences did Gardner propose in his theory of multiple intelligences?",[541],"Nine",[543],"Six",{"id":545,"data":546,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":548},"5115e3ab-ce4f-46ac-9742-66211bf724d7",{"type":26,"title":547},"Diagnosing and Differentiating LDs",[549,568,585],{"id":550,"data":551,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":555},"2fb502c4-a06e-4ac2-92b8-01c18e6b7659",{"type":25,"title":552,"markdownContent":553,"audioMediaId":554},"Diagnosing Learning Disabilities","The diagnosis of an LD can be a complex process, but because it greatly impacts the support someone will receive, making the correct diagnosis is important.\n\n ![Graph](image://288f303a-2090-4100-aff6-7d1a94e1a919 \"A child learning in a class room\")\n\nFor example, in many countries, children must meet certain criteria to receive special education services. This includes having difficulty with academic skills such as reading or math, despite receiving appropriate instruction. They must also have a cognitive ability, or IQ score, that falls within the average range.\n\nSometimes, neuropsychological testing may be used to check someone’s strengths and weaknesses in areas such as memory recall and problem solving. Other tests may measure how well someone performs on tasks related to specific subjects like reading or math.\n\nIt is also important to consider other factors such as family history and environmental influences when making a diagnosis. For example, children who grow up in poverty are more likely to experience learning difficulties than those from higher-income households due to a lack of access to resources and educational opportunities.\n","dc7f3ee1-876d-46c9-b736-2795c0686ae2",[556],{"id":557,"data":558,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"0fe8cdad-5590-4478-a840-867ac0824912",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":559,"binaryCorrect":564,"binaryIncorrect":566},[560,561,562,563],"What is an important factor to consider when making a diagnosis of an LD?","What type of information should be taken into account when diagnosing an LD?","What is a key element to consider when diagnosing an LD?","What is an important factor to look at when diagnosing an LD?",[565],"Family history",[567],"MRI scan results",{"id":569,"data":570,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":574},"fdbcd8af-f068-485c-ba78-a4a5de3988a2",{"type":25,"title":571,"markdownContent":572,"audioMediaId":573},"The difference between ADHD and learning disabilities","ADHD and LDs are often confused. They can lead to similar challenges in school and work settings, but there are some key differences. \n\nADHD is characterized by symptoms such as hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention, while LDs refer to difficulties with specific skills like reading, writing, and math. For example, people with ADHD may have trouble focusing on tasks while those with learning disabilities may struggle to understand concepts even when paying close attention.\n\n ![Graph](image://d75d4c1c-29f8-44dd-b4f9-33fd2390ec36 \"A person with ADHD struggling to focus on a task\")\n\nHowever, because ADHD affects executive functioning skills like working memory and attention, people with ADHD may also struggle with some aspects of learning. This can cause confusion and overlap between the two conditions.\n\nIt is a common misconception that stimulant medications can treat learning disabilities in the same way they treat ADHD. The truth is, stimulants have no impact on learning disabilities whatsoever.\n\nStimulants may help control attention-related symptoms in children with both ADHD and a learning disability, but simply medicating a child with a learning disability in the hopes of improving academic performance is a flawed approach that overlooks the condition’s complex nature.\n\n","03452e2d-888b-44b1-8dfd-9a7677827ce6",[575],{"id":576,"data":577,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"8a4716a8-b0b6-480b-a25c-e54c6e008756",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":578,"binaryCorrect":583,"binaryIncorrect":584},[579,580,581,582],"Which of these is more likely to lead to difficulties with specific subjects like math and writing?","What condition is more likely to cause difficulty with specific academic skills such as math and writing?","What type of condition is associated with difficulty in specific subject areas like math and writing?","What is the condition that can lead to difficulty in specific academic skills such as math and writing?",[481],[58],{"id":586,"data":587,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":591},"07bd1436-4547-4abb-9bca-19196287dbd0",{"type":25,"title":588,"markdownContent":589,"audioMediaId":590},"The Role of Special Education","Special education refers to individualized educational services provided to students with disabilities.\n\nThis may involve additional support like extended time for tests, specialized instruction and repetition, visual aids, and assistive technology such as audiobooks or text-to-speech software. For example, text-to-speech software can help dyslexic students read texts aloud, while speech recognition software can enable individuals with motor impairments to type without using their hands.\n\n ![Graph](image://9a6b99d9-77b7-4327-b90f-0d2d4988e504 \"Text-to-speech software\")\n\nWhile special education can be beneficial, it also has its challenges. One critique is that it can create a sense of isolation for students with disabilities who may be pulled out of mainstream classrooms for services. Additionally, the cost of special education can be a barrier for some families, particularly in countries where the state doesn't provide such services, and not all schools may have the resources to provide comprehensive services.\n\nBesides school and academic challenges, individuals with learning disabilities may also experience social difficulties such as anxiety or depression due to their struggles at school or work. This should not be overlooked.\n","292ad1ea-09a1-4104-a21d-16431102813a",[592],{"id":593,"data":594,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"0e8d39ef-c8b1-424d-ba2e-c7c42cd430b8",{"type":50,"reviewType":190,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":595,"clozeWords":600},[596,597,598,599],"Text-to-speech software can help dyslexic students read texts aloud.","Text-to-speech aids dyslexic readers","Dyslexic students can read aloud with text-to-speech","Text-to-speech assists dyslexic readers",[601],"Text-to-speech",{"id":603,"data":604,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"orbs":606},"a2883f3e-346e-420d-97e1-3f4e0fc758a5",{"type":28,"title":58,"tagline":605},"Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - how it works and the impact it holds.",[607,665,727],{"id":608,"data":609,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":611},"452937e2-91cb-43bc-beff-08930cf0db18",{"type":26,"title":610},"Understanding ADHD",[612,632,646],{"id":613,"data":614,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":617},"b0977c68-9838-4b01-b4a1-0ac824e42216",{"type":25,"title":610,"markdownContent":615,"audioMediaId":616},"ADHD stands for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Over the years, there have been many changes in how it has been defined, diagnosed, and treated.\n\nToday, ADHD is recognized as a complex neurodevelopmental disorder with a range of symptoms that can affect individuals across the lifespan. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://d41af5a5-3f7f-4ad8-948d-7df2ecb3deb9 \"English pediatrician Sir George Frederic Still\")\n\nMany experts consider English pediatrician Sir George Frederic Still’s 1902 lectures to be the scientific starting point of ADHD’s history. Still discussed 20 cases of children with a “defect of moral control [...], without general impairment of intellect and without physical disease.” \n\nHe listed nine different ways in which a so-called ‘lack of moral control’ could be shown – namely passionateness, spitefulness, jealousy, lawlessness, dishonesty, mischievousness, shamelessness, sexual immorality, and viciousness – and added that their shared quality is self-gratification. \n\nAlthough most of these symptoms are not directly associated with the current concept of ADHD, many experts still agree that a delay of gratification is extremely challenging for children with ADHD.","61ad2a74-32ce-4e9d-a626-a4fdc04ca4a7",[618],{"id":619,"data":620,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"1471cb73-7cb0-47d2-966c-0ceeb28bf948",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":621,"multiChoiceCorrect":626,"multiChoiceIncorrect":628},[622,623,624,625],"Whose work is considered to be the scientific starting point of ADHD’s history?","Who is credited with providing the scientific foundation for the history of ADHD?","Who is considered to have initiated the scientific study of ADHD?","Who is thought to have been the first to scientifically explore ADHD?",[627],"Sir George Frederic Still",[629,630,631],"Sir Thomas More","Sir Isaac Newton","Sir Francis Bacon",{"id":633,"data":634,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":638},"49a4819d-d9d7-4476-bfbb-36cd61f0a638",{"type":25,"title":635,"markdownContent":636,"audioMediaId":637},"Types of ADHD","There are currently three main subtypes of ADHD: predominantly inattentive type, predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type, and combined type.\n\nInattentive ADHD previously went by the name ADD, which stands for Attention Deficit Disorder. People with this type often have severe difficulty paying attention to details or following instructions. They may also be very easily distracted or forgetful. \n\nThe hyperactive-impulsive subtype is characterized by excessive movement and talking. People with the hyperactive-impulsive type tend to fidget, talk excessively, act impulsively without thinking about the potential consequences, and struggle to sit still for long periods of time.\n\nFinally, those with the combined type experience both sets of symptoms.\n\nRecent research suggests that ADHD can manifest differently depending on gender; boys are more likely to display hyperactivity while girls often show signs of inattention.","788b06a4-eb43-4938-8456-2d5a40210c24",[639],{"id":640,"data":641,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"3b5fe1af-bafe-4e0d-a127-892c70c2b99f",{"type":50,"reviewType":190,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":642,"clozeWords":644},[643],"The hyperactive-impulsive subtype of ADHD is characterized by excessive movement and talking.",[645],"hyperactive-impulsive",{"id":647,"data":648,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":652},"d75945b1-6fe6-4cc2-8404-f3f9c74730cf",{"type":25,"title":649,"markdownContent":650,"audioMediaId":651},"ADHD Up Close","According to clinical psychologist, Russell Barkley, ADHD has a neurological basis that leads to a state of disinhibition resulting in three characteristic symptoms: distractibility, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. People with ADHD are unable to inhibit incoming stimuli, leading to distractibility, and they struggle with controlling their outgoing impulses, resulting in impulsivity and hyperactivity.\n\nFor example, someone with ADHD may find it difficult to stay focused on a task and tends to become easily distracted by external stimuli such as sounds or movements. They may also find it hard to organize their time or belongings, leading to procrastination or forgetfulness. In social situations, they may struggle with impulsivity, interrupting others, or acting on their immediate impulses without considering the consequences.\n\nOf course, everyone can be inattentive, hyperactive, and impulsive at times, but with ADHD, as well as other neurodevelopmental conditions, these behaviors are persistent and show a divergence from typical cognitive milestones.","8c10c9b6-33a1-46bd-8ac0-b4d2b137e02a",[653],{"id":654,"data":655,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"cac3b4ec-d966-4056-9b7d-77846c169c4b",{"type":50,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":656,"activeRecallAnswers":661},[657,658,659,660],"What are the three characteristic symptoms of ADHD according to clinical psychologist Russell Barkley?","What are the three primary signs of ADHD according to Russell Barkley?","What are the three main symptoms of ADHD as described by Russell Barkley?","What are the three characteristic behaviors associated with ADHD according to Russell Barkley?",[662,663,664],"Distractibility","Impulsivity","Hyperactivity",{"id":666,"data":667,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":669},"92b762ba-f11a-4ff4-bdf2-99400efe5f6b",{"type":26,"title":668},"Diagnosing and Complexities of ADHD",[670,691,710],{"id":671,"data":672,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":676},"d88fcee4-566b-47c8-8021-6229557c2c0c",{"type":25,"title":673,"markdownContent":674,"audioMediaId":675},"Diagnosing ADHD","Diagnosing ADHD has evolved significantly over the years. Currently, it typically involves a comprehensive evaluation that includes interviews with the individual and their family, an assessment of the symptoms, psychological testing, and a review of their medical, familial, and behavioral history.\n\nDiagnostic criteria are established by professional organizations such as the American Psychiatric Association and are based on observed symptoms and impairments in daily functioning.\n\nIn addition to clinical assessments, neuropsychological tests such as Continuous Performance Tests (CPTs) are often used to measure attention span and impulsivity levels.\n\nAlthough CPTs are widely used and are considered the \"gold standard\" for the diagnosis of ADHD, some studies suggest that these tests may not be a reliable tool when it comes to testing adults with ADHD.","80b2cb64-582c-46ed-8d8b-ccc03ea97ec6",[677],{"id":678,"data":679,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"4f04e6b5-7b0a-4e51-ac71-847298f0b8a4",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":680,"multiChoiceCorrect":685,"multiChoiceIncorrect":687},[681,682,683,684],"What is the 'gold standard' for diagnosing ADHD?","What type of test is considered the most reliable for diagnosing ADHD?","What is the most commonly used tool for diagnosing ADHD?","What is the accepted standard for measuring attention span and impulsivity levels in adults with ADHD?",[686],"Continuous Performance Tests (CPTs)",[688,689,690],"Physical examination","Medical history","Genetic testing",{"id":692,"data":693,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":697},"778472d4-3f15-44bb-9887-86d477fb3a28",{"type":25,"title":694,"markdownContent":695,"audioMediaId":696},"Complex ADHD","ADHD rarely appears in isolation. ‘Complex ADHD’ is a relatively new term that reflects this understanding.\n\n ![Graph](image://1261b37c-93dc-467c-a1b4-d47f83ccb991 \"An anxiety attack\")\n\nResearch has shown that ADHD commonly co-occurs with other psychiatric, learning, or neurodevelopmental conditions. In fact, it’s more common for someone with ADHD to have at least one co-existing condition than to have ADHD alone. Adults with ADHD may have up to 80% chance of having at least one co-existing psychiatric disorder, while another study shows that 60-100% of children with ADHD have at least one co-occurring condition.\n\nComorbid conditions are when two or more conditions occur in the same person at the same time. This is also known as a ‘dual diagnosis’.\n\nThe most common ADHD comorbidities are learning disabilities, anxiety, depression, sensory processing disorder, and oppositional defiant disorder.\n\nComorbidities often mimic or obscure each other's symptoms, making it difficult to accurately diagnose and treat. In addition, because the disruptive behavior frequently becomes the focus, other conditions like anxiety and depression are more likely to be overlooked.\n\n","684e566f-433c-45a6-8b48-48641a8e856c",[698],{"id":699,"data":700,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"5a7a5120-ec93-40b2-bec9-492a0e58cc9c",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":701,"binaryCorrect":706,"binaryIncorrect":708},[702,703,704,705],"What is the term used to describe two or more conditions occurring in the same person at the same time?","What is the term used to describe when two or more psychiatric, learning, or neurodevelopmental conditions occur in the same person?","What is the name for when two or more conditions are present in an individual simultaneously?","What is the term for when someone has more than one condition at the same time?",[707],"Comorbidities",[709],"Dual diagnosis",{"id":711,"data":712,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":716},"6b7396c0-d623-48b4-9d42-ad57505acfbb",{"type":25,"title":713,"markdownContent":714,"audioMediaId":715},"Culture and Gender","Cultural attitudes towards behavior can play a significant role in the diagnosis of ADHD, as perceptions of hyperactivity and appropriate childhood behavior can vary widely. In the United States, for example, African-American and Latino children have lower odds of having an ADHD diagnosis and of taking ADHD medication when compared with white children.\n\nAdditionally, mental illness can be stigmatized in some cultures, preventing individuals and families from seeking help, particularly in educationally disadvantaged populations.\n\nOne’s gender can also play a role. Males have a higher worldwide prevalence of ADHD, but females often go undiagnosed or misdiagnosed because their symptoms don't fit traditional stereotypes. They also tend to show them in a less disruptive way. Examples are expressing hyperactivity by being extremely talkative.\n\n ![Graph](image://c2a94df6-4db0-49e7-808d-caf8969c9ebf \"ADHD in women is more likely to present as a tendency to be highly talkative\")\n\nFinally, culture and gender may also interact due to gender stereotypes within different cultures.","8b2b97c8-eb35-4699-9fc7-6a57dfb3ad4c",[717],{"id":718,"data":719,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"bbf03b7e-62c5-4fb9-a2e9-dd2122fe6d5c",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":720,"binaryCorrect":725,"binaryIncorrect":726},[721,722,723,724],"African-American children in the USA have higher rates of ADHD diagnosis.","African-American children in the USA are more likely to have an ADHD diagnosis.","African-American children in the USA have higher odds of being prescribed ADHD medication.","African-American children in the USA are more likely to be diagnosed with ADHD.",[136],[138],{"id":728,"data":729,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":731},"f296bdce-3cfa-463d-a199-e8ef5e2e9a37",{"type":26,"title":730},"ADHD in Adults and Cultural Perspectives",[732,753],{"id":733,"data":734,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":738},"e731dcc0-7a3f-44bd-bc61-ac67bedb10d6",{"type":25,"title":735,"markdownContent":736,"audioMediaId":737},"ADHD in adults","Estimates of the worldwide prevalence of ADHD are around 6 in 100 children and adolescents and 3 in 100 adults. For a long time, it was believed that this difference was due to children with ADHD simply growing out of the condition. \n\nHowever, it has been suggested that the two groups may not be the same, meaning that adult ADHD is not just a continuation of the childhood disorder. Or to put it differently: adults with ADHD may not simply be children with ADHD who grow up.\n\nThe majority of children and adolescents who are diagnosed with ADHD are male, but in adults, women and men are diagnosed with equal frequency.\n\n ![Graph](image://1f7e6304-d32a-4466-a71e-719ac38fe259 \"Parents talking to their child\")\n\nThe findings that ADHD is sometimes diagnosed later in life, even without apparent symptoms in childhood, has raised the question of whether this explains why more women are being diagnosed with ADHD, despite boys outnumbering girls among children.\n\nResearch is being conducted into three main possible reasons for this.\n\nWere the symptoms masked in childhood due to protective influences, such as parental guidance or good grades?\n\nWas the person previously misdiagnosed with something else, such as anxiety or depression?\n\nOr is there an entirely adult form of ADHD that has not been medically identified yet?\n\n","13a8fedf-9867-4cf3-abc7-b59522534569",[739],{"id":740,"data":741,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"cc886eb5-4293-41c4-b8b7-76704550f013",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":742,"multiChoiceCorrect":747,"multiChoiceIncorrect":749},[743,744,745,746],"What is the worldwide prevalence of ADHD in children and adolescents?","What is the estimated rate of ADHD among children and adolescents worldwide?","What is the estimated percentage of children and adolescents with ADHD worldwide?","What is the estimated proportion of children and adolescents with ADHD worldwide?",[748],"6 in 100",[750,751,752],"3 in 100","4 in 100","5 in 100",{"id":754,"data":755,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":759},"543acdaf-4cce-400f-ae68-e8521e6a60f4",{"type":25,"title":756,"markdownContent":757,"audioMediaId":758},"The Myth of ADHD","Over the past decades, the rate of ADHD diagnosis has increased dramatically, and so has the prescription of medications to treat it. In his book The Myth of the ADHD Child, psychologist Thomas Armstrong puts this into question by making the controversial argument that many behaviors labeled as ADHD are simply a child’s response to complex social, emotional, and educational influences.\n\nBy labeling a child with ADHD, we may therefore be ignoring the underlying issues that are contributing to their behavior. The label can give a false sense of understanding and control, when in reality, we may not fully understand the complexity of the situation at all.\n\nArmstrong's perspective has received both support and criticism. Some argue that it minimizes the struggles of individuals who have ADHD and need support, while others agree that the diagnosis has been overused and may be inappropriate for some individuals. \n\nOverall, the debate around the nature of ADHD remains complex and multifaceted, with ongoing discussion around the role of social, environmental, and biological factors in its development.","9f8e67cb-4ee1-429f-9f63-d6e7c23717b8",[760],{"id":761,"data":762,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"d112206a-4bcc-4827-b460-8f37a62f80de",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":763,"multiChoiceCorrect":768,"multiChoiceIncorrect":770},[764,765,766,767],"What is the title of Thomas Armstrong's book?","What is the name of the book written by Thomas Armstrong that questions the rate of ADHD diagnosis?","What is the title of the book by Thomas Armstrong that argues many behaviors labeled as ADHD are simply a child’s response to complex social, emotional, and educational influences?","What is the title of the book by psychologist Thomas Armstrong that challenges the rate of ADHD diagnosis?",[769],"The Myth of the ADHD Child",[771,772,773],"The Reality of the ADHD Child","The Causes of ADHD","The Treatment of ADHD",{"id":775,"data":776,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"orbs":779},"b1d6541c-bc6d-4ed9-a65d-4813e77a68b7",{"type":28,"title":777,"tagline":778},"The Autism Spectrum","The broad family of characteristics that are shared by people on the autistic spectrum.",[780,877],{"id":781,"data":782,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":784},"9587bb6e-3455-4698-842e-9587fd56cb70",{"type":26,"title":783},"Understanding Autism",[785,805,824,841,858],{"id":786,"data":787,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":790},"bd6e7ce5-6b6e-4953-9bea-0d3d715c7cdd",{"type":25,"title":777,"markdownContent":788,"audioMediaId":789},"The concept of autism has evolved over time, and the idea of a spectrum emerged as clinicians began to recognize that the condition can manifest in various ways and degrees of severity. \n\nClinicians used to use the acronym PDD-NOS, which stood for Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified. It referred to children whose autism symptoms were more severe than Asperger's, but less severe than those with autism.\n\nWhile experts once used terms like Asperger's syndrome and PDD-NOS, all of these conditions have now been placed on one single spectrum and are referred to as one single diagnosis: ‘autism spectrum disorder’ (ASD). Before this new framework emerged, the four conditions were characterized as different types of autism.\n\nAsperger's syndrome, for example, was considered a milder form of autism, with individuals often displaying exceptional intelligence and the ability to manage daily life, but struggling with social interactions.\n\nAutistic disorder, the most well-known form of autism, involved symptoms as seen in Asperger's or PDD-NOS, but at a more intense level.\n\nFinally, childhood disintegrative disorder was the rarest and most severe form of autism. Many of these children also develop a seizure disorder.","523d8e7b-710e-4f06-a4a0-e9f1a54a4dd0",[791],{"id":792,"data":793,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"f1523c4e-d57b-4642-b982-65ff25f52307",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":794,"multiChoiceCorrect":799,"multiChoiceIncorrect":801},[795,796,797,798],"What was Asperger's Syndrome formerly characterized as?","How was Asperger's Syndrome previously categorized?","What was the former classification of Asperger's Syndrome?","What was the former description of Asperger's Syndrome?",[800],"A milder form of autism",[802,803,804],"A severe form of autism","A form of Pervasive Developmental Disorder","The rarest and most severe form of autism",{"id":806,"data":807,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":811},"2e403765-5415-4e99-b310-c2835ee50d78",{"type":25,"title":808,"markdownContent":809,"audioMediaId":810},"From Autistic Linear Spectrum to the Autistic Wheel","The phrase \"If you've met one autistic person, you've met one autistic person\" reflects the diverse and unique experiences of individuals on the spectrum.\n\nASD can manifest itself differently from person to person, but some common traits include difficulty understanding social cues, repetitive behaviors, and sensory sensitivities.\n\n\nThe concept of ASD as a linear spectrum has been challenged by the idea of the autistic wheel. This views autism as a multi-dimensional concept, with three levels of severity: support needs, communication needs, and sensory needs.\n\n ![Graph](image://fce8a2a7-21ca-4008-8c67-12198983af39 \"The autistic wheel\")\n\nThe support needs level refers to the amount of assistance and accommodations required to navigate daily life. The communication needs level represents the ability to communicate, including the use of language and nonverbal cues. Finally, the sensory needs level reflects the sensitivity to sensory input, including sound, touch, and light.\n\nThe autistic wheel allows for a more nuanced understanding of ASD, recognizing that individuals may have varying needs across multiple domains.\n\n","defb7d93-d301-4934-9b2d-1a5a2372425c",[812],{"id":813,"data":814,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"f6a46c55-1129-4a24-8d48-d009f6261134",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":815,"binaryCorrect":820,"binaryIncorrect":822},[816,817,818,819],"What phrase is used by neurodiversity advocates?","What is the phrase used by neurodiversity advocates to emphasize the unique experiences of individuals on the autism spectrum?","What is the saying that reflects the diverse and unique experiences of individuals on the autism spectrum?","What is the phrase that captures the idea that no two autistic people are the same?",[821],"If you've met one autistic person, you've met one autistic person",[823],"If you've met one autistic person, you've met all autistic people",{"id":825,"data":826,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":830},"8f4b08e3-0ee3-4d1b-9e72-a78026e4c3d4",{"type":25,"title":827,"markdownContent":828,"audioMediaId":829},"Myths Surrounding Autism","Despite the growing awareness of autism, there are still many myths and misconceptions surrounding it. For example, some people believe that they always lack empathy or cannot form meaningful relationships with others. However, research has shown that autistic people can experience a wide range of emotions and have strong connections to their families and friends. Another common misconception is that all autistic people are geniuses – while some may possess exceptional skills in certain areas, this is not true for everyone on the spectrum.\n\n\nMisrepresentation in the media also contributes to these misunderstandings; often characters with autism are portrayed as robotic or emotionless figures who lack any kind of personality. This perpetuates stereotypes which can be damaging and lead to further stigma. In reality, each person on the autism spectrum is unique and should be treated as an individual rather than being lumped into one category based on outdated ideas about what it means to be ‘autistic’.\n\n","8c7edeab-c945-4e6b-9450-2e88a5d70093",[831],{"id":832,"data":833,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"fb2beb07-a56f-4263-af96-99c48a8e05e3",{"type":50,"reviewType":190,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":834,"clozeWords":839},[835,836,837,838],"A common stereotype about people on the autistic spectrum is that they are all geniuses.","A misconception is that all autistic people are geniuses","It is wrongly assumed that all autistic people are geniuses","The belief that all autistic people are geniuses is a fallacy",[840],"geniuses",{"id":842,"data":843,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":847},"31a20f2c-d9e4-4316-a49c-d4d4e918d91a",{"type":25,"title":844,"markdownContent":845,"audioMediaId":846},"Savant Syndrome"," ![Graph](image://15fec09e-3036-42d0-93ad-c0541862c22f \"Kim Peek\")\n\nSavant syndrome is a rare condition in which someone on the spectrum has exceptional skills or abilities. Savants generally show characteristic social deficits of ASD while also having some exceptional abilities in a specific area, such as music, art, or mathematics.\n\nFamous examples of people with savant syndrome include Kim Peek, who served as one of the inspirations for the character in the movie \"Rain Man,\" and Stephen Wiltshire who draws lifelike, accurate impressions of cities, skylines, and street scenes after having only observed them for mere seconds.\n\nSimilarly, musical savant, Noel Patterson, could reproduce any musical composition he heard on the piano. Patterson was the subject of intense study and starred in the 1986 documentary on autistic savants called The Foolish Wise Ones.\n\nFinally, Daniel Tammet is an autistic savant who holds multiple world records for memorizing numbers; including reciting pi up to 22,514 digits.\n\nOther savants may have abilities in areas such as calendar calculation, language acquisition, or mechanical skills.\n","c890bd8c-2361-48a2-bea3-37228d4ca013",[848],{"id":849,"data":850,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"d6e9132f-1ab5-4db8-9144-18232c97b7c1",{"type":50,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":851,"activeRecallAnswers":856},[852,853,854,855],"What is the name of the rare condition in which someone with autism has exceptional skills?","What is the name of the condition in which someone on the autism spectrum has exceptional abilities?","What is the term for a person with autism who has extraordinary skills?","What is the name of the rare disorder in which autistic individuals possess remarkable talents?",[857],"Savant syndrome",{"id":859,"data":860,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":864},"9d218b74-f804-4bd0-a929-91cb13aeda00",{"type":25,"title":861,"markdownContent":862,"audioMediaId":863},"Autism and Gender Differences","While males are typically diagnosed with autism at a higher rate, it is becoming increasingly recognized that the condition may be underdiagnosed in females.\n\nThis may be due to bias in diagnosis as well as gender differences in symptom presentation. For example, it has been suggested that girls mask their autistic traits more than boys do. Masking refers to learning certain behaviors and suppressing others to be more like the people around them. This can make it difficult to detect the condition.\n\n ![Graph](image://3e305356-3974-44ba-aeb9-dba226cc8b60 \"An autistic female\")\n\nAdditionally, females may have fewer stereotypical interests or behaviors traditionally associated with autism, which can further contribute to missed diagnoses.\n\n","35c61bec-2fa0-48bd-bc55-59a84a121cbc",[865],{"id":866,"data":867,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"0b470eba-cbea-4b1c-9c6a-97f95a291969",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":868,"binaryCorrect":873,"binaryIncorrect":875},[869,870,871,872],"Which gender is often underdiagnosed in cases of autism?","What gender is more likely to be overlooked in autism diagnoses?","Who is more likely to be underdiagnosed in cases of autism?","Which gender is at risk of being underdiagnosed with autism?",[874],"Females",[876],"Males",{"id":878,"data":879,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":881},"9b4ce6ee-bcf4-4b51-bef6-c4d216173c55",{"type":26,"title":880},"Autism and Social Cognition",[882,901,916],{"id":883,"data":884,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":888},"3a4878c6-020e-418b-882f-601129063f0f",{"type":25,"title":885,"markdownContent":886,"audioMediaId":887},"Autism and Theory of Mind"," ![Graph](image://6dd1c673-971c-416a-9b17-38db72073ca3 \"Simon Baron-Cohen\")\n\nTheory of Mind (ToM) has been studied extensively in relation to ASD. It refers to the ability to understand that other people have different beliefs, desires, knowledge, and intentions than oneself. \n\nIt was first introduced by psychologists Simon Baron-Cohen, Uta Frith, and Alan Leslie in the 1980s. They proposed that people on the spectrum have difficulty understanding what others are thinking and feeling because they lack the ability to attribute mental states to others, which is referred to as \"mind-blindness.\" This may contribute to social and communication troubles. For example, they may have difficulty understanding sarcasm, irony, or metaphors, and may struggle with turn-taking and perspective-taking in conversations.\n\nOne way researchers measure ToM is through ‘false-belief tasks’, such as the Sally-Anne test. It involves a story about two characters named Sally and Anne who put a toy into a basket. When Sally leaves, Anne hides the toy. The child is then asked where Sally will look for her toy when she comes back. The child passes the test by reasoning that Sally will still look in the basket instead of in the new location as she doesn’t know that Anne hid it.\n\nThe results show that typically developing children pass this test at age five while those on the autism spectrum may not pass until much later or not at all. People with language impairment or intellectual disability also tend to do poorly on the task.\n","47b692ed-31c5-43cd-8115-ff6f7643e44b",[889],{"id":890,"data":891,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"c9896d2f-bba9-4005-98cf-a919e7f10480",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":892,"binaryCorrect":897,"binaryIncorrect":899},[893,894,895,896],"The Sally-Anne test is an example of what kind of test?","What type of test is used to measure Theory of Mind?","What is the name of the test used to assess understanding of other people's beliefs?","What is the name of the test that involves a story about Sally and Anne?",[898],"A false-belief test",[900],"A double-blind test",{"id":902,"data":903,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":907},"f1981dd4-4c71-432b-b8b2-b5c3f94462ae",{"type":25,"title":904,"markdownContent":905,"audioMediaId":906},"Communication Differences in Autism","Autistic individuals often experience difficulty with communication, which can manifest in a variety of ways. For example, some may have trouble understanding nonverbal cues such as facial expressions or body language, while others struggle to use spoken language effectively.\n\nHowever, this does not mean they cannot communicate; studies show that even people who lack verbal skills can still understand complex concepts and engage in meaningful conversations using other methods.\n\n ![Graph](image://2b9fe906-673b-408b-b977-75785c2b005f \"People communicating using sign language\")\n\nOne such example is Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC). AAC refers to all of the ways that someone communicates besides talking, and it can take many forms, including sign language, picture exchange systems, and electronic devices that generate speech.\n","887a214a-5907-4619-9562-4af87872a773",[908],{"id":909,"data":910,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"1a32dd35-cecd-4f3b-a484-5fb0ea43baeb",{"type":50,"reviewType":190,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":911,"clozeWords":913},[912],"Autistic individuals may have difficulty with communication, but can still engage in meaningful conversations using Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC).",[914,915],"Augmentative","Alternative Communication",{"id":917,"data":918,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":922},"66563f3d-7201-4b79-9a02-1d37b7b8d3d6",{"type":25,"title":919,"markdownContent":920,"audioMediaId":921},"Sensory Processing Disorder","Sensory processing disorder (SPD) is a condition that affects how individuals process sensory information from their environment. It can manifest in several ways, such as difficulty tolerating loud noises or bright lights, an aversion to certain textures or tastes, and hypersensitivity to touch. \n\nThese differences in sensory processing can have a big impact on daily life. People with SPD are often bothered by sounds or textures that most people don't even notice, and many describe it as being attacked or invaded by everyday experiences.\n\nWhile SPD is not the same as ASD, they are sometimes confused and often co-occur.\n\nSPD is also commonly found in people with ADHD. This may be because they both include symptoms related to sensory processing challenges. Constant movement, for example, is a trait that is commonly linked to both conditions.","015edd31-1f8e-46d1-8f28-b276b27633bb",[923],{"id":924,"data":925,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"f7cb9868-9126-4605-a5dd-c80bd9e10d68",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":926,"multiChoiceCorrect":931,"multiChoiceIncorrect":933},[927,928,929,930],"What conditions are often confused with SPD?","What other conditions are sometimes mistaken for SPD?","What other conditions are often associated with SPD?","What other conditions are commonly found in people with SPD?",[932],"ASD and ADHD",[522,524,934],"Dysgraphia",{"id":936,"data":937,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"orbs":940},"189aa5b2-e2ec-44c3-b2d5-8a0c076a1e7a",{"type":28,"title":938,"tagline":939},"Tourette's and Other Tic Disorders","How Tourette's and other tic disorders can create difficulties for some people.",[941,1004],{"id":942,"data":943,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":945},"707a24b1-3d08-4a07-ae40-bbe4002ef943",{"type":26,"title":944},"Understanding Tourette Syndrome",[946,964,985],{"id":947,"data":948,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":952},"89bca984-ad1e-4625-a333-7cab8cf824b1",{"type":25,"title":949,"markdownContent":950,"audioMediaId":951},"Georges Gilles de la Tourette","In the mid-19th century, Jean-Martin Charcot, the premier neurologist of 19th century France, assigned a young medical neurologist to investigate an unusual disorder. His name was Georges Gilles de la Tourette.\n\n ![Graph](image://3357286e-76e0-46a6-ae1d-a3cdc5519d30 \"Image: Wellcome Collection gallery. CC BY 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons Jean-Martin Charcot\")\n\nGilles de la Tourette’s work in hysteria management and hypnotism built his reputation during his lifetime, but today, he is best known for the condition that now bears his name: Tourette Syndrome.\n\nTasked by Charcot, Tourette got to work. As was common practice, after going over several cases, Tourette presented a paper in which he described what he had seen as well as a hypothesis about potential causes and treatment.\n\nThe rare disorder was characterized by motor tics, such as involuntary movements of the face, head, limbs, or trunk, and verbal tics, such as grunting, barking, and even shouting obscene language.\n\nCharcot deemed it to be a specific neurological disease, and he honored his young colleague for his contribution by renaming the illness “la maladie des tics de Gilles de la Tourette.”","6f3f374c-2e59-4a05-9297-2b0fc2de64a0",[953],{"id":954,"data":955,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"604afd74-c8b7-4b0e-9f6a-0b5977578f5a",{"type":50,"reviewType":190,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":956,"clozeWords":961},[957,958,959,960],"Tourette Syndrome is characterized by motor and verbal tics.","Tourette Syndrome involves motor and verbal tics","Motor and verbal tics characterize Tourette Syndrome","Tourette Syndrome is defined by motor and verbal tics",[962,963],"motor","verbal",{"id":965,"data":966,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":970},"99a36f81-637e-4e15-8766-af5859473012",{"type":25,"title":967,"markdownContent":968,"audioMediaId":969},"Tourette Syndrome","Tourette Syndrome (TS) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by involuntary physical and vocal tics. \n\nTics are sudden twitches, movements, or sounds that people do repeatedly. Examples are blinking over and over or repeating the same sound multiple times. Tics are considered to be uncontrollable, meaning that people who have them cannot prevent their bodies from doing these things. They can, however, often feel a premonitory urge coming up – these are the uncomfortable physical sensations preceding tics.\n\n ![Graph](image://9398d1a5-deb2-4514-be81-ff4ac8e7d194 \"A man with Tourette Syndrome (TS)\")\n\nThe first signs of TS usually occur in children between the ages of 7 and 10, but they can begin as early as 2 years or as late as 18.\n\nAdult-onset cases are rare. A few potential explanations have been suggested, such as it simply being the reactivation of childhood tics or it stemming from new psychiatric or genetic diseases or central nervous system lesions.\n","be4737a6-e35a-4f58-bb90-58e8f834c359",[971],{"id":972,"data":973,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"60abc5fc-0083-4320-9e33-f88960f18c6d",{"type":50,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":974,"multiChoiceCorrect":979,"multiChoiceIncorrect":981},[975,976,977,978],"What age range do the first signs of TS usually occur in?","At what age do the initial signs of Tourette Syndrome usually appear?","When do the initial symptoms of Tourette Syndrome usually start to show?","What is the typical age range for the onset of Tourette Syndrome?",[980],"7 to 10 years old",[982,983,984],"2 to 5 years old","11 to 18 years old","18 to 25 years old",{"id":986,"data":987,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":991},"f6a9ce5f-f03e-402e-a130-538a094886f8",{"type":25,"title":988,"markdownContent":989,"audioMediaId":990},"Tic Disorders","Currently, three tic disorders are included in the DSM-5: Tourette syndrome, persistent motor or vocal tic disorder, and provisional tic disorder.\n\nThese tic disorders vary based on the duration of symptoms and the type of tic exhibited, namely motor, vocal, or a combination of both.\n\nTourette syndrome is characterized by the presence of both motor and vocal tics that have persisted for at least a year. \n\nPeople with persistent motor or vocal tic disorders have either motor or vocal tics that have lasted for at least a year.\n\nFinally, provisional tic disorders may have motor or vocal tics, or both, but the symptoms have been present for less than a year.","cc16e0b5-e52a-4d5f-90c9-c1979688efe6",[992],{"id":993,"data":994,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"c8aa1afa-7756-437d-b3fb-ca2c98f47331",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":995,"binaryCorrect":1000,"binaryIncorrect":1002},[996,997,998,999],"How many tic disorders are included in the DSM-5?","How many types of tic disorders are listed in the DSM-5?","How many distinct tic disorders are recognized by the DSM-5?","How many tic disorders are classified in the DSM-5?",[1001],"Three",[1003],"Four",{"id":1005,"data":1006,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":1008},"69e0b85f-2148-4a5b-bed2-3f60184d3e3d",{"type":26,"title":1007},"Symptoms and Diagnosis of Tic Disorders",[1009,1026,1042,1061],{"id":1010,"data":1011,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":1015},"abb1450a-4359-4aec-a228-fde8f851c8b0",{"type":25,"title":1012,"markdownContent":1013,"audioMediaId":1014},"Symptoms of Tic Disorders"," ![Graph](image://269dc170-e186-47fb-b27d-e42fffed1bbe \"Washing hands obsessively is a common tic\")\n\nTic disorders can manifest in a variety of ways.\n\nCommon physical tics include eye blinking, head jerking, shoulder shrugging, facial grimacing, and twitching.\n\nSymptoms can range from mild to severe, with some individuals experiencing only occasional facial twitches or throat clearing while others may have more frequent and complex motor tics such as jumping or arm flapping.\n\nIn contrast to popular belief, people with Tourette syndrome don’t always blurt out swear words. Known as ‘coprolalia’, this only affects about 1 in 10 people with Tourette’s. Coprolalia is a complex tic that involves involuntarily saying swear words or socially inappropriate phrases. Similarly, ‘copropraxia’, which involves showing obscene gestures such as putting up your middle finger, is also relatively rare.\n","5372bc42-9516-4b14-a3b7-73fdb3620978",[1016],{"id":1017,"data":1018,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"f80d57a6-8d68-48bc-951a-e17d694d1ca6",{"type":50,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1019,"activeRecallAnswers":1024},[1020,1021,1022,1023],"What is the term for involuntarily saying swear words or socially inappropriate phrases?","What is the name of the complex tic that involves saying swear words or socially inappropriate phrases?","What is the term for a tic that causes someone to involuntarily say swear words or socially inappropriate phrases?","What is the medical term for the involuntary utterance of swear words or socially inappropriate phrases?",[1025],"Coprolalia",{"id":1027,"data":1028,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":1032},"23003d3a-db04-4944-b6bc-20a372732841",{"type":25,"title":1029,"markdownContent":1030,"audioMediaId":1031},"Tic Disorders and OCD","Tic disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) are both neurodevelopmental conditions that can greatly affect someone’s daily life. However, they differ in several ways.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://b48e5ac5-b97d-47f0-8b3a-8bf9cb525664 \"The brain with the thalamus labelled. Image: CNX OpenStax, CC BY 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nTic disorders are characterized by involuntary, repetitive movements or vocalizations, whereas OCD is defined by the presence of intrusive, unwanted, and repetitive thoughts called obsessions. These obsessions are generally followed by compulsions aimed at reducing anxiety or preventing a feared event. Examples would be washing one’s hands over and over or repeatedly checking the stove to make sure it is off.\n\nNonetheless, there is evidence that OCD and TS share a lot of overlap. One strong indication is the frequent occurrence of symptoms from both disorders in the same individual. Up to 60% of people with TS show symptoms of OCD, while 50% of children with OCD are reported to have had tics, and 15% met the criteria for TS.\n\nResearch into family history and genetics also indicates a potential link between the two conditions.\n\nFinally, at the clinical level, it is sometimes difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish between OCD and TS symptoms – when is something a tic, and when is it a compulsion?","d9cb8b16-939a-411c-9cab-394553b0446d",[1033],{"id":1034,"data":1035,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"6e8adeef-6e12-49a1-8dfa-16b81ebc8521",{"type":50,"reviewType":190,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1036,"clozeWords":1040},[1037,1038,1039],"Up to 60% of people with Tourette's show symptoms of OCD.","Around 60% of Tourette's patients have OCD symptoms","Approximately 60% of those with Tourette's have OCD signs",[1041],"60%",{"id":1043,"data":1044,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":1048},"03fb07bb-5afc-42a5-94a2-631a5fe61720",{"type":25,"title":1045,"markdownContent":1046,"audioMediaId":1047},"Tic Disorders and the Brain","Tics are thought to result from abnormalities or disruptions in brain regions that are involved in habit formation, including the basal ganglia, thalamus, and frontal cortex.\n\nThe basal ganglia are a group of structures located deep within the brain that help regulate voluntary movements and are thought to play a role in the automatic execution of learned motor patterns. The thalamus, located in the middle of the brain, acts as a relay station for sensory information and is involved in the processing of information related to movement, among other things. Finally, the frontal cortex is involved in higher-order cognitive processes such as decision making, attention, and working memory.\n\nOther studies have also suggested that tics may be maladaptive habits that have become automatic responses to unwanted premonitory urges.\n","3139e67c-5192-485d-bf54-7738bf19f3b8",[1049],{"id":1050,"data":1051,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"2d2b1f1d-a416-4916-9aec-7a0ebc306d8d",{"type":50,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1052,"activeRecallAnswers":1057},[1053,1054,1055,1056],"What brain regions are thought to be involved in habit formation?","What brain structures are associated with the formation of habits?","What areas of the brain are believed to be involved in the development of habits?","What brain regions are implicated in the development of habits?",[1058,1059,1060],"Basal ganglia","Thalamus","Frontal cortex",{"id":1062,"data":1063,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":1067},"ef30b9f5-0fab-4f8b-9cbb-1b9a07e87c0a",{"type":25,"title":1064,"markdownContent":1065,"audioMediaId":1066},"Treatment Options for Tic Disorders","Tic disorders can be managed through a variety of approaches, including medication, behavioral therapy, and lifestyle modifications. The most effective treatment approach will depend on the severity of symptoms and the individual's specific needs.\n\nMedications that block the action of dopamine, a neurotransmitter involved in the regulation of movement, can be effective in reducing the severity of tics. Unfortunately, they can bring with them several unwanted side effects.\n\nBehavioral therapies, such as Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), habit reversal therapy, and exposure and response prevention (ERP) therapy, can also be effective in reducing the severity of tics. These therapies focus on helping individuals identify triggers and helping them better resist their premonitory urges.","3024a6c5-bd19-40ea-86f0-56c56ad77765",[1068],{"id":1069,"data":1070,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"c0be86dd-a903-47ca-b79b-105a5abc2253",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1071,"binaryCorrect":1076,"binaryIncorrect":1078},[1072,1073,1074,1075],"What type of therapies can be effective in reducing the severity of tics?","What type of therapy has been shown to be effective in reducing the severity of tics?","What type of therapy can help individuals better resist their premonitory urges?","What type of therapy focuses on helping individuals identify triggers for tics?",[1077],"Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)",[1079],"Psychodynamic therapy",{"id":1081,"data":1082,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"orbs":1085},"98242118-d2f1-4724-9111-41ca5457b548",{"type":28,"title":1083,"tagline":1084},"Advocating For Neurodiversity","The campaign for neurodivergent people to achieve equality and higher living standards.",[1086,1141],{"id":1087,"data":1088,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":1090},"a76fb4ff-3e1e-46fd-a26e-90a777f84a7f",{"type":26,"title":1089},"Debates in Neurodiversity",[1091,1107,1124],{"id":1092,"data":1093,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":1097},"06a0eedd-bb9a-4f6b-a9cf-a0416725422c",{"type":25,"title":1094,"markdownContent":1095,"audioMediaId":1096},"To Label or Not to Label?","The debate around whether or not to label neurodivergent individuals, or even anyone at all, is a complex and ongoing one with many opposing opinions.\n\nOn the one hand, some argue that getting a diagnostic label can be liberating and provide an opportunity for people to identify with a community of others who share similar experiences. They believe that it helps individuals better understand themselves, facilitates access to appropriate support and services, and promotes a sense of identity and community.\n\nCritics, on the other hand, argue that labels should be used for jars, not people. They find that labels can be stigmatizing, limit opportunities, and create harmful stereotypes.","279bd418-c01f-4147-8ceb-e3826658eec6",[1098],{"id":1099,"data":1100,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"be8634b3-14e6-4ca4-81fc-5a2c7f01d391",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1101,"binaryCorrect":1105,"binaryIncorrect":1106},[1102,1103,1104],"There is a consensus among neurodiversity advocates about whether labels are valuable.","Neurodiversity advocates agree on the value of labels.","Neurodiversity advocates agree about the usefulness of labels.",[136],[138],{"id":1108,"data":1109,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":1113},"97e73bd1-1c45-450a-ad28-5f7364d725f3",{"type":25,"title":1110,"markdownContent":1111,"audioMediaId":1112},"Levels of Functioning","When discussing neurodiversity, you might sometimes hear the words ‘low-functioning’ versus ‘high-functioning’.\n\nIn general, low-functioning has been used to describe people who have more severe impairments in areas such as communication, socialization, and daily living skills. Conversely, high-functioning refers to individuals who have fewer impairments and are able to function relatively independently.\n\nWhile the usage of these terms can be useful in certain settings, many worry that the terminology can imply that those with lower levels of functioning are somehow less valuable than those with higher levels. It can also disadvantage those labelled \"high-functioning\", since it can make it more difficult to access the support they need. \n\nInstead, experts now recommended using terms such as ‘high support needs’ or ‘low support needs’.\n\nIt is also worth noting that even within the same individual there can be significant variations in their level of functioning depending on context and environment; what might appear to be low-functioning behavior at one time could become high-functioning behavior under different circumstances.","d64c5527-1835-4fb4-97b8-a84d88475486",[1114],{"id":1115,"data":1116,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"910d0587-03ee-44a3-93ae-bca54d332102",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1117,"binaryCorrect":1120,"binaryIncorrect":1122},[1118,1119],"What term is now recommended for neurodivergent people with severe impairments to their daily living skills?","What term is recommended to describe people who have difficulty with communication, socialization, and daily living skills?",[1121],"High support needs",[1123],"Low-functioning",{"id":1125,"data":1126,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":1130},"e607c2bc-8424-42b0-b0d9-1bd96a6caafd",{"type":25,"title":1127,"markdownContent":1128,"audioMediaId":1129},"Intersectionality and Neurodiversity","Intersectionality acknowledges that different forms of oppression can intersect in a way that amplifies their effects.\n\nIt refers to the interconnected nature of social categories such as race, gender, sexuality, class, religion, age, and disability.\n\n ![Graph](image://e430054e-9f94-4c12-aeb8-ee18d6223ccf \"A BAME woman with learning disabilities. Image: Disabledandhere, CC BY 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nIt is important to consider intersectionality in discussions of neurodiversity, as individuals with neurodivergent conditions may also face discrimination and marginalization based on other identities. For example, an autistic person who is also a person of color may face additional barriers and discrimination related to both their neurodivergent condition and their race. Similarly, a queer person with a learning disability may experience discrimination in different interacting ways.","def4d6e6-9bf0-4574-b8b9-d7f9ee6ac6c3",[1131],{"id":1132,"data":1133,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"941b29d6-278e-4ad5-b9c5-e21c8f4ac899",{"type":50,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1134,"activeRecallAnswers":1139},[1135,1136,1137,1138],"What term refers to the interconnected nature of social categories such as race, gender, sexuality, class, religion, age, and disability?","What concept recognizes that different forms of oppression can interact and amplify their effects?","What term describes the overlapping of social categories such as race, gender, sexuality, class, religion, age, and disability?","What term acknowledges the complexity of how different forms of oppression can interact?",[1140],"Intersectionality",{"id":1142,"data":1143,"type":26,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"pages":1145},"1b2942bf-7c23-4a4d-9f14-0751da756fac",{"type":26,"title":1144},"Foundations of the Neurodiversity Movement",[1146,1164,1181],{"id":1147,"data":1148,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":1152},"da8da4b5-0637-4b33-979d-672647863fa1",{"type":25,"title":1149,"markdownContent":1150,"audioMediaId":1151},"What is the Neurodiversity Movement?","The Neurodiversity Movement is a social movement that originated in the 1990s. It suggests viewing neurodivergent conditions as normal variations in the human genome. It also advocates for the recognition and acceptance of neurodivergent individuals, challenging the medical model that views these conditions as disorders to be cured.\n\nKey principles include the rejection of cure-based approaches, the promotion of support, and the recognition of neurodivergent individuals as experts on their own experiences.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://1da3314e-3c42-48ab-876b-0ee8ee4d9028 \"Martin Seligman\")\n\nThe movement can be linked to the positive psychology movement, which was led by former American Psychological Association president Martin Seligman. He advocated that psychology has previously placed too much emphasis on the negative aspects of human personality and should now examine its positive side.\n\nThe Neurodiversity Movement is based on the values of acceptance, respect, and inclusion. Advocates strive for greater understanding and awareness about neurological differences, with the aim to create a society where neurodivergent people are seen as valuable members of their communities and given equal opportunities.","257c8dfd-58cb-4867-9231-5a8c8742df21",[1153],{"id":1154,"data":1155,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"50a088d2-d830-4c68-bfc9-9ec915a07186",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1156,"binaryCorrect":1161,"binaryIncorrect":1163},[1157,1158,1159,1160],"When did the Neurodiversity Movement originate?","When did the social movement of Neurodiversity begin?","What year did the Neurodiversity Movement start?","When did the Neurodiversity Movement emerge?",[1162],"1990s",[259],{"id":1165,"data":1166,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":1170},"00ddaf4d-d0e4-4c15-b611-d379489b86c1",{"type":25,"title":1167,"markdownContent":1168,"audioMediaId":1169},"Challenges and Controversies in the Neurodiversity Movement","The Neurodiversity Movement has achieved several things, including raising awareness of neurodiversity as a natural variation in human neurocognitive functioning and advocating for greater acceptance and inclusion in society. However, the movement has also faced challenges and controversies. \n\nFor example, some have criticized the movement for not sufficiently addressing the needs of those who are severely affected by their neurodivergence and for potentially ignoring the medical aspects of certain conditions. They argue that the movement’s agenda only favors people with low support needs and that it overlooks those who have more difficulty accomplishing everyday tasks.\n\nEspecially families with severely affected children may not agree with the idea that we should avoid searching for treatments or a cure.\n\nFinally, some critics argue that the movement is not inclusive enough of other neurodivergent conditions besides autism, and that more attention should be paid to conditions such as ADHD, dyslexia, and Tourette syndrome.","ea488b67-4b7e-475e-9fd8-8f4785b0a119",[1171],{"id":1172,"data":1173,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"42baac1c-dc1f-46f5-a3e5-5e2b79040888",{"type":50,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1174,"binaryCorrect":1179,"binaryIncorrect":1180},[1175,1176,1177,1178],"Some people criticize the Neurodiversity Movement for downplaying some medical aspects of neurdivergence.","Some argue that the Neurodiversity Movement does not sufficiently address the medical aspects of neurodivergence.","Some people criticize the Neurodiversity Movement for not taking into account the medical aspects of neurodivergence.","The Neurodiversity Movement has been criticized for not addressing the medical aspects of neurodivergence.",[138],[136],{"id":1182,"data":1183,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":21,"version":25,"reviews":1187},"99e0d7d3-cbb1-4de3-abb5-a7b7e8964002",{"type":25,"title":1184,"markdownContent":1185,"audioMediaId":1186},"The Social Model of Disability","When sociologist Judy Singer started writing her thesis on neurodiversity in the 1990s, she had been greatly inspired by a book about the social model of disability.\n\nThe social model suggests that individual limitations are not an inherent part of a disability, but that they rather arise from society and the social and physical barriers that prevent someone from fully participating in that society.\n\nThe problems someone faces are therefore not necessarily due to their impairments or differences, and instead result from inaccessible physical environments, discriminatory attitudes, and a lack of supportive policies.\n\nIn contrast to the medical model, which focuses on individual medical diagnosis, treatment, and cure, the social model emphasizes social change and removing barriers to inclusion.","efa4986e-2bc3-4f7f-95e3-7e232d21d3c3",[1188],{"id":1189,"data":1190,"type":50,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":21},"e10e14b6-2b71-4f0b-a04c-4ff32bfd91a8",{"type":50,"reviewType":190,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1191,"clozeWords":1196},[1192,1193,1194,1195],"In contrast to the medical model, the social model emphasizes social change and removing barriers to inclusion.","The social model prioritizes social change and barrier removal, in contrast to the medical model","The social model focuses on social change and barrier removal, as opposed to the medical model","In comparison to the medical model, the social model emphasizes social change and barrier removal",[1197],"social model",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1199,"height":1199,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1200},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1199,"height":1199,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1202},"\u003Cg fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\">\u003Cpath d=\"M12.586 2.586A2 2 0 0 0 11.172 2H4a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v7.172a2 2 0 0 0 .586 1.414l8.704 8.704a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 3.42 0l6.58-6.58a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 0-3.42z\"/>\u003Ccircle cx=\"7.5\" cy=\"7.5\" r=\".5\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",1778179483748]