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inside",3,[36,108,178,237],{"id":37,"data":38,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":40},"2d207c38-420e-42bd-b23a-2f53e30043f9",{"type":25,"title":39},"The Complexity of the Human Brain",[41,69,83],{"id":42,"data":43,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":47},"4ae250b1-053a-4a34-ad84-701cca973fe2",{"type":21,"title":44,"markdownContent":45,"audioMediaId":46},"The most complex object in the known universe","Science recognizes that the 3 pounds of soft stuff sitting between our ears is likely to be **the most complex object in the known universe**. \n\nIn fact, our brain power is so vast that, according to a 2009 study, we are powered by some **86 billion neurons** – that’s approaching half the number of stars in the Milky Way.\n\n ![Graph](image://225495a6-de7e-4406-b99c-889d89209d43 \"Hippocrates\")\n\nEven 2500 years ago, Greek physician Hippocrates, the ‘Father of Medicine,’ argued with his intellectual peers that the mind resides in our heads, not in our hearts.\n\nAnd yet, until relatively recently, the internal workings of this mysterious organ remained unknown. The best we had were predictions based on how we react to external stimuli and behave in wide-ranging environments.\n\nAdvanced scientific techniques are starting to pull back the curtains, enabling us to peer in at the billions of neurons and begin to understand how they work together to provide complex rational and even irrational thoughts and explore our experience of life itself. \n\nWe are finally ready to seriously consider some of the answers to our biggest questions: **What is intelligence? Why do we behave as we do? And what is the nature of consciousness?**\n\n","7eff82f4-daef-4027-b438-81aea9837050",[48,58],{"id":49,"data":50,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"7783122a-9f64-463b-bd6a-1c314562625b",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":52,"clozeWords":54},11,[53],"2500 years ago, the Greek physician Hippocrates, who was also known as the Father of Medicine argued that the mind resides in our heads, not our hearts",[55,56,57],"Hippocrates","heads","hearts",{"id":59,"data":60,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"a476e10e-35e8-47b6-8597-62d2ec42bdd1",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":61,"multiChoiceCorrect":63,"multiChoiceIncorrect":65},[62],"How many Neurons do we have?",[64],"86 billion",[66,67,68],"86 million","86 trillion","86 thousand",{"id":70,"data":71,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":75},"d07304e7-2077-4062-b1af-3a159116e4be",{"type":21,"title":72,"markdownContent":73,"audioMediaId":74},"Why explore human cognition?","Cognitive science combines the best tools, ideas, and methods of linguists, philosophers, neuroscientists, computer scientists, and psychologists to explore the inner workings of the human mind and its connection with the environment.\n\n**Cognition** is central to the field, referring to the thinking involved in **perception, decision-making, learning, problem-solving, language, and emotional experience**. Cognitive science ultimately attempts to understand what it means to be human. \n\n ![Graph](image://b4fb747b-29e0-4ef2-8cd4-95d9cdc2014b \"Problem-solving is a key aspect of human cognition\")\n\nAnd, while it is fascinating and vital to the academic investigating the feeling of life itself, it is also of great importance for the rest of us. \n\nAfter all, exploring how and why our brain works as it does is central to medicine. Understanding human cognition offers valuable insights and the potential for developing treatments for mental illnesses such as depression and schizophrenia and neurodegenerative diseases that damage the cells and nervous system, including Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and motor neurone disease.\n\n **A healthy brain is crucial if we are to keep extending our life expectancy and live our best lives.**\n\n","3359697e-e9ef-47e0-b1f3-770925b2a479",[76],{"id":77,"data":78,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"fa9741ea-33d1-45a9-8366-1749d3d1f69d",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":79,"clozeWords":81},[80],"Cognitive science is the field that attempts to understand the inner workings of the human mind and its connection with its environment",[82],"Cognitive science",{"id":84,"data":85,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":89},"984c6dae-7afc-40e0-b65b-c738b0eeb141",{"type":21,"title":86,"markdownContent":87,"audioMediaId":88},"Cognitive techniques","How does science delve into the seemingly unknowable workings of the mind and approach the slippery subject of thought?\n\nAt one time, only philosophers posited what might be happening within our skulls; now, with an increasing focus on unraveling the mysteries of the brain and mind, new approaches, scientific methods, and theories are making giant leaps forward.\n\n ![Graph](image://107cd639-650f-486d-980f-3de292f7ad5a \"Understanding cognition could be the next step in evolving our understanding of mankind\")\n\n**Cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, and evolutionary psychologists** are working at the cutting edge of this wave of new research, attempting to understand our thinking, biases, and even mental disorders. \n\nTheir challenge is to learn more about our brain's internal processes, how we make sense of the overwhelming environmental stimuli available to us, and how we decide how to react and behave. \n\n**Cognitive psychologists observe our behavior** to understand the processes involved in attention, perception, memory, learning, problem-solving, and much more. Contrastingly, **cognitive neuroscientists rely on the latest brain-imaging techniques** to peer in at the once incomprehensible. Finally, we have **evolutionary psychologists, looking deep into our animal past** while comparing who we are now with our closest and most distant relatives.\n\n","d29aeb32-9c1a-4d74-b3b4-840966961077",[90,99],{"id":91,"data":92,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"8ba62227-6134-485e-8ce1-26dee397beb1",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":93,"activeRecallAnswers":95},[94],"Which three groups of people examine cognitive techniques?",[96,97,98],"Cognitive psychologists","Cognitive neuroscientists","Evolutionary psychologists",{"id":100,"data":101,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"ddf46459-9158-4ea1-abda-4a58528419a6",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":102,"clozeWords":104},[103],"While cognitive psychologists observe behaviour, cognitive neuroscientists examine the brain using imaging techniques and evolutionary psychologists look at our primate past to understand human cognition",[105,106,107],"psychologists","neuroscientists","evolutionary psychologists",{"id":109,"data":110,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":112},"5947c94d-9c1c-430b-bfdd-6a5412d75e7a",{"type":25,"title":111},"Cognitive Approaches and Techniques",[113,136,154],{"id":114,"data":115,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":119},"d58836eb-9245-4135-b273-26a8e5ea63cf",{"type":21,"title":116,"markdownContent":117,"audioMediaId":118},"Cognitive psychology","For much of cognitive psychology's relatively short history, researchers have identified with the **‘information processing approach'** – drawing analogies between the workings of the brain and the computer. \n\n ![Graph](image://35de85c7-baa9-46eb-b768-b81da12601c9 \"An AI-generated image: the information processing approach to cognitive science\")\n\nInternal cognitive processes spin away in the background in response to environmental stimuli or tasks presented in the psychologist’s lab (inputs), resulting in behaviors and responses (outputs).\n\nAnd yet, there is much more to it than that. As well as **‘bottom-up’ processing**, most problem-solving also involves a **‘top-down’ element**, engaging with the individual’s beliefs, knowledge, and expectations. \n\nMoreover, processes occur simultaneously, known as **‘parallel processing,’** rather than serially, in a series or sequence. And this happens more frequently when we are well-practiced, which is why learning to drive, and balancing multiple demands, is, at least initially, so tricky.\n\nWhile cognitive psychology has contributed significantly to understanding human cognition, it has also come under fire. \n\nAs much of the testing occurs in artificial environments such as labs, testing may lack **‘ecological validity’** – meaning that findings may not apply to real-world complexity.\n\n","70a1b216-f184-4bc6-ab60-f18d22ef3e37",[120,127],{"id":121,"data":122,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"38d78d81-3c40-42ed-86b1-a792a0b5f96e",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":123,"activeRecallAnswers":125},[124],"What is the term that means that lab findings are applicable to real world contexts?",[126],"Ecological validity",{"id":128,"data":129,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"40a64d13-ad60-4981-9dc7-0f79c631234a",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":130,"binaryCorrect":132,"binaryIncorrect":134},[131],"What does the human brain use, unlike early designs for computers?",[133],"Parallel processing",[135],"Serial processing",{"id":137,"data":138,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":142},"ad6ef54a-5f71-4564-a9d6-c00364656cf9",{"type":21,"title":139,"markdownContent":140,"audioMediaId":141},"Cognitive neuropsychology","Cognitive neuropsychology involves examining the patterns of cognitive performance and deficits faced by brain-damaged patients. Its results are prized, telling us much about what we typically consider ‘normal’ human cognition. \n\nIn fact, during the 1970s, extensive research into a head trauma patient, referred to as ‘KF’ to preserve their anonymity, who had a severely reduced short-term memory yet intact long-term memory, significantly challenged existing theories of human memory.\n\n ![Graph](image://a0e31422-0942-4e61-8c2f-114402aea8f0 \"Patients with head trauma have been very useful in studies of human cognition\")\n\nFindings suggested that **the brain had a degree of modularity**. Some cognitive systems appeared to operate relatively independently, providing **domain-specific functions**, meaning ones applicable to a single area of cognition, such as face recognition. \n\nDamage to such an area of the brain can lead to an inability to recognize individuals while still leaving object recognition relatively intact. This means we can reasonably assume that recognizing faces and objects happens in different and distinct parts of the brain.\n\nAnd yet, that's not the whole story. **Neuroimaging also suggests a high degree of connectivity**, supporting the idea of **parallel processing**, neurons firing at the same time, rather than serial processing, one after another. \n\nUndoubtedly, cognitive neuropsychology continues to shape our understanding of the workings of the mind, particularly specialist functions such as memory, language, and problem-solving, and yet must account for the flexibility and extensive interactions throughout the brain.\n\n","209da8a6-c5df-4391-a4a2-555ddc375e70",[143],{"id":144,"data":145,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"793d2dde-d306-4cf8-ab2d-9e6b9b6409b7",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":146,"multiChoiceCorrect":148,"multiChoiceIncorrect":150},[147],"What is the name for a cognitive system that runs relatively independently in one part of the brain?",[149],"Domain Specific Function",[151,152,153],"Realm Based Processing","Acute Zonal Cognition","Independent Information Distillation",{"id":155,"data":156,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":160},"d6b72298-8287-40ad-acbd-d71b7df730d5",{"type":21,"title":157,"markdownContent":158,"audioMediaId":159},"Cognitive neuroscience","**86 billion interconnected neurons** are spread throughout the brain – that’s unimaginable. Cognitive neuroscience attempts to understand the brain in action by imaging small areas of tightly clustered connections between such neurons, known as ‘**modules**,’ and between regions with vast numbers of connections to other regions, known as ‘**hubs**.’\n\n ![Graph](image://d787b5d9-7b5b-459a-ae69-f38d3dfd58fc \"AI-generated image: '86 billion interconnected neurons'\")\n\nBy asking subjects to perform various tasks while imaging the brain, it is possible to determine the areas that become active and the order in which they occur. \n\nWith multiple techniques available, including '**positron emission tomography**' to track radioactively labeled tracers injected into the body and '**functional magnetic resonance imaging**' to trace tiny changes in blood flow, the cognitive neuroscientist can provide detailed accounts of brain functioning and more general activity.\n\nImaging methods are wide-ranging and imaginative. '**Electroencephalography**' includes attaching electrodes to the scalp to measure tiny changes in electrical activity in the brain. \n\nAt the same time, '**transcranial magnetic stimulation**' is more radical, placing a small coil onto the scalp, delivering a magnetic pulse of current, and observing the inhibited processing that results. As a result, we are able to find out which areas of the brain certain bits of thinking happen in. \n\n","9c74b086-0993-4e73-80ee-fc7b698e0b53",[161,170],{"id":162,"data":163,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"d3e5f70b-cfc5-4665-b1f3-2b063a903b6d",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":164,"activeRecallAnswers":166},[165],"What are three different methods for brain imaging?",[167,168,169],"Positron emission tomography","Functional magnetic resonance imaging","Electroencephalography",{"id":171,"data":172,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"ef46b21e-d907-4e63-ae5e-bcb7e4ff5cae",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":173,"clozeWords":175},[174],"Cognitive neuroscience attempts to understand the brain by imaging small areas of tightly clustered connections between neurons, known as modules and between regions with vast numbers, known as hubs",[176,177],"modules","hubs",{"id":179,"data":180,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":182},"c664a4c8-3f09-4056-91c3-cee6748c2049",{"type":25,"title":181},"Computational and Cognitive Neuroscience",[183,207,223],{"id":184,"data":185,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":189},"8e70af27-a5f0-45c5-a578-dc1df38197ad",{"type":21,"title":186,"markdownContent":187,"audioMediaId":188},"Computational neuroscience","**Artificial intelligence** aims to produce intelligent outcomes from computer systems that may not resemble the human brain – modeling the ‘what,’ not the ‘how.’ \n\nComputational neuroscience also uses computers, but attempts to model the **‘what’ and the ‘how’** of the brain’s workings to better understand human cognition. They are both **descriptive and predictive** and offer powerful modeling tools for checking for imprecise terms and hidden assumptions in cognitive theories.\n\n**Often computational models are domain-specific**, meaning that they are only applicable to certain cognitive functions, such as the ability to read aloud, yet some, ambitiously, attempt more general architectures that can be applied widely.\n\nWhile there are many models, **connectionist** models are the most popular. They consist of **interconnected networks of simple units aiming to emulate cognitive performance without explicitly defining rules**.\n\n ![Graph](image://1ecdb8f5-bbb4-4701-afc9-77cdf630eea4 \"AI illustration of a connectionist model of a neural network\")\n\nSuch artificial neural networks typically involve input, representational, and output layers, and are used to model aspects of human cognition such as perception, learning, and memory.\n\nOther approaches for modeling human thinking, known as **‘production’ systems**, are more explicit, capturing decisions and choices through a series of ‘if … then’ statements. \n\nIndeed, human thinking can often be thought of as a series of productions. \"If I cross the road now, I can get across before the car reaches me.\" And yet, the approach caters less well to much of our intuitive thinking, where decisions are implicit rather than explicit.\n\n","f386b46c-8705-4d20-b2bf-874cc2d3854f",[190,199],{"id":191,"data":192,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"78376b7a-ed9b-4db8-99f9-b9b0e6978423",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":193,"binaryCorrect":195,"binaryIncorrect":197},[194],"Which approach to computational neuroscience is more popular?",[196],"Connectionist Models",[198],"Production Systems",{"id":200,"data":201,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"ecaf0a0a-31c5-49fc-8faf-cc5a4c7468f2",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":202,"clozeWords":204},[203],"While artificial intelligence aims to model what the brain produces, computational neuroscience tries to model how the brain does it",[205,206],"produces","does it",{"id":208,"data":209,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":213},"c585b9ba-4e5e-492e-988c-428d4df3be0b",{"type":21,"title":210,"markdownContent":211,"audioMediaId":212},"What are the challenges?","Understanding and modeling the brain is far from straightforward. Indeed, with an estimated **100 trillion connections** and a set of explorative tools that will one day seem archaic and elementary, the challenge may seem insurmountable.\n\nAnd yet, by observing brain activity, studies have even been able to identify which objects participants are looking at with a reasonable degree of accuracy. However, such research has been performed with limited stimuli and could in no way be described as 'mind-reading.'\n\n ![Graph](image://49fa4ef3-6b27-4ce3-b2f4-7b781c0493b6 \"Neural imaging currently works by identifying the brain areas that are active under different stimuli\")\n\nWe must also remain cautious in mapping individual brain areas to specific cognitive processes or even down to individual beliefs and factual knowledge. Sometimes referred to, unflatteringly so, as ‘blobology’ due to degrees of localized activity being pictured as blobs of color based on statistical significance – increasing from red, to orange, and then white. \n\nAnd yet, **there is unlikely to be one single region** involved in jealousy or a small set of discrete neurons holding the date of our loved one’s birthday due to their interrelationships with other thoughts, memories, and beliefs. This is reflected in findings of different labs identifying differing blobs of activity based on the nature of their testing procedures.\n\nWhile each approach to understanding human cognition makes its own distinctive contribution, they all have limitations. Yet, comparing findings from each and combining techniques will undoubtedly continue to lead to new, previously obscured understandings. \n\n\n","8ac800ab-9f88-4a93-96fd-55a9e660888f",[214],{"id":215,"data":216,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"be695c01-65df-4043-a3d8-5ff176e9de16",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":217,"binaryCorrect":219,"binaryIncorrect":221},[218],"Is it easy to map individual brain areas to specific cognitive processes?",[220],"No",[222],"Yes",{"id":224,"data":225,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":229},"38e520cd-d82e-4e43-bbd2-4e549ca3e852",{"type":21,"title":226,"markdownContent":227,"audioMediaId":228},"The mechanical brain?","**There is much we still have to learn about the brain**. When American boxer Julian Jackson swung a powerful right hook at Englishman Herol Graham in 1990, in a battle for the WBC world middleweight title in Spain, it connected with his head, leaving him unconscious before he had even hit the ground.\n\n ![Graph](image://7eb92478-5be7-4621-98e3-5d40edefa95e \"AI-generated image - 'The mechanical brain'\")\n\nAnd yet, why should a primal, mechanical act have such a grave impact on the electrical or biochemical signals of the brain? According to brain researcher William Tyler at Arizona State University, **neurons may be hooked up in a ‘mechanical network,’** like cogs in an antique watch. \n\nAnd Tyler is not alone. Other researchers are confirming that it’s not only chemicals and electricity that allow brain cells to communicate; it appears mechanical forces also have a part to play.\n\nWhile seemingly at odds with conventional thinking, it may explain the reasons behind certain types of brain injury and why Graham’s gears may have been knocked out of alignment, and even suggest possible non-invasive treatments, such as soundwave therapy involving the stimulation of the brain using acoustics. Researchers are currently exploring ways of using such knowledge to treat chronic pain. \n\n","4d693e95-1a56-4d62-aabf-75f1773f550c",[230],{"id":231,"data":232,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"bbbcc317-e663-4c34-b775-a2ab9ee0631e",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":233,"clozeWords":235},[234],"According to William Tyler, neurons are hooked up in a mechanical network, like cogs in an antique watch",[236],"mechanical",{"id":238,"data":239,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":241},"79befaf8-a334-4c63-bdf7-29c422e63a3a",{"type":25,"title":240},"Brain Mapping and Inner Chatter",[242,260],{"id":243,"data":244,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":248},"e997572d-07ef-4fac-863c-98a733efd6ef",{"type":21,"title":245,"markdownContent":246,"audioMediaId":247},"Inner chatter","**Not all brain research involves advanced imaging techniques or observing people as they solve complex problems**. Sometimes, it can simply be listening to people talk, revealing their inner voice. After all, don't we all experience ‘chatter' – the silent conversations we have with ourselves?\n\nAnd it’s important, because, according to experimental psychologist and neuroscientist Ethan Kross, **chatter is often made up of cyclical negative thoughts that jeopardize our performance**. It is, therefore, vital to understand this inner speech and how it shapes our thinking and decision-making.\n\nBut how do we know what’s happening in other people's heads? One approach is simply to ask them. However, their answers are often given with the benefit of hindsight, commenting on what they remember saying to themselves after something happened. This might not always accurately represent what people are actually thinking. \n\nAs a result, our preferred method of finding out what’s going on in someone’s head is to train participants to give detailed descriptions of their inner dialogue in response to a reminder, such as a beep from a watch or phone.\n\nOther insights, such as how the conversations in our heads help or hinder our self-confidence, may come from those rare people who hear no inner voice at all or by attempting to limit 'normal' chatter using meditation.\n","7e51bc94-32fb-487d-bd26-05a01b100a27",[249],{"id":250,"data":251,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"5ae6748b-ceee-4440-a7a2-85c91eab4cfd",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":252,"multiChoiceCorrect":254,"multiChoiceIncorrect":256},[253],"Who said that chatter is often made up of cyclical negative thoughts that jeopardize our performance?",[255],"Ethan Kross",[257,258,259],"William Tyler","Julian Jackson","Herol Graham",{"id":261,"data":262,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":266},"2298d35b-e53b-4352-be9f-b6007ded2025",{"type":21,"title":263,"markdownContent":264,"audioMediaId":265},"Building a map of the brain","The **Human Connectome Project** was launched in 2009 with $40 million of funding and an audacious goal. It aims to build a **functional and anatomical map of the human brain** and create a body of data that will shed light on brain disorders, including dyslexia, Alzheimer’s, schizophrenia, and autism.\n\n ![Graph](image://5c943cf9-373e-400e-a63b-9e1f8111ca0f \"An early iteration of the Human Connectome Project\")\n\nSince then, it has carried out brain scans on thousands of volunteers – their results stored in a vast, searchable database. A mathematical approach known as ‘**graph theory,**’ used successfully in exploring the impact of social media and the spread of infectious diseases, breaks the brain images down into networks made up of dots and lines – known as ‘**nodes**’ and ‘**edges**.’\n\nIn 2016, the data helped researchers identify **180 previously unmapped brain areas**, building a more complete picture of cognition and opening a new window into how the brain works. So far, findings point to cross-talk between areas once thought to work separately and, perhaps surprisingly, the importance of ‘holes’ in networks for avoiding us getting confused by multiple sensory inputs. \n\n","d5a6b2a1-3ca4-421d-951c-9a674b39f4f7",[267,276],{"id":268,"data":269,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"8c27b569-4ead-4b69-a531-ace9d3a7c75d",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":270,"clozeWords":272},[271],"Graph Theory is the mathematical approach being used to map the 180 previously unmapped areas of the brain and has shown us that there is cross-talk between areas previously thought to work independently.",[273,274,275],"Graph Theory","180","cross-talk",{"id":277,"data":278,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"a883caad-c0e8-4fc9-a045-61cf3a3d92dc",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":279,"activeRecallAnswers":281},[280],"What is the name of the project aimed at building an anatomical map of the brain and when did it launch?",[282,283],"Human Connectome Project","2009",{"id":285,"data":286,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":289},"66cebd28-a787-4158-b2b3-22f70209087e",{"type":26,"title":287,"tagline":288},"The Background to Human Intelligence","Human cognition has a history as long as humanity itself and has been vital for its success",[290,369,441],{"id":291,"data":292,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":294},"e1b230e7-1255-4b7f-8774-b503d9c5ac68",{"type":25,"title":293},"A camping trip that lasted a lifetime",[295,317,342],{"id":296,"data":297,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":300},"4c63ff35-bd0c-46d2-991d-51d790726408",{"type":21,"title":293,"markdownContent":298,"audioMediaId":299},"According to evolutionary psychologists **Leda Cosmides** and **John Tooby**, “Our hunter-gatherer ancestors were, in effect, on a camping trip that lasted a lifetime,” solving many different kinds of problems well to survive and reproduce.\n\n ![Graph](image://221028f4-e972-4ccd-990f-a297c3ca2967 \"A huge amount of our cognition has been shaped by the necessities of hunter-gatherers\")\n\nAs a result, they evolved physically and mentally to survive harsh conditions and take on the sorts of problems they were likely to be confronted with. The implications are that we are not born with ‘blank slates’ virtually free of mental content but that **we arrive evolutionarily-equipped with a selection of advanced information processing systems**. \n\nAfter all, evolutionary psychologists see the brain as made up of evolved computational systems shaped by natural selection to respond to the environment with appropriate behavioral and physiological responses.\n\n\nSuch a view suggests multiple specialized adaptations equipped with context-rich representations and systems organized in such a way as to make sense and solve the problems of our hunter-gatherer ancestors.\n","77dcd50a-a96f-4b55-bafb-ef9e58666645",[301,308],{"id":302,"data":303,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"0ab4b421-f804-4ec1-b3d1-d02f76b8a2ef",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":304,"clozeWords":306},[305],"The assumption of evolutionary psychology is that we are born with advanced information processing systems",[307],"evolutionary psychology",{"id":309,"data":310,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"57cdaff4-45f1-49ac-a496-83ae7f06e6d6",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":311,"binaryCorrect":313,"binaryIncorrect":315},[312],"What shaped the human mind as we know it today?",[314],"Our ancient ancestors",[316],"The baby boomers",{"id":318,"data":319,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":323},"01cf98bf-a650-4115-b597-14bf5b117830",{"type":21,"title":320,"markdownContent":321,"audioMediaId":322},"The mind-body distinction?","There was a time when almost everyone considered the brain and the mind to be distinct. Indeed, philosopher René Descartes, a crucial player during the scientific reinvention that followed the Middle Ages known as the Renaissance, believed the mind was something immaterial – made of ‘thinking stuff’ very unlike the brain. Fundamentally, he believed that the physical and the mental were separate and unlinked.\n\n ![Graph](image://0686b55e-b5ba-4308-9fde-654132160ec2 \"René Descartes\")\n\nMost scientists and psychologists now reject the notion that 2 fundamentally different substances are involved in our thinking. Instead, as ‘**materialists**,’ we accept that **our cognition results from matter and material processes**. \n\nFor some, such as cognitive scientist Steven Pinker, the ‘mind is what the brain does’ or perhaps more circular, the ‘mind is how the brain appears to itself.’\n \nThe result of recognizing that **there are no unique ‘mind processes’** is that we can explore thinking as part of the scientific method of investigating and understanding the brain and how it works.\n\n","fcc0dbb2-ed52-4408-a82e-b3be5b8909dd",[324,331],{"id":325,"data":326,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"0aea5344-e5dd-4ea5-a34e-e8e760241579",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":327,"activeRecallAnswers":329},[328],"Which French Philosopher, who was also responsible for saying \"I think, therefore I am\", made the distinguishment between the mind and the brain?",[330],"René Descartes\n",{"id":332,"data":333,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"f30141fd-108a-465b-99a1-0e16da5ef046",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":334,"multiChoiceCorrect":336,"multiChoiceIncorrect":338},[335],"Which philosophers believe that the mind and the brain are the same thing?",[337],"Materialists",[339,340,341],"Ephemeralists","Transcendentalists","Mergists",{"id":343,"data":344,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":348},"397c5a62-5798-43f3-8d98-ffe5185265e6",{"type":21,"title":345,"markdownContent":346,"audioMediaId":347},"Evolving such a powerful organ","Understanding human cognition almost demands that we take a step back and ask, ‘Why do we have brains?’ and ‘What are they for?’ But as Ukrainian-American geneticist **Theodosius Dobzhansky** famously said, “Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.”\n\n ![Graph](image://a9f8cce8-3f4a-47e7-8755-7d97be0f0152 \"Theodisius Dobzhansky\")\n\nThe brain has evolved as an organ, tripling in size over the past few million years, for decision-making, reasoning, perception, memory, and so much more. Our ancestors tracking kudu across the great African plains had to communicate with one another, solve problems, remember locations, and plan how to acquire their next meal.\n\nYet, **such a powerful organ has a cost**– the brain consumes somewhere between 20 and 25% of the body’s calories. Evolution had to balance the tradeoff between a powerful but power-hungry piece of mental kit and survival. This may explain, at least in part, why we are such good problem solvers but also why our mind sometimes fails us.\n\n","bf516ac3-afaf-45a3-a848-c8c606c39889",[349,360],{"id":350,"data":351,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"7478a8a7-4d17-4339-81ff-eec58ea55fe0",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":352,"multiChoiceCorrect":354,"multiChoiceIncorrect":356},[353],"By what scale factor has the brain increased in size over the past few million years?",[355],"3",[357,358,359],"1","9","27",{"id":361,"data":362,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"9cc09f5d-c69d-4d53-9087-bb4543820e84",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":363,"binaryCorrect":365,"binaryIncorrect":367},[364],"What percentage of the body's calories does the brain consume?",[366],"20-25%",[368],"5-10%",{"id":370,"data":371,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":372},"8068aa2e-eca7-49b4-a4c0-985456668a0d",{"type":25,"title":320},[373,389,403,419],{"id":374,"data":375,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":379},"67a4909f-504e-48e1-a222-132563d9a7b8",{"type":21,"title":376,"markdownContent":377,"audioMediaId":378},"What is intelligence?","Researchers describe general intelligence as being good at a range of skills involving cognition, such as **planning, reasoning, and learning how to solve problems**. If you are good at one, you tend to be good at all of them.\n\nEven being able to regulate and recognize our own and others’ emotions, known as ‘**emotional intelligence**,’ is considered a mixture of general intelligence and personality. And creativity, perhaps surprisingly, is no different – it requires intelligence to take raw input and turn it into something novel.\n\n ![Graph](image://b3dfaca6-2f3c-44d0-8bed-31610203ffe6 \"An AI illustration: 'A manager chooses to use their emotional intelligence\")\n\nWhile we all wish for an easy fix when it comes to becoming more clever, it’s not that easy. Unless you’ve signed up to Kinnu, of course!\n\nAfter all, studies suggesting that listening to classical music helps learning (known as the ‘Mozart effect’) are not easily replicated, and brain training systems often don’t deliver on their promises of easy learning. \n\nRather, the intervention most consistently linked to intelligence is an obvious one – education. Reading, studying, arithmetic, and acquiring new knowledge improves our concentration and benefits abstract thinking – and yes, Kinnu covers pretty much of all of them.\n","022a8512-1f6f-4565-925b-29c7b33ede5d",[380],{"id":381,"data":382,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"b902f4b7-9435-4d66-9e5e-e2e7c3cc1472",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":383,"activeRecallAnswers":385},[384],"What are the three skills associated with general intelligence in humans?",[386,387,388],"Planning","Reasoning","Problem Solving",{"id":390,"data":391,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":395},"9e5b6129-33af-4a69-9136-847cc955c229",{"type":21,"title":392,"markdownContent":393,"audioMediaId":394},"The importance of finding food","**Cognition, it seems, would have been paramount to our ancestors’ survival** and, therefore, the continuation of our species. After all, as Charles Darwin recognized, to reproduce, organisms must first survive.\n\nOne crucial adaptation was our ability to find food – the fuel necessary to keep our body healthy and acquire the energy needed to persist at living. The absence of food and water not only curtails an individual’s life but also constrains the group and species they belong to.\n\nThe need for sharing knowledge of hunting and food gathering, working together to return it to camp, and sharing out the bounty amongst the tribe would have driven cognitive complexity to ensure ever more advanced levels of communication. \n\nIndeed, the division of labor among traditional societies can, in part, be explained by the acts of both hunting and gathering and appear underpinned by cognitive complexity. The challenge of finding food may have caused humans to have the most advanced communication systems of any animal.\n\n","a0e5aadc-b6c6-4725-a524-d5488b3511bb",[396],{"id":397,"data":398,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"05b0344e-e55d-4a26-baa2-93740f30fa85",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":399,"clozeWords":401},[400],"The need for sharing knowledge of hunting and food gathering, as well as returning it to camp and sharing it drove cognitive complexity to ensure more advanced levels of communication",[402],"cognitive complexity",{"id":404,"data":405,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":409},"624ad85e-0027-4287-bfbe-9e4be73c4253",{"type":21,"title":406,"markdownContent":407,"audioMediaId":408},"A safe place to lie","On a modern camping trip, we typically know where we will stay. But imagine a camping trip that does not end, and where there is no option to jump in an air-conditioned car when it gets too wet or too hot.\n\nEarly humans needed to find somewhere to rest at the end of each day, protected from wild animals and other tribes, close to water and food, and yet away from environmental hazards like floods or cliff edges.\nThe ‘Savanna hypothesis’ suggests that selective evolutionary processes working on our brain would have favored preferences, motivations, and decisions, facilitating and encouraging us to settle in environments abundant with resources necessary to sustain life.\n\nSuch a theory may go some way to explain why countless studies have shown our present day preference for natural, seemingly safe, resource-rich environments when confronted with a selection of photos to choose from.\n","d4a5373e-8ff3-49e9-b510-62af2dca9d69",[410],{"id":411,"data":412,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"30db7218-5b53-4204-8b5e-6aee9ebf05c6",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":413,"binaryCorrect":415,"binaryIncorrect":417},[414],"Which hypothesis suggests that our brain favours settling in environments with abundant resources to sustain life?",[416],"The Savanna Hypothesis",[418],"The Pavlovian Dog Hypothesis",{"id":420,"data":421,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":425},"cba788df-cd93-472e-b7a3-3ce28bbed838",{"type":21,"title":422,"markdownContent":423,"audioMediaId":424},"Fear – a powerful bias","While the feelings associated with stress are often unwelcome, they are sometimes justified by the situations we find ourselves in or result from an inherited legacy of the dangers we, as a species, once faced daily.\n\n ![Graph](image://3e4f0b45-e43a-402a-bf7f-966ad7f8d781 \"A fox exhibits the 'fight or flight' response\")\n\nIndeed, **listening to our intuitive fears may often provide a valuable guide for assessing risks and directing our cognitive processing to avoid a threat**. While we are all aware of '**fight,**' '**flight,**' and '**freeze,**' there are other intuitive responses. \n\nThree further, often highly automatic, brain-led reactions include ‘**submit**’ where we yield to another, ‘**fright**,’ literally playing dead, and ‘**faint**’ losing consciousness – all of which can signal to a would-be attacker that we are not a threat.\n\nWhether under our conscious control or not, **brain processes kick in and offer protection when most needed**. The unwanted side effect is that they can introduce bias into our thinking, reasoning, and motivations that are no longer appropriate to the world in which we now live.\n\n\n\n","0dc19421-6066-46c9-b588-dc083ac2e9fd",[426,434],{"id":427,"data":428,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"7ee77119-1882-4221-8cac-cf9e9525e2cb",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":429,"clozeWords":431},[430],"Intuitive responses include 'submit', where we yield to another, and 'fright', where we play dead.",[432,433],"submit","fright",{"id":435,"data":436,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"83dd284a-b4fd-462b-acc2-c48f894443b7",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":437,"activeRecallAnswers":439},[438],"What are the six intuitive danger responses?",[440],"Fight, Flight, Freeze, Submit, Fright and Faint",{"id":442,"data":443,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":444},"e7973aa4-5dff-4028-9d73-2ccfc3d068dc",{"type":25,"title":392},[445,482,505],{"id":446,"data":447,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":451},"f37fc5e0-e22f-46a7-a910-cbce9d424265",{"type":21,"title":448,"markdownContent":449,"audioMediaId":450},"Is it all in the genes?","Research using twins confirms that approximately **50% of the intelligence difference between people is due to genetics.** Vast studies and powerful computers highlight the importance of our parents, our parents’ parents, and so on. \n\nAnd yet, while genes matter, so too do environmental factors, such as the quality of our children’s diets, how much time they spend exercising, whether they have access to good education, and the amount of time spent playing. And yet, the links are not always as clear as we would like because they involve several overlapping factors.\n\n ![Graph](image://17ee0ae4-dd50-4c31-a55e-0d3d0725968e \"AI-generated image: 'A brain training to get stronger'\")\n\n**The remaining 50% offers us opportunities to change our intelligence**. Indeed, increasing understanding of our ‘**neuroplasticity**’ within the scientific community confirms that, far from our brains staying fixed, we are born with potential. This means that we can surpass our genetic trajectory.\n\nAnd clearly, we must be doing something right. A 2015 study across 48 countries found that IQ scores resulting from standardized intelligence tests have increased since 1950 by a whopping 20 points. However, there is a flip side. It seems that, **as we age, our working memory drops**. And that's a problem because it helps us manipulate information and solve problems.\n\n","f2525578-1d94-4812-a864-c71f61138901",[452,460,471],{"id":453,"data":454,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"12f7c5b7-318d-439c-ae64-21d9ce65d87c",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":455,"clozeWords":457},[456],"A 2015 study across 48 countries found that IQ scores from standardized intelligence tests have increased since 1950 by a whopping 20 points",[458,459],"increased","1950",{"id":461,"data":462,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"5bed477f-0707-48ee-81aa-98978ffa1686",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":463,"multiChoiceCorrect":465,"multiChoiceIncorrect":467},[464],"What percentage of the difference in intelligence between people is genetic?",[466],"50%",[468,469,470],"0.1%","35%","95%",{"id":472,"data":473,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"bec3fc73-e683-43a0-94ed-347c7297dbb7",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":474,"multiChoiceCorrect":476,"multiChoiceIncorrect":478},[475],"What allows us to change our brain structures and potentials?",[477],"Neuroplasticity",[479,480,481],"Neuromutability","Neuroadaptability","Neuromorphing",{"id":483,"data":484,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":488},"d13caa97-77a3-40a0-bbec-36244678ff6f",{"type":21,"title":485,"markdownContent":486,"audioMediaId":487},"How we evolved extraordinary human intelligence","Our brains are enormous relative to our body size – even when compared with our closest primate cousins. In turn, we have unparalleled capacities for abstract thinking, visualizing, learning, and problem-solving.\n\n ![Graph](image://7e994934-9cba-4e36-ab47-98708b664a5c \"A modern human brain compared to our ancestors\")\n\nBut **why did we evolve such extraordinary human intelligence?** The **‘Ecological Dominance/Social Competition**’ (EDSC) hypothesis suggests it came into being to combat the hostile forces of nature faced by our distant relatives – and ultimately help ensure their survival.\n\nThe theory recognizes the incredible value of living in social groups and the importance of forming coalitions, detecting deception, and even dishing out punishment. Relationships essential for hunting trips, along with the underlying psychological adaptations, would also have been valuable in securing support for fighting and warfare.\n\nSuch a social hypothesis also predicts the need for greater intelligence as living groups become more extensive and population density increases. Surveys of early human skulls and analysis of archaeological evidence of increasing population sizes appear to show an increase in brain volume associated with larger groups living together.\n\n","1ed9c911-526a-47a0-b3a1-f34f0c30343a",[489,496],{"id":490,"data":491,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"1e17e2e8-b790-40c3-8c9b-fd43f6b705c3",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":492,"activeRecallAnswers":494},[493],"What hypothesis says that human intelligence was developed in response to hostile forces in nature and from other people?",[495],"Ecological Dominance Social Competition Hypothesis",{"id":497,"data":498,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"f6f1a06e-5370-4db8-ace1-8cf3e9eb93e2",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":499,"clozeWords":501},[500],"The EDSC hypothesis recognises that forming coalitions, detecting deception and dishing out punishment are key parts of human survival",[502,503,504],"coalitions","deception","punishment",{"id":506,"data":507,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":511},"ae672aac-2099-4769-ad6b-e7e12d594de1",{"type":21,"title":508,"markdownContent":509,"audioMediaId":510},"Ingenuity may place increasing general intelligence at risk","Human cognition and creativity are not without risk. Indeed, **Linda Gottfredson** calls out that the invention of tools such as fire, weapons, and even canoes created novel hazards for our ancestors. \n\nAccording to Gottfredson’s ‘**deadly innovations hypothesis**,’ while such development may have offered dominance over the environment, they increased the risk of injury and premature death, creating additional selection pressures for the evolution of general intelligence.\n\nAccording to what’s been called ‘**double jeopardy**,’ the less intelligent are at greater risk of dying when using such tools. Subsequently, their children have increased mortality due to their parents' inability to offer protection.\n\nEmpirical support has added weight to this argument. One such study identified that **each additional IQ point leads to a 1% reduction in the relative risk of death**. In our modern, technologically advanced world, those with lower scores on intelligence tests are more likely to die from falling objects, knives, bicycles, and explosions.\n\nIt seems that, **while innovation brings with it many benefits to the individual and the group, it also introduces new dangers**.\n","89151cfb-fae5-4cd6-a9e2-57064d1fdf55",[512],{"id":513,"data":514,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"d08504aa-6615-46c6-a872-caf849c7fcb4",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":515,"activeRecallAnswers":517},[516],"Whose hypothesis states that human development creates additional selection processes? What is that hypothesis called?",[518,519],"Linda Gottfredson","Deadly Innovations Hypothesis",{"id":521,"data":522,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":525},"fbac01af-f181-4444-865e-f430b5b4fedf",{"type":26,"title":523,"tagline":524},"Human Visual Processing ","The brain’s ability to make sense of what you see and the environment in which we live",[526,610,668],{"id":527,"data":528,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":530},"16f2bb1b-1287-42e3-bb83-9d8e4221de7b",{"type":25,"title":529},"Visual Perception and the Brain",[531,556,577,592],{"id":532,"data":533,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":537},"942ccb1c-2fef-4e1e-a4af-f66d547a8caa",{"type":21,"title":534,"markdownContent":535,"audioMediaId":536},"The importance of visual perception","While technology often provides support to those experiencing visual impairment, **we should not underestimate the importance of visual processing**. \n\nNot only does it ensure our survival when performing risky activities such as crossing roads, but it also allows us to navigate with apparent ease day-to-day activities such as spotting a dropped pencil and turning to the page we want in a book.\n\n ![Graph](image://36ac23fc-2176-441d-b06b-88d2a89585f4 \"The occipital lobes are found at the back of the brain\")\n\nPerhaps unsurprisingly, **the value attributed to visual processing is evidenced in the architecture of the brain**, particularly the **occipital lobes**, part of the cerebral cortex found at the rear of the skull. Indeed, more of the brain is dedicated to vision than any other sensory modality and, therefore, warrants a high degree of scientific attention.\n\nIn turn, considerable cognitive research now attempts to uncover the potential and the constraints involved in everything from object recognition, face recognition, and depth perception to even, fascinatingly, perception without awareness – where a stimulus is strong enough to perceive, potentially impacting someone's behavior, and yet they report no knowledge of it.\n\n","aeb419cd-94df-4683-ad2f-b9efc975dda8",[538,545],{"id":539,"data":540,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"2e3082b2-bbda-4499-b677-6a8ad047240a",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":541,"activeRecallAnswers":543},[542],"What is our ability to see and understand our surroundings called?",[544],"Visual Processing",{"id":546,"data":547,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"a6324aea-09b1-4ec1-8ce2-4474d286b431",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":548,"multiChoiceCorrect":550,"multiChoiceIncorrect":552},[549],"In which part of the brain do occipital lobes conduct central processing?",[551],"Cerebral Cortex",[553,554,555],"Frontal Lobe","Temporal Lobe","Gustatory Cortex",{"id":557,"data":558,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":562},"e3f40e6b-21b5-4cb7-8849-58406ce6935b",{"type":21,"title":559,"markdownContent":560,"audioMediaId":561},"Visual perception and the brain","**Vision starts with the eye**. The **optic nerve** takes signals from the back of the eye to the back of brain, and, from there, impulses spread out to nearby regions. \n\nMuch of the rear of the brain is dedicated to visual perception – this includes all of the **occipital cortex** at the very back of the brain while extending into both the temporal and parietal lobes to the side and top.\n\n ![Graph](image://e2f0e4f5-f37a-40ad-badb-2f2bcc746424 \"The optic nerves\")\n\nThe '**functional specialization theory**' of visual processing argues that multiple areas of the brain are engaged in tackling the ‘problem’ of visual processing – each one performing a dedicated function. For example, a red ball, when being caught, is typically recognized as having color, form, and motion. All of these attributes may be processed in physically separate parts of the brain.\n\nAnd yet, evidence from patients experiencing head trauma and damage to specific brain regions appears conflicting. Those with damage to the area of the brain known as V4, believed to be dedicated to color processing, seem to lose some but not all color perception, while form and motion are left unaffected. There may be more connectivity in visual processing than first thought.\n","4c9d1ed5-4392-4baa-831c-16850d3ce23d",[563,570],{"id":564,"data":565,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"1c69e629-4cdb-4b1d-8068-2f91fdb71218",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":566,"activeRecallAnswers":568},[567],"Which theory suggests that multiple areas of the brain are involved in different aspects of a single act of visual processing?",[569],"Functional Specialization Theory",{"id":571,"data":572,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"3a7e9ce1-4c79-49fd-84d0-eefc8f74be04",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":573,"clozeWords":575},[574],"The optic nerve takes signals from the back of the eye to the back of the brain, and from there, impulses spread out to nearby regions",[576],"optic",{"id":578,"data":579,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":583},"bb77e759-c562-4999-970c-1182805218f3",{"type":21,"title":580,"markdownContent":581,"audioMediaId":582},"Damage to motion perception","Many of the objects we attempt to identify and interact with are in motion. Perhaps as a result, along with the importance of tracking humans and animals as they move, there appears to be dedicated visual processing separate from that which handles static objects.\n\nIndeed, in the case of a brain-damaged patient, they could see and identify individuals when they were not moving, yet, when in motion, they experienced what they saw as a series of ‘**freeze frames**.’ In comparison, another patient with an injury to a different part of the brain found it almost impossible not to bump into moving people.\n\nTherefore, it has been suggested that **there are 2 visual systems at play**.  The first may be ‘**vision-for-perception**,’ which helps us recognize what the object heading toward us is, and the other, ‘**vision-for-motion**,’ to calculate its **direction, orientation, and position**.\n","42a8c750-27ef-407b-95dd-45a4b094707d",[584],{"id":585,"data":586,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"0c04fcb0-a354-44d3-ac01-76f050aeb68a",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":587,"activeRecallAnswers":589},[588],"What are the two different visual systems which we have?",[590,591],"Vision for Perception","Vision for Motion",{"id":593,"data":594,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":598},"fc1e887a-356c-4817-a749-956b0f7ffb6a",{"type":21,"title":595,"markdownContent":596,"audioMediaId":597},"Visual illusions","While patients with head trauma offer a great deal of insight into the brain's inner workings, particularly regarding visual processing, there are other opportunities for gaining a deeper understanding.\n\nVisual illusions such as the **Müller-Lyer illusion**, where the arrow at the bottom seems longer than the one at the top despite being of the same length, show how easily our visual identification system can be fooled.\n\n![Graph](image://1331e06a-82ec-406a-849b-c3b790db194d \"The Muller-Lyer illusion\")\n\nFollow-up studies teaming illusions with rapid pointing appeared to engage visual movement processing systems, almost completely removing the effect of such illusions. \n\nAnd yet, the illusory effect seems to return when the subject is asked to reach out and grasp objects. **While research further strengthens the idea that there are 2 systems involved in visual processing, they may be less independent than first thought.**\n\n","4af3bda4-f9df-48d9-bff9-2253b231f7c4",[599],{"id":600,"data":601,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"2b8b8b82-f559-4d73-939d-26a93fb9f1e8",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":602,"multiChoiceCorrect":604,"multiChoiceIncorrect":606},[603],"What illusion contains double arrows to show how easily our visual identification system can be fooled?",[605],"Müller-Lyer",[607,608,609],"Muller-Abi","Muller-Thomas","Muller-Yoghurt",{"id":611,"data":612,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":614},"c9eba9b2-63ae-4c2b-9c7d-5436e6930c34",{"type":25,"title":613},"Depth and Motion Perception",[615,639,653],{"id":616,"data":617,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":621},"7ef3c395-e3f1-4e4e-a871-ff8c566c45b7",{"type":21,"title":618,"markdownContent":619,"audioMediaId":620},"Depth perception","Depth perception in visual processing is highly complex, involving taking a two-dimensional retinal image and perceiving it as three-dimensional.\n\n‘**Monocular cues**’ take information from a single eye and include texture, shading, and interposition – objects behind others appear farther away. ‘**Binocular cues**' take into account the slight disparity of the images from both eyes. \n\nAt the same time, ‘**oculomotor**’ information arises from the muscle contractions involved in the convergence of both eyes on an object and variations in optical power associated with the thickness of the lens to maintain focus.\n\nUltimately, these different sources of information are combined through complex cognitive processes and provide sufficient information to judge distance and depth. \n\nHowever, **there are times when one cue dominates another**, especially when they provide conflicting information. Observers, often unconsciously, soon learn which cues to favor in real life, unlike the often somewhat artificial environments found in lab tests.\n","2fb8e523-3150-4eb9-972c-cf73108ace0d",[622,631],{"id":623,"data":624,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"814c7302-49b1-47d8-b0a8-6f2bc1a0fdbe",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":625,"activeRecallAnswers":627},[626],"What three things do monocular cues take information from?",[628,629,630],"Texture","Shading","Interposition",{"id":632,"data":633,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"88930107-d752-4462-a263-c4e4ed453661",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":634,"clozeWords":636},[635],"While monocular cues take information from a single eye, binocular cues account for the disparity between them",[637,638],"monocular","binocular",{"id":640,"data":641,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":645},"31d02739-3ad4-41f1-9c66-ec1cb6bc407a",{"type":21,"title":642,"markdownContent":643,"audioMediaId":644},"Perception without awareness","**While ‘blindsight,’ where a sufferer responds to a visual stimulus without being consciously aware of it, may sound paradoxical, it is very real**. British soldiers in the First World War, with damage to their **primary visual cortex**, responded to objects in parts of their visual field while claiming they couldn’t see anything.\n\nMuch later, a patient referred to as ‘DB’ had part of their primary visual cortex removed to relieve severe migraines. While able to point to the approximate location of individual objects and identify those that were stationary rather than moving, he reported no conscious experience of what was in his ‘blind’ field.\n\nHowever, **investigating blindsight patients remains problematic** – we have no way of proving what people are or are not seeing. And yet, functional neuroimaging studies confirm that such individuals have activation predominantly, or even exclusively, in the ‘dorsal stream’, signifying non-conscious processing. Therefore, **the problem may result from a lack of 'conscious' awareness of visual stimuli**.\n","9b5be698-016a-4912-8b25-3a247ccd853a",[646],{"id":647,"data":648,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"6b4ed4b0-b1c4-4695-b0bd-ef4d4d459c61",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":649,"activeRecallAnswers":651},[650],"What is it called when a person responds to visual stimuli without being consciously aware of it?",[652],"Blindsight",{"id":654,"data":655,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":659},"fe1d45af-0760-4c9b-97ca-efafa11d406c",{"type":21,"title":656,"markdownContent":657,"audioMediaId":658},"Object recognition","Wherever we look, we see objects – it’s not only unavoidable but essential. And yet, despite appearing to be effortless for humans, attempts to code ‘perceiving’ computers have proved challenging.\n\nAfter all, many objects in the environment overlap, appear in various rotations, and belong to a wide variety of categories. **Early-stage processing in our visual system seems to rely on detecting an object's edges and basic features, potentially involving dedicated neurons to perform the processing**. \n\n ![Graph](image://bc242ebb-5126-4b2f-b1f0-e94b526afe02 \"Humans are adept at perceiving objects within a crowded field of vision\")\n\nSubsequent stages most likely incorporate depth and orientation of visible surfaces before ultimately constructing three-dimensional visual representations.\n\nIndeed, neurologist and physiologist **David Marr**’s suggestion that such a series of representations provides increasingly detailed information has inspired many computational models and ongoing research into human and computer vision.\n\n And yet, there may be even further complexity. **While combining low-level features, known as bottom-up processing, is vital, when visual information is incomplete, it is necessary to bring in real-world contextual knowledge, referred to as top-down processing.**\n\n","a4dff3fd-90fc-4994-a1d5-2f9c1476f1ac",[660],{"id":661,"data":662,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"f927f0a7-d67d-4aa8-b9c1-52901477ebb6",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":663,"clozeWords":665},[664],"David Marr believes that both high and low level processing is critical to human vision",[666,667],"high","low",{"id":669,"data":670,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":672},"5e32353c-a2e7-4790-8af9-66a9bc1fd3e0",{"type":25,"title":671},"Object and Face Recognition",[673,698,713],{"id":674,"data":675,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":679},"695c9ac4-54ef-4a0f-9bc4-d61ee440edce",{"type":21,"title":676,"markdownContent":677,"audioMediaId":678},"Face recognition","Recognizing who we are talking to is a vital aspect of human communication. Just imagine what it would be like if you couldn’t identify your partner, children, parents, or co-workers.\n\nAnd yet, for some, it’s a genuine problem. Actor and comedian Stephen Fry admits to experiencing mild ‘**prosopagnosia**’ – sometimes referred to as ‘face blindness.’ It can leave him unable to recognize a colleague in a queue for coffee, having spent all morning with them. \n\n ![Graph](image://44e27e60-e95c-4c66-81a0-9f11d5098d64 \"Stephen Fry\")\n\nIt seems that **facial recognition is happening across multiple layers of brain activity, and typically without effort**. Yet for some, a process within the brain linked to late-stage facial recognition is either not triggered or unable to get the information needed. \n\nProsopagnosia may be more common than we think. A 2006 study identified that **almost 2.5% of school children and medical students** tested may have some degree of the condition. And yet, it often remains hidden, with sufferers relying on other cues, such as voice, body shape, hairstyle, and behavior, to identify the person standing before them.\n\n","93d000f3-4055-45ef-8a2a-89dc81622563",[680,691],{"id":681,"data":682,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"3a6db536-09f9-4d3c-a530-19e501c8d6d0",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":683,"multiChoiceCorrect":685,"multiChoiceIncorrect":687},[684],"What percentage of school children suffer from prosopagnosia?",[686],"2.5%",[688,689,690],"0.025%","25%","0.25%",{"id":692,"data":693,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"f5d60359-864c-4a9c-8a12-6cd2525be2d4",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":694,"activeRecallAnswers":696},[695],"What is the alternative term for face blindness?",[697],"Prosopagnosia",{"id":699,"data":700,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":704},"1c15a20f-a7f3-4d4f-aff7-7fc97cef5bc5",{"type":21,"title":701,"markdownContent":702,"audioMediaId":703},"Not seeing what’s in front of us","**Visual processing is not simply about seeing; it involves perception**. Even if we ‘can’ see something, it doesn’t mean we will be aware of it.\n\nAn iconic study by researchers **Daniel Simons** and **Christopher Chabris** in 1999 involved participants being asked to count the number of passes between a group of basketball players in a specially staged video. \n\n ![Graph](image://f41e139a-aad6-43da-a593-cb5ccd4cf6b0 \"AI-generated image: a gorilla on the basketball court\")\n\n\nWhat they didn’t expect, and half of them didn’t see, was, at one point, someone dressed in a gorilla suit walk through the middle of the action.\n\nAnd it wasn’t a one-off; it’s been repeated in various guises. It seems that such **‘inattentional blindness’ is not uncommon and results from an evolved filtering system that helps our brain from being overwhelmed by stimuli**. \n\nSo, while we may comment on what we notice as being unusual in our environment, we may indeed remain unaware of all that we may have missed.\n\n","d40d72fc-e4a8-4f57-9b87-0be5cb7b5203",[705],{"id":706,"data":707,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"3c7f5fa5-e5fa-4928-9157-15d12c62bc2f",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":708,"activeRecallAnswers":710},[709],"Which two researchers conducted a study in which a gorilla crossed a basketball game?",[711,712],"Daniel Simons","Christopher Chabris",{"id":714,"data":715,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":719},"177f1f17-4280-42b9-8623-771e96329b0c",{"type":21,"title":716,"markdownContent":717,"audioMediaId":718},"Judging distance","Vision may be crucial to identify what and who we need to engage with in our environment, yet also facilitates our moving around. And it’s vital. Without it, there is nothing to stop us from stepping out in front of a cab heading down the street toward us as we are about to cross.\n\nAnd yet, calculating time to impact may not involve the complexity of estimating its distance from us and its speed. Professor **David Lee** suggests 'time to contact' may be judged based on the size of the image on our eye divided by its rate of expansion – known as its ‘tau.’\n\nIf this is correct, **it means our brains can work out our time to contact with any object from variables that are directly measurable by the eye**. However, it does not take speed changes and can be challenging with irregularly shaped objects.\n","99d15cb2-6697-48ed-986b-782f2cb93097",[720],{"id":721,"data":722,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"682dbfd3-7cf2-4ab7-ac89-93e3f8e242d0",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":723,"binaryCorrect":725,"binaryIncorrect":727},[724],"What is the name of the principle David Lee identifies to be central to judging distance?",[726],"Tau",[728],"Meow",{"id":730,"data":731,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":734},"c1fa2118-cdaf-40ce-87db-6091a8964de1",{"type":26,"title":732,"tagline":733},"Understanding Language","To fully comprehend what is being said, language processing takes place at multiple levels, breaking down both meaning and structure",[735,814,877],{"id":736,"data":737,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":739},"607feb8b-e348-4d84-8e25-6306c846591c",{"type":25,"title":738},"Animal Communication and Cognition",[740,754,777,791],{"id":741,"data":742,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":746},"0fbc6b08-2af3-4859-81b7-7e12aff179ba",{"type":21,"title":743,"markdownContent":744,"audioMediaId":745},"A talking ape","A bonobo great ape named Panbanisha was born in captivity in 1985 and spent her entire life receiving language training until she died in 2012. Using a specially designed keyboard consisting of 400 geometric patterns and a computer that translated them into a synthetic voice, she had a vocabulary of 3,000 words by age 14.\n\n ![Graph](image://e47cc7d2-5493-4eae-b698-60db6669fb51 \"Panbanisha the talking ape\")\n\nWhile she had little grammar, she was able to combine symbols to form simple sentences such as “Please can I have an iced coffee?” A later study on 3 great apes found they were able to talk about both the past and the present, with language skills comparable to a young child.\n\nAnimals, it seems, can acquire language, even human language, yet lack complexity or the ability to create novel sentences as we do. So, it leaves us with a question. If language is not unique to humans, **what ‘hardware’ within the brain and cognitive processes do we use to understand and produce such elaborate communications**? \n\n","abb9530c-e439-4442-856e-ab6a27df69c2",[747],{"id":748,"data":749,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"eae68ba9-0326-447f-9c47-ee76ddc825ce",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":750,"activeRecallAnswers":752},[751],"What was the name of the ape who could understand 3,000 words by age 14?",[753],"Panbanisha",{"id":755,"data":756,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":760},"cd81026f-9f9d-4830-9f90-0cb52af23376",{"type":21,"title":757,"markdownContent":758,"audioMediaId":759},"A ‘universal’ grammar","Language is incredibly complex, referring to objects, events, and people without clearly naming them and embedding clauses within sentences to generate seemingly endless and infinite variety. \n\nTake the following sentence, “The dog chased the cat.” It can be made more complex by adding extra detail, such as “The dog called Ralph chased the cat” or, indeed, “The dog called Ralph, who had narrowly missed the car, chased the ginger cat with the blue collar.”\n\n ![Graph](image://0b478228-769d-44b5-bb4f-dc7f7d416bdd \"Noam Chomsky\")\n\n**Noam Chomsky**’s original 1960s ‘**Universal Grammar**,’ suggesting an **innate set of grammatical rules common to all humans**, has been challenged and changed over time. However, being born with certain key features of language acquisition may explain how children, despite limited language exposure, are able to generate such complex and novel language constructs from an early age.\n\nHowever, **the jury is still out**. There are conflicting findings arising from ongoing research into the world’s 6,000 to 8,000 languages and whether there are universal features common to all.\n\n","775c32b1-252b-42db-ad84-1cde55c0a30d",[761,768],{"id":762,"data":763,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"3cc4411a-ac2a-4071-94ec-24e4f8639110",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":764,"clozeWords":766},[765],"Noam Chomsky's original 1960s 'Universal Grammar' suggested there is an innate set of grammatical rules common to all humans",[767],"Noam Chomsky",{"id":769,"data":770,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"b848a759-8980-4781-871c-649efb40c81c",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":771,"binaryCorrect":773,"binaryIncorrect":775},[772],"How many languages are there in the world?",[774],"6000-8000",[776],"600-800",{"id":778,"data":779,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":783},"0f4d434e-87d5-4673-bf49-a54b3693dc38",{"type":21,"title":780,"markdownContent":781,"audioMediaId":782},"Language and thought","While language comprehension and production are clearly vital for successful and complex communication, **language itself may also be an essential element of our cognition**. \n\nIndeed, in the George Orwell dystopian classic _Nineteen Eighty Four_, the invention of the language ‘Newspeak’ was intended to control and limit thought by removing unnecessary words and making it less expressive. \n\nThe imagined totalitarian government’s control of language was designed to prevent subjects from being able to verbalize rebellion or plan an uprising. \n\n ![Graph](image://4ae833aa-952c-478e-ab68-7c7f86819c59 \"George Orwell understood how powerfully language can shape cognition\")\n\nThe ‘**Whorfian hypothesis**’ suggests that how we think is influenced by the language we speak. Originally put forward by **Benjamin Lee Whorf** in 1956, the argument is that language differences result in thinking differences – or a more moderate form suggests it modifies certain aspects of cognition, including perception and memory.\n\nThere is some evidence to support such a hypothesis. Indeed, **research shows that our native language can impact performance on specific tasks**, including color discrimination and object categorization, and possibly may even influence our ability to remember something. \n\nAnd yet, while language may result in cognitive tendencies or preferences, there is little or no evidence to suggest that language ‘determines’ thinking.\n\n","c5c8b37c-46a8-4126-bb41-633704c496bc",[784],{"id":785,"data":786,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"fe94183a-b825-4b27-9dba-922c29a696f8",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":787,"activeRecallAnswers":789},[788],"What is the name of the language in the novel 1984 that has been designed specifically to eliminate dissent?",[790],"Newspeak",{"id":792,"data":793,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":797},"b5dbafb2-1780-40df-aa70-2781efc33f72",{"type":21,"title":794,"markdownContent":795,"audioMediaId":796},"Grammar","Grammar, or syntax, refers to the **set of rules belonging to a language**, offering the potential to create a seemingly infinite set of sentences. They can facilitate the creation of novel, complex, information-rich sentences – potentially having never been seen before.\n\nAnd yet the set of rules that form the grammar of a language can result in ambiguity.\n\nFor example, consider the sentence, “I saw the man with the telescope.” Was 'I' using the telescope to see the man? Or was I looking at the 'man' carrying the telescope?\n\n ![Graph](image://5e4c8055-d765-46cd-8ba6-632315c8b8cd \"Here we are looking at a man with a telescope\")\n\n‘**Prosodic cues**’ in spoken language can help – our use of **stress, rhythm, intonation**, and **word duration** can all provide clues to the intended meaning behind what was said. \n\nFurthermore, **the overall pattern of prosodic phrasing is an important, if not vital, aspect of language comprehension**. It offers clues to relationships between phrases and objects contained within the sentence and its overall message.\n\n","3192c677-2e18-4689-a0bf-69d419648226",[798,805],{"id":799,"data":800,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"2ed77f89-6ad9-4b1b-b0c6-596c8cf8a20b",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":801,"clozeWords":803},[802],"Grammar, or syntax, refers to the set of rules belonging to the language",[804],"syntax",{"id":806,"data":807,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"d91ee141-e57f-45c6-a205-a41acd717938",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":808,"binaryCorrect":810,"binaryIncorrect":812},[809],"What term is used for the clues that are provided through stress, rhythm, and intonation in spoken language?",[811],"Prosodic cues",[813],"Emphatic cues",{"id":815,"data":816,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":818},"e2311c49-96bc-4aca-903e-6aaecbe6a36a",{"type":25,"title":817},"Sentence Structure and Processing",[819,844,859],{"id":820,"data":821,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":825},"d0d36c85-227b-4561-9e17-1473a3937621",{"type":21,"title":822,"markdownContent":823,"audioMediaId":824},"Parsing up the garden path","Parsing is a crucial aspect of language comprehension, involving the analysis of the ‘**syntax**’, or structure of what is being read or listened to, and the ‘**semantics**,’ the meaning behind the words.\n\nThe timing and connection between them are vital. Yet, **theories differ**. Breaking down the structure of the sentence, or ‘syntactic analysis’, may precede or influence interpreting its meaning (semantic analysis), follow it, co-occur, or be integrated within the same process. Either way, **the relationship between sentence structure and meaning is an important one**.\n\nWhat’s known as the ‘**garden-path**’ model has been put forward to explain why sentences such as “The horse raced past the barn fell” are so hard to understand. \n\nIt could be that we initially only consider one syntactic structure and that it is usually the simplest, or that we attach new words as we encounter them to the current phrase or clause if grammatically possible.\n\nThis model is in line with findings of some brain-damaged patients, confirming that syntactic analysis sometimes occurs in the absence of semantic information.\n","7f9574bc-8bce-40e9-ab70-7c68a97e988e",[826,833],{"id":827,"data":828,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"d60dcca3-8731-4e78-90bd-d3fe9cb04053",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":829,"clozeWords":831},[830],"While syntax refers to the structure of a sentence, semantics refers to the meaning behind the words",[804,832],"semantics",{"id":834,"data":835,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"ebd30790-aded-408b-8672-e1481f278356",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":836,"multiChoiceCorrect":838,"multiChoiceIncorrect":840},[837],"What model explains why we only consider and understand the most basic syntactic model possible?",[839],"The Garden Path model",[841,842,843],"The Snowy Driveway model","The Concrete Highway model","The Intergalactic Vogon Bypass model",{"id":845,"data":846,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":850},"79d514ca-4590-4a30-8908-0d8f2055ee97",{"type":21,"title":847,"markdownContent":848,"audioMediaId":849},"Models of sentence processing","Several models have been proposed to explain our initial interpretation of a sentence. The **‘Constraint-based model’ combines multiple information sources, including general world knowledge, syntax, and semantics to consider all possible interpretations of a sentence, with the most appropriate being selected**. After all, it seems logical and even efficient for listeners and readers to use all available information.\n\nOn the other hand, the **‘Unrestricted race model’ adopts an approach combining several models, using constraints along with an initial favored syntactic structure**. As a result, an interpretation is ‘held’ or maintained until evidence arrives that challenges it.\n\nAnd yet, most sentence processing theories have similar limitations. They assume that language processing results in an **accurate, complete, and detailed representation** based on the input received, and that, sooner or later, it will find the correct syntactic structure. \n\nOn the other hand, a **‘good-enough’ representation approach suggests that often the parse involves generating a good-enough representation for the task at hand**; it may help explain both the limited processing and error-prone nature of this vital human cognition process.","f2a14cda-5fe5-4e4e-a419-7a28dc306402",[851],{"id":852,"data":853,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"879e56c7-5612-449c-950f-1306a64bf690",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":854,"activeRecallAnswers":856},[855],"What are the two most prevalent models of sentence processing?",[857,858],"Constraints-based Model","Unrestricted Race Model",{"id":860,"data":861,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":865},"0215833c-9564-4132-8f35-c89c5e45431f",{"type":21,"title":862,"markdownContent":863,"audioMediaId":864},"Pragmatics – what we really want to say","If your partner shouts, “There’s someone at the door,” they probably aren’t simply acknowledging an individual is waiting outside and ringing the doorbell. More likely, the intended meaning is \"Someone, answer the door and see who it is.\"\n\n**‘Pragmatics’ refers to how language is practically used and comprehended in the real world** – relating to the intended rather than literal meaning. To fully understand a speaker’s intended meaning, we typically need contextual information, such as the environment we are in, the tone, and the conversation so far.\n\n**Without pragmatics, figurative language, such as metaphors, would be impossible to comprehend.** If you get ‘cold feet,’ you most likely don’t need warmer socks, but you may need encouragement and support before embarking on something new.\n\nSuch language processing is complex and often requires taking the speaker's perspective to fully comprehend what they have said or written.\n","e7376c77-0202-45c5-a79b-74fbb0b4c141",[866],{"id":867,"data":868,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"e13ff71b-b0fd-4dcb-94b3-ccaf7832d7c2",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":869,"multiChoiceCorrect":871,"multiChoiceIncorrect":873},[870],"What refers to how language is practically used rather than its real meaning?",[872],"Pragmatics",[874,875,876],"Doormatics","Automatics","Functionalatics",{"id":878,"data":879,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":881},"2bf13791-3274-4d61-817b-67f90b291dd7",{"type":25,"title":880},"Pragmatics and Social Communication",[882,903,917],{"id":883,"data":884,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":888},"9ced238b-47c5-44c9-8161-b5d458565e1a",{"type":21,"title":885,"markdownContent":886,"audioMediaId":887},"Autism and understanding other people’s intentions","Studying people who find it difficult to distinguish between literal and pragmatic meaning can clarify its importance and involvement in language comprehension.\n\nWhile often very good at understanding the syntax and semantics of a sentence, they may become lost when it comes to its intended meaning.\n\n ![Graph](image://d1e22dc4-85b3-43b9-97ed-18af7ca171ec \"Children with learning difficulties often struggle to understand others' intentions\")\n\nIndividuals with **autism** frequently find it challenging to understand others’ beliefs and intentions and may not be able to integrate information from multiple sources – negatively impacting communication. \n\nMost, but not all, such individuals also have general learning difficulties, and language acquisition may develop more slowly than with others of the same age.\n\nInterestingly, those experiencing mild autistic spectrum disorders, despite at least average intelligence and typically developing language normally, may still have challenges with social communication. \n\nDrawing inferences can be particularly tough, along with recognizing the use of sarcasm and irony, further highlighting the important role pragmatics play within social situations.\n\n","452ff6bf-7ba5-4375-90b9-6cd875174b84",[889,896],{"id":890,"data":891,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"014e02e1-74f6-494d-b0d6-97957695359f",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":892,"clozeWords":894},[893],"Individuals with autism frequently find it challenging to understand others’ beliefs and intentions",[895],"beliefs",{"id":897,"data":898,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"47918068-7b85-4cf2-b517-1d98e547e260",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":899,"clozeWords":901},[900],"Individuals with Asperger's syndrome struggle with recognizing the use of sarcasm and irony",[902],"Asperger's",{"id":904,"data":905,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":909},"df37860c-d50f-4a97-8f7e-911b73a3b192",{"type":21,"title":906,"markdownContent":907,"audioMediaId":908},"Reaching common ground","Most researchers agree that the majority of speakers and listeners conform to the ‘**cooperative principle**.’ The listener expects the speaker to refer to shared knowledge and beliefs, also known as 'common ground,' rather than introducing new discussion points without defining them.\n\n ![Graph](image://e850496e-811b-4bd3-befb-bd8977fc21b0 \"Succesful conversations work on finding common ground\")\n\n**A successful conversation where the speaker shares their points and the listener identifies and recognizes them can lead to a shift in common ground** – the goal is not that it remains static.\n\nHowever, where references are not apparent in the common ground, the listener often adopts an **'egocentric heuristic**,' whereby they consider what is being said from their own perspective. While some researchers suggest this is infrequently used, it does help explain some of our communication failures.\n\nEstablishing common ground is effortful and attentionally demanding but can be helped by forming simple associations in long-term memory or relying on shared cultural backgrounds – where appropriate.\n\n","be829168-d9aa-47d0-aba4-3ce7aeda25c6",[910],{"id":911,"data":912,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"920f09e5-35b6-4f23-b7c9-92859582a788",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":913,"activeRecallAnswers":915},[914],"What does a listener adopt conversationally when references are not apparent in the common ground?",[916],"An egocentric heuristic",{"id":918,"data":919,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":923},"23812b60-04c8-442b-bd23-35c38306de84",{"type":21,"title":920,"markdownContent":921,"audioMediaId":922},"Working memory affects comprehension","**Working memory can affect performance in language comprehension processing**. Indeed, low-capacity individuals may be less able to form mental models of what is being discussed and draw inferences beyond the literal language used.\n\n ![Graph](image://7e3aa2b3-3eb4-4ca4-b80b-8994169a291a \"The ability to hold multiple items in the working memory is key to comprehension\")\n\nOn the other hand, **those with increased or high-capacity working memory are frequently more able to discriminate between what is relevant and important rather than what is irrelevant and superfluous**. \n\nThis may, in part, be a result of improved abilities in the use of schemas – organized packets of information that assist top-down processing.\n\nHowever, as working memory is typically associated with higher IQ scores, clarifying and disentangling all the dimensions involved in individual differences is tricky. However, it is vital to recognize that we don’t all comprehend language equally and that this may be due to factors other than language processing.\n\n","df515354-a2b0-49f9-8bbd-528bb5996d32",[924],{"id":925,"data":926,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"75bc2fb6-0db5-4784-9f9f-096a9b02f9c2",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":927,"binaryCorrect":929,"binaryIncorrect":930},[928],"Does working memory impact language comprehension?",[222],[220],{"id":932,"data":933,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":936},"d3dcab08-e73c-4aec-b130-d9e48c68835c",{"type":26,"title":934,"tagline":935},"Language Production","Our human ability to share what we are thinking requires complex planning and production processes",[937,1060],{"id":938,"data":939,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":941},"90f8e995-2546-4039-acd6-da91732fbd65",{"type":25,"title":940},"Understanding Speech Production",[942,970,985,1017,1038],{"id":943,"data":944,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":948},"c923b7ae-7a66-441e-bb10-2c383de44e63",{"type":21,"title":945,"markdownContent":946,"audioMediaId":947},"The importance of language production","Perhaps surprisingly, more is known about language comprehension than production, despite their evident interrelatedness. Analysis of speech comprehension involves the mental processes that turn sounds into ideas, while speech production involves how we turn ideas into sounds. \n\nWhile seemingly similar, the latter involves many motivational and social factors in the mind of the speaker, which are more difficult for the researcher to control.\n\n ![Graph](image://0530b83a-f754-4e79-bbce-1db3e43f0861 \"Speech production is an extremely complex processing task\")\n\nSpeech production may seem effortless, but at approximately **150 words a minute**, processing demands are high and take place at multiple levels. The first, the ‘**semantic level,**’ includes the meaning behind what is to be said. \n\nWhile the second, the ‘**syntactic level**,’ involves the structure of the words. Thirdly, the ‘**morphological level**’ engages the basic units of meaning, or ‘morphemes,’ and finally, the ‘**phonological level**,’ is the basic units of sound or ‘phonemes.’\n\nWhile the order may seem logical, in reality, it is messier. Processes frequently overlap and often start before the preceding one has finished.\n\n","e339df1e-fd85-4fac-b398-2ecd07c5f0f8",[949,960],{"id":950,"data":951,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"85819f41-f8d5-4dbe-9aeb-b4eddc067e23",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":952,"multiChoiceCorrect":954,"multiChoiceIncorrect":956},[953],"How many words can the average human produce per minute?",[955],"150",[957,958,959],"200","250","300",{"id":961,"data":962,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"892bcb09-1df7-4a94-89ba-be5396088a04",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":963,"activeRecallAnswers":965},[964],"What are the four levels of language production?",[966,967,968,969],"Semantic","Syntactic","Morphological","Phonological",{"id":971,"data":972,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":976},"3c347a27-0beb-491d-9efa-184b003106d3",{"type":21,"title":973,"markdownContent":974,"audioMediaId":975},"Planning what we are going to say","**Speech production typically begins with planning**. And research confirms what we would expect, that the more complex the syntactic structure of what we want to say, the longer that planning takes.\n\nAnd **planning occurs at multiple levels** – when setting up the subject and verb (clause) and expressing a single idea (phrase).\n\n ![Graph](image://4a45c1ea-8722-4aac-b0c5-e6f6c161b04c \"AI-generated image, 'planning our words before we speak them'\")\n\nThe errors we make in our speech production offer further insight. For example, swapping 2 sounds in a sentence typically occurs over shorter distances than exchanging entire words. The former is likely to be the result of late planning immediately before speech occurs.\n\nAnd yet when we attempt to start speaking rapidly rather than fluently, we may sacrifice planning and risk making errors in what we say or how we say it. Therefore, **speech planning is typically flexible and shaped by immediate goals and situational demands**.\n\n","faf9096c-f871-4b64-8acb-73892552a952",[977],{"id":978,"data":979,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"a09777b3-100b-48ce-9005-a362ba2efede",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":980,"activeRecallAnswers":982},[981],"What two things shape speech planning?",[983,984],"Immediate Goals","Situational Demands",{"id":986,"data":987,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":991},"eab55ffa-88cb-494e-b4ed-ed5cf30b915f",{"type":21,"title":988,"markdownContent":989,"audioMediaId":990},"The errors in what we say","Much of what we say is **coherent and accurate** – but not always. Indeed, a study in 2002 suggested that our speech error rate may be as high as 1 in every 500 sentences.\n\nIf relatively infrequent, why do such mistakes matter to us? Well, when things go wrong, they offer insight into the underlying processes, especially as typically they are not random but are primarily systematic. \n\n**‘Spoonerisms’** occur when the first letters of 2 words are swapped, such as when we say ‘Hobin Rood’ instead of ‘Robin Hood.’ **‘Freudian slips,’** or spoken distortions, can suggest something we want to say but feel we can’t or unrealized feelings. One example of a Freudian slip is when you call your spouse by the name of your ex, which is always a dangerous move!\n\n**‘Semantic substitution’** is evident when words are replaced by something of a similar meaning, such as “Where is my tennis bat?” rather than 'racquet.' \n\nAnd yet, while we make errors, **we are also good at spotting and correcting them**. However, we are even better at identifying others' mistakes than our own.\n","766b28a7-39f3-411c-9349-b996faeee144",[992,999,1010],{"id":993,"data":994,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"568979cf-cee2-44c2-88e9-8dbd2b65bab8",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":995,"clozeWords":997},[996],"According to a 2002 study, we make a speech error in 1 in every 500 sentences because of spoonerisms, Freudian slips or semantic substitution",[998],"500",{"id":1000,"data":1001,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"6abbc123-28ad-4ac8-907a-2d06333d14eb",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1002,"multiChoiceCorrect":1004,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1006},[1003],"What is it called when the first letters of two adjacent words are swapped?",[1005],"Spoonerism",[1007,1008,1009],"Freudian Slip","Semantic Substitution","All of the Above",{"id":1011,"data":1012,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"c900bcf9-f1b2-4624-9c55-9ebb1e882da3",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1013,"binaryCorrect":1015,"binaryIncorrect":1016},[1014],"What is it called when we say something accidentally that we are thinking about?",[1007],[1005],{"id":1018,"data":1019,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1023},"1d245b38-c46e-407b-888e-269a0c7162aa",{"type":21,"title":1020,"markdownContent":1021,"audioMediaId":1022},"Multiple theories of speech production","Even if we agree on 4 potential levels of processing in speech production: **semantic, syntactic, morphological, and phonological**, there are differing theories on how they relate.\n\nThe **‘spreading-activation theory’** suggests the processing occurs **simultaneously**, with each level able to influence the other. Such a setup offers flexibility but also, potentially, a degree of chaos.\n\nOn the other hand, the **‘WEAVER’** (Word-form Encoding by Activation and VERification) computation model posits a **multi-stage feedforward system** where processing is carried in one direction from meaning to sound. \n\nWe begin by choosing a word based on meaning and context, checking for errors, defining its form and sound, before its final articulation. This model suggests more structure and rigidity.\n\nThe 2 models are not as dissimilar as they initially seem, and there may be a meeting point between them. After all, too little interaction between processing levels could inhibit speakers' creativity and production of new sentences, while too much could result in excessive speech errors.","cfc1bc5f-4325-4391-ad1a-8bca1c5a6213",[1024,1031],{"id":1025,"data":1026,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"0a7bf98b-f1c3-4d6d-afca-215599e2be04",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1027,"activeRecallAnswers":1029},[1028],"What computational model believes speech production is a multi-stage feedforward system from meaning to sound?",[1030],"WEAVER",{"id":1032,"data":1033,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"8836a65b-d485-48da-8c35-18ede7e74ca9",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1034,"activeRecallAnswers":1036},[1035],"What theory suggests that all four levels of processing in speech production occur simultaneously?",[1037],"Spreading Activation Theory",{"id":1039,"data":1040,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1044},"9c68ed9d-837f-4922-aba2-0270d0fd2f5a",{"type":21,"title":1041,"markdownContent":1042,"audioMediaId":1043},"Brain-damage patients","As with other areas of cognitive neuropsychological research, brain-damaged patients offer opportunities to challenge and validate language production theories. And we have much to learn from the resulting **‘aphasia’ – difficulty with the patient’s language or speech** that results from their injury.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://2dcbc3c3-f4cd-4ab3-8345-e005b12229ec \"The Broca's Area\")\n\nPatients with damage to the **Broca’s area** of the brain are left struggling to form syntactically correct sentences, despite no loss of language comprehension. In contrast, individuals with an injury to the **Wernicke’s brain region** can produce grammatical speech but lack semantic meaning. Together, they suggest **a high degree of localization for syntactic and semantic processing**.\n\nAnd yet, not all brain injuries are the same, and neither are the resulting deficits. After all, while distributed, aspects of language processing appear interconnected in highly complex ways. \n\nAs a result, research has shifted in the direction of more specific types of aphasia, such as **'anomia,' the difficulty in naming objects**, and **'agrammatism,' where sentences contain nouns and verbs but no function words**, such as ‘the,’ ‘over,’ and ‘in.’\n\n","82f0a9f6-35d8-4000-92c7-193aa39a7c51",[1045,1052],{"id":1046,"data":1047,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"2772d510-16bf-4e34-ae3e-05c9e08ad1b9",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1048,"activeRecallAnswers":1050},[1049],"What is the name of the condition that makes it difficult to produce speech?",[1051],"Aphasia",{"id":1053,"data":1054,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"979dbb9c-31b5-4e4a-a365-e6dc196e0e6e",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1055,"clozeWords":1057},[1056],"While anomia is the type of aphasia that relates to naming objects, agrammatism is when there is difficulty formulating function words",[1058,1059],"anomia","agrammatism",{"id":1061,"data":1062,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1064},"88dff6d6-2182-4e5d-b0a6-48dc75398633",{"type":25,"title":1063},"Effective Communication Strategies",[1065,1082,1098,1114,1141],{"id":1066,"data":1067,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1071},"4a1c90af-4292-4162-8bea-60bd70bc822e",{"type":21,"title":1068,"markdownContent":1069,"audioMediaId":1070},"Moving away from the monologue","**Most speech is found in conversations with one or more individuals rather than monologues**. After all, unless we're Hamlet of Denmark, we don't typically spend our time walking around making speeches, devoid of interruptions, questions, answers, and challenges to what we are saying.\n\n ![Graph](image://4d96b826-6a18-400e-a6e6-bb611588e0f7 \"Paul Grice\")\n\nBritish philosopher of language **Paul Grice** proposed 4 maxims that a speaker should observe for successful communication. The first maxim of **‘relevance’** involves staying appropriate to the situation, while the second, the maxim of **'quantity,’** requires being as informative as is necessary. \n\nThe third maxim is **‘quality,’** remaining truthful, and the fourth and final, is the maxim of **‘manner,’** ensuring each contribution is easy to understand. \n\nAnd yet, the need for 4 maxims has been challenged – the first maxim, relevance, implies the other 3 and may make them unnecessary. Also, motivation is an important factor. \n\nIf our goal as a salesperson is to sell our audience something, or we are a politician wishing to influence or even mislead another, we may distort the truth.\n\n","aca54ed2-e2fc-4439-8aa1-e92de7d8638a",[1072],{"id":1073,"data":1074,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"a53cbecd-73d0-486a-8f68-8fb393a3dc27",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1075,"activeRecallAnswers":1077},[1076],"What are the four Grice maxims of successful communication?",[1078,1079,1080,1081],"Relevance","Quantity","Quality","Manner",{"id":1083,"data":1084,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1088},"a80d7c4a-8d52-48d9-8728-8926c2582f68",{"type":21,"title":1085,"markdownContent":1086,"audioMediaId":1087},"Audience design","Truly effective communication requires appropriate ‘**audience design**’ – meaning that we account for the specific needs of the listener. Creating a common ground for those listening to what we say requires us to make **assumptions regarding their general knowledge, shared personal experiences, and even their preferred language**.\n\n ![Graph](image://b3716ec3-6526-4741-93b5-fc83f4bab1d2 \"All communication requires some form of audience design\")\n\nWhile speakers sometimes begin by planning what they will say without considering audience design, they typically monitor the feedback they receive and shift toward more common ground.\n\nAnd yet, revising plans while speaking seems computationally difficult, so tactics such as priming introduces concepts early on to help reduce cognitive demands on speech production. **Syntactic priming involves copying elements of what the other person is saying.**\n\nAdditionally, the speaker is more able to focus on audience design when the listener's needs are clear and straightforward. For example, bilingual speakers find it relatively easy to confine themselves to speaking a specific language when their listener is monolingual. \n\n","69da91fd-b5f2-4e4b-b4d6-f7e47bc92430",[1089],{"id":1090,"data":1091,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"ad9eb120-15fb-4563-a0cf-31779e47a8fc",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1092,"binaryCorrect":1094,"binaryIncorrect":1096},[1093],"What learning tactic involves introducing concepts early on to help reduce cognitive demands?",[1095],"Priming",[1097],"Seconding",{"id":1099,"data":1100,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1104},"58194a91-6a02-4f41-9ed9-93462e065008",{"type":21,"title":1101,"markdownContent":1102,"audioMediaId":1103},"Non-verbal communication","**Not all communication is verbal**. Indeed, a great deal can be shared by how we stand, the expressions on our faces, and the gestures we use. After all, before our ancestors could vocalize what they thought, they most likely relied heavily on non-verbal communication.\n\nA 2011 study found that, **when gestures were used to describe an elaborate dress, they became significantly more informative when the speaker could see the person they were communicating with**. \n\nAnd it seems that gestures varied depending on the feedback received. When the listener showed an understanding of what was being said, the number of gestures decreased. Yet, when they sought further clarification or correction, they became more precise and elaborate.\n\nPerhaps surprisingly, blind since birth speakers also make use of such non-verbal communication, even when in dialogue with blind listeners.\n\nIt seems that **gestures are an essential aspect of communication** and a worthwhile investment in increasing the clarity of what is being said, especially when flexible and responsive.\n","4290c446-ab0c-4816-b490-87dd3b502865",[1105],{"id":1106,"data":1107,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"8d3e8af7-1787-4a9c-989a-0ea8c548a621",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1108,"binaryCorrect":1110,"binaryIncorrect":1112},[1109],"What is more effective when describing a dress to help someone picture it more quickly?",[1111],"Both Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication",[1113],"Verbal Communication Only",{"id":1115,"data":1116,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1120},"5ab9b558-9914-437e-ab68-77893b164a7b",{"type":21,"title":1117,"markdownContent":1118,"audioMediaId":1119},"Finding the groove","The words we choose are vital when we wish to share a thought verbally, yet so too is ‘how’ we say them – this is known as '**prosody**.' **Rhythm, stress, and intonation** can entirely change the meaning conveyed; we can suggest anger, shock, upset, and even switch between an exclamation and a question.\n\n![Graph](image://f42c793d-ce19-4dd1-b5a7-189ecf06719b \"AI-generated image - A grumpy man and woman sit together\")\n\nAfter all, does the sentence “The grumpy men and women sat together” mean both the men and the women were grumpy or only the former? Clarity can be improved by how the sentence is spoken without changing its structure. \n\nSimilarly, “He shot the man with the rifle” begs the question, “who had the rifle?” And yet, with appropriate stress, the right interpretation can be encouraged.\n\nHowever, **speakers even use prosody when there is no ambiguity**, suggesting that they are not responding in any way to the listener and that it must form part of the speaker-planning process.\n\n**Prosody is a particular problem for synthetic speech**. Without it, AI-produced voices can sound fake, unengaging, put emphasis in the wrong places, and struggle with unusual words. This can be especially problematic when trying to deliver something dramatic or emotional. So, don’t even think about asking Alexa or Siri to deliver your eulogy.\n\n","e4167588-a558-4f69-9482-5bb0516675a5",[1121,1132],{"id":1122,"data":1123,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"99d9de01-7bd3-4ef9-a7c9-07063d72b0a8",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1124,"multiChoiceCorrect":1126,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1128},[1125],"What is the term that describes how we say a word?",[1127],"Prosody",[1129,1130,1131],"Rhapsody","Parody","Consody",{"id":1133,"data":1134,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"ee2b084b-3453-4a12-90ca-24889ffb1cf7",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1135,"activeRecallAnswers":1137},[1136],"What are the three elements of prosody?",[1138,1139,1140],"Rhythm","Stress","Intonation",{"id":1142,"data":1143,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1147},"eab8d936-5b8d-4db5-a4ca-4cffb3dc3416",{"type":21,"title":1144,"markdownContent":1145,"audioMediaId":1146},"Discourse markers","When we listen back to a recording of ourselves in conversation or presenting, we may be frustrated by the number of times we utter words such as ‘um’ and ‘eh’ – or ‘ano’ for Japanese speakers! And yet, ‘**discourse markers**’ as they are known, despite seeming irrelevant to the speaker's message, **do assist communication**.\n\n\nIn fact, they help clarify the speaker's intentions. For example, ‘oh’ and ‘um’ can be us sharing that we have problems deciding what to say next. And using phrases such as ‘you know’ can indicate the speaker is confirming understanding or looking for approval.\n\nIt seems they also vary depending on who the conversation is most relevant to. **A 2006 study found that ‘oh’ is used 98.5% of the time when a new topic is directly relevant to the speaker, while ‘so’ is present in what is said 96% of the time when it most concerns the listener.**\n\nWhile not contributing directly to the content, **discourse markers are an important aspect of conversation**.","7a95f803-8a98-4327-a44e-8779225a889e",[1148],{"id":1149,"data":1150,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"146dcefe-87b0-48a4-8676-d96432ccd45d",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1151,"activeRecallAnswers":1153},[1152],"What percentage of the time do people tend to use the word \"oh\" when speaking about a new topic relevant to them?",[1154],"98.5%",{"id":1156,"data":1157,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":1160},"abffbe98-929d-45cb-a4be-12bedad966aa",{"type":26,"title":1158,"tagline":1159},"Knowledge Representation and Memory","Understanding what it takes to remember and recall what we need to survive and thrive",[1161,1265,1337],{"id":1162,"data":1163,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1165},"6322fe52-1917-441b-9e9d-60b039b77fce",{"type":25,"title":1164},"Memory Models and Theories",[1166,1180,1203,1226,1251],{"id":1167,"data":1168,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1172},"66bf41c5-35ca-410d-bcf5-c67ecef3b030",{"type":21,"title":1169,"markdownContent":1170,"audioMediaId":1171},"Groundhog Day","In the 1993 film Groundhog Day, Bill Murray’s character, weatherman Phil Connor, ends up repeating the same day over and over again. And yet, as the only person aware of the loop he is stuck in, he uses his memory of events from his ‘future’ to his advantage.\n\n ![Graph](image://d258d1d1-87dd-4bc6-91ed-09242baf768b \"Bill Murray, star of Groundhog Day\")\n \nAfter all, **our memories shape how we respond to our environment**, because knowing the past helps us predict what is to come. Many of our earlier experiences are sufficiently similar to future ones that our memories provide a distinct advantage. Early research found that the speed at which we can retrieve an item from memory is influenced by how frequently we encountered it in the past.\n\nSomehow **the mind appears to be predicting which items will be valuable in the future based on their prior usefulness**. It's like a helpful and experienced college librarian who second-guesses the needs of a new batch of students with the right book in hand when they arrive at the desk.\n\n","702c7a25-6dde-4d8d-a542-b29e5502cc21",[1173],{"id":1174,"data":1175,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"250d6003-cc41-418e-b23f-a9490a83593d",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1176,"clozeWords":1178},[1177],"The speed at which we can retrieve an item from memory is influenced by how frequently we encountered it in the past",[1179],"frequently",{"id":1181,"data":1182,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1186},"8e5c281f-5bf4-4b88-9659-8356e4fadf87",{"type":21,"title":1183,"markdownContent":1184,"audioMediaId":1185},"Multi-store models of memory","The auditory store, or **‘echoic’ memory**, lasts only a few seconds yet allows you to playback what has been said even when you weren’t listening closely to what was said. \n\nTesting has shown short-term memory is also limited – recalling approximately 7 items without error. Yet, we typically chunk items for ease, such as with the letters P, S, Y, C, H, O, L, O, G, and Y;  we can form 1 chunk rather than 10 items.\n\n ![Graph](image://c7ec5137-5086-4868-86cb-db6e2dbe354d \"In theory, our brain could remember 10 million of these\")\n\nOur long-term memory is seemingly limitless. And yet, it has been suggested that, if each synapse of our brain were similar to a single bit of information, we would be able to store approximately **12,000 gigabytes of data** – enough to hold the book Moby Dick 10 million times or 2.5 million songs. That's better even than any Kindle.\n\n","71edb68a-58ef-4652-b71c-fa3dcf4d27fc",[1187,1196],{"id":1188,"data":1189,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"9caedcd4-ab58-4152-a054-7aa9da01d9ee",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1190,"multiChoiceCorrect":1192,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1194},[1191],"How many items can our short term memory bring to mind without error?",[1193],"7",[357,355,1195],"5",{"id":1197,"data":1198,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"a0619888-5685-483d-bb84-9e6c9557dba8",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1199,"activeRecallAnswers":1201},[1200],"If each neuron could hold one bit of information, what would be the storage capacity of our mind?",[1202],"12,000 Gigabytes",{"id":1204,"data":1205,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1209},"bcc2be8a-ee8e-4790-a55a-0066db80b072",{"type":21,"title":1206,"markdownContent":1207,"audioMediaId":1208},"Unitary-store models of memory","Recent memory models propose a **single ‘unitary’ store of memory**. According to this approach, **short-term memory is not distinct but rather the temporary activation of long-term memory**. \n\nAnd yet, a challenge for such a model comes from amnesia patients – often presenting with issues with short-term memory. Yet, according to supporters of the unitary approach, it is not the result of damage to different memory stores but the ability to form novel relations between items and their context.\n\n**Researchers have identified that amnesic patients often have damage to the hippocampus**. They perform exceptionally poorly on tests involving a very short retention interval, suggesting the importance of the hippocampus in relational short-term memory.\n\nHowever, **some challenge the notion of a unitary model as an oversimplification**. Indeed neuroimaging studies have found little support for the theory, despite identifying shared brain areas involved in both short and long-term memory.\n","04b56c88-5e99-4e7b-9d75-d87d5851597f",[1210,1219],{"id":1211,"data":1212,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"4bd02c4b-8955-438a-8915-c183dd400038",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1213,"binaryCorrect":1215,"binaryIncorrect":1217},[1214],"What is the theory that short-term memory is non-distinct from long-term memory called?",[1216],"Unitary Memory Theory",[1218],"Unified Memory Theory",{"id":1220,"data":1221,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"602a3f7e-2632-4ec7-a525-8af644abe2e3",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1222,"activeRecallAnswers":1224},[1223],"What part of the brain is associated with amnesia?",[1225],"Hippocampus",{"id":1227,"data":1228,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1232},"b5373cfa-4a0d-4e6a-9e6d-dd5cf4caaea9",{"type":21,"title":1229,"markdownContent":1230,"audioMediaId":1231},"Working memory","Related to the concept of **'Short-term memory'**, is the more complex concept of one's **‘working memory.’** \n\nWhile short-term memory refers to the passive temporary storage system in the brain, 'working memory' describes an active system that allows for the temporary storage, processing, and manipulation of information, enabling complex cognitive tasks like reasoning, problem-solving, and language comprehension.\n\nRecent versions of the working memory model suggest 4 components. The **‘central executive’** is perhaps the most important. While it does not store information, it is involved in almost all complex cognitive activities, managing attention and focus and interfacing with long-term memory. \n\n ![Graph](image://8a0b324c-d2c0-4ab7-ad1f-c262de37140e \"A diagram of the four elements of working memory\")\n\nThe **‘phonological loop’** is dedicated to working memory and temporarily holds verbal information; it is vital for speech perception and production, particularly rehearsal. Similarly, the **‘visuo-spatial sketchpad’** provides temporary storage for manipulating visual patterns and managing spatial movement.\n\nLastly, the **‘episodic’** buffer combines visual, auditory, and other information sources, linking working memory to perception and long-term memory.\n\nUnlike the idea of short-term memory, the working memory concept provides a valuable model for combining active processing and the temporary information storage found in all complex cognitive tasks.\n\n","eb0f42b7-29b5-4023-bed9-e2c16324dc0f",[1233,1244],{"id":1234,"data":1235,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"6b39f624-4a48-4f99-a061-01e4f6133354",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1236,"multiChoiceCorrect":1238,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1240},[1237],"What component of working memory holds verbal information?",[1239],"Phonological Loop",[1241,1242,1243],"Central Executive","Visuo-spatial Sketchpad","Episodic Buffer",{"id":1245,"data":1246,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"8129a7b1-5c93-48d9-aabb-c279e319ea32",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1247,"activeRecallAnswers":1249},[1248],"What are the four components of working memory?",[1241,1239,1250,1243],"Visuospatial Sketchpad",{"id":1252,"data":1253,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1257},"67614b97-4aaf-4130-965c-ce086ca7ab0e",{"type":21,"title":1254,"markdownContent":1255,"audioMediaId":1256},"Processing in long-term memory","‘What’ is stored in long-term memory may be down to its depth of analysis. The more meaning is processed, the deeper the level of analysis. Indeed, according to the ‘levels-of-processing’ approach, **how a concept or idea is processed during learning affects memorability**, producing more elaborate, longer-lasting traces.\n\n ![Graph](image://ad77e29d-e493-4935-8cf4-99fe77e1e62d \"The medium that information is presented in affects its memorability\")\n\nStudies have repeatedly confirmed the superiority of deep over shallow processing on ‘explicit’ memory recognition tests where subjects are tested on their ability to recall information. It seems that **deep processing involves more conceptual processing and shallow processing more perceptual processing**.\n\n**Research also recognizes the importance of learners having relevant knowledge**. For example, an athlete is more able to learn race times and details than a non-athlete. This is possibly the result of an increased ability to organize to-be-remembered information and a boost to distinctiveness, which also helps individuals reject familiar but false items.\n\n","97379556-fad8-4090-9326-ef238fb4c11d",[1258],{"id":1259,"data":1260,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"4bcb4fd6-8d9a-49e1-8f2c-82042f547aca",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1261,"clozeWords":1263},[1262],"According to the levels-of-processing approach, deeper thought and active engagement during learning aids long-term memorability",[1264],"levels-of-processing",{"id":1266,"data":1267,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1269},"50a73cfb-43ab-435c-95e6-708665702ea8",{"type":25,"title":1268},"Learning and Memory Processes",[1270,1292,1306],{"id":1271,"data":1272,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1276},"64034fef-b22c-4d7f-a4a5-936d337c6c3f",{"type":21,"title":1273,"markdownContent":1274,"audioMediaId":1275},"Learning and memory","Learning is not only found in our attempts to study but also during information retrieval. Indeed, the **‘testing effect’** as it’s known, is surprisingly strong and can form a part of revision techniques, including re-testing, drawing pictorial representations, such as mind maps, and creating summaries. Here at Kinnu, the testing effect shapes much of how you will learn.\n\nAnd **the gains to be made through retrieval practice are far greater than most people realize**. Such activities appear to increase the ability to create and retrieve mediators linking cues with what we must remember.\n\nAlso, **some learning is ‘implicit’ – involving education without awareness or even the intention to learn**. And while, experientially, it can sometimes be hard to tell the difference, **neuroimaging shows that conscious awareness during explicit learning activates different brain areas to unconscious or implicit learning**.\n\nFurthermore, while amnesic patients experiencing damage to their medial temporal lobes may perform poorly on explicit memory tests, they can still perform as well as healthy individuals on implicit tests.\n","7a62c897-d281-4634-8571-2eaf3bd373b2",[1277,1285],{"id":1278,"data":1279,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"b20e86b7-fbfa-41e5-b988-d2f50e990c17",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1280,"clozeWords":1282},[1281],"Retrieval practice helps to create mediators, and receive linking cues, which help us remember things.",[1283,1284],"mediators","cues",{"id":1286,"data":1287,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"dec6089e-5bf9-49e2-90e8-4cd849088e64",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1288,"binaryCorrect":1290,"binaryIncorrect":1291},[1289],"Does explicit learning activate the same areas of the brain as implicit learning?",[220],[222],{"id":1293,"data":1294,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1298},"e10dd667-8272-43c3-af98-3910ae253326",{"type":21,"title":1295,"markdownContent":1296,"audioMediaId":1297},"Forgetting to help remember","We all forget. Even memories once important to us can become vague – their detail lost to time. But why do we forget?\n\nSome explanations suggest that our brain matter experiences decay or that mental processes perform a cleanup of trivial memories during sleep.\n\nAccording to **‘interference theory,’ our present learning can be ‘proactively’ interfered with by prior learning and ‘retroactively’ by what is to come.** Eyewitness testimony has been shown to be notoriously inaccurate due to experiences before and after the incident.\n\n ![Graph](image://19fe49ca-ab7a-4b11-90f1-4eccd2ed10f3 \"Psychotherapy tends to focus on the idea of repressed memories or emotions\")\n\nTraumatic or threatening memories, especially those experienced during childhood, may be repressed. While difficult to access, ‘repression’ was an essential part of early psychotherapy.\n\nHowever, research has found that recovered memories outside group therapy tended to be more accurate than those within treatment, suggesting not all recall is equal.\n\nAnd yet, frequently forgetting may result from a lack of appropriate cues. When we store information about an event, we most likely capture the context; retrieval may not occur without proper stimuli.\n\n","4975d914-a48e-4793-bdba-e275198d62e9",[1299],{"id":1300,"data":1301,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"b8bd4c4f-6480-409e-8b1e-88a4eb8917dd",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1302,"activeRecallAnswers":1304},[1303],"What theory suggests that our learning can be proactively interfered with by prior learning?",[1305],"Interference theory",{"id":1307,"data":1308,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1312},"73650771-e693-4a0c-9013-05c651fb940d",{"type":21,"title":1309,"markdownContent":1310,"audioMediaId":1311},"Declarative and non-declarative memory","One of the most important distinctions in **long-term memory** is between **declarative and non-declarative memory**. The former relates to facts and events – they can be declared and are explicit. We literally know that something is the case, such as “Washington DC is the capital of the US,” and “Bonjour, is French for hello.\"\n\n ![Graph](image://7468fe58-28bb-43c2-a583-2928a60e8543 \"Knowing what city is in this picture requires your declarative memory\")\n\n**Declarative memory breaks down into ‘episodic’ and ‘semantic memory.’** **Episodic memory is of particular events that happened to us**, allowing us to mental ‘time travel’ to re-experience our past. \n\nFor example, “I was at the Italian restaurant on Main Street for my birthday last year.\" **Semantic memory is the store of knowledge we abstract about our world**. For example, “Italian restaurants typically serve spaghetti.”\n\nOn the other hand, **non-declarative memory is not conscious but implicit**, for example, riding a bike. It relates to knowing how to do something and is sometimes described as procedural. Amnesic patients can often form non-declarative memories even when their declarative memory is extremely restricted, confirming that storage and processing of both types most likely take place in different locations in the brain.\n\n","d9a2947b-c32d-4047-a01d-34a838b2a094",[1313,1321,1329],{"id":1314,"data":1315,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"17ec3f2a-5ca2-4b04-8d1d-a98da3bc7dee",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1316,"clozeWords":1318},[1317],"While declarative memory relates to facts and events, non-declarative memory tends to be unconscious but explicit, like procedural skills",[1319,1320],"declarative","non-declarative",{"id":1322,"data":1323,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"29934840-6502-4b51-9cab-6f1f5b6dc859",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1324,"activeRecallAnswers":1326},[1325],"What are the two branches of declarative memory?",[1327,1328],"Episodic Memory","Semantic Memory",{"id":1330,"data":1331,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"bda41bfa-7a33-40bf-904a-ed0589b40c41",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1332,"clozeWords":1334},[1333],"While episodic memory relates to events that have happened to us, semantic memory is the store of knowledge we abstract about our world",[1335,1336],"episodic","semantic",{"id":1338,"data":1339,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1341},"eff86b2b-3103-4f07-8b68-ea6467159ef4",{"type":25,"title":1340},"Memory Disorders and Case Studies",[1342,1355,1378],{"id":1343,"data":1344,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1348},"9a0f0326-8178-4688-8f1e-402b87ae217f",{"type":21,"title":1345,"markdownContent":1346,"audioMediaId":1347},"Amnesia patients","**Patients with amnesia offer the cognitive researcher great insight into our memory systems.** After all, if you know which areas of the brain are damaged, it is possible to map their functions via their deficits.\n\nHowever, it may not be as easy as it sounds. Amnesia patients with a closed head injury often have multiple cognitive impairments, making it difficult to assess their memory deficits. Studying the memory difficulties associated with **Korsakoff’s syndrome**, the result of chronic alcoholism, has been helpful, yet its onset can be gradual, making it less clear which memories are affected. \n\nFurthermore, **brain plasticity, the capacity of our brain to reorganize its structure, connections, and function, and the ability to learn compensatory strategies can further cloud the assessment of brain damage's effect on long-term memory**.\n","bfb24c4c-feca-4588-90d4-577afebe8e5a",[1349],{"id":1350,"data":1351,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"dba0dc4b-cdbb-4237-9d56-05563df78bca",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1352,"activeRecallAnswers":1354},[1353],"What can cloud the assessment of brain damage's effect on long term memory?",[477],{"id":1356,"data":1357,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1361},"a9ce19a1-7078-4255-8a84-f735c14cb088",{"type":21,"title":1358,"markdownContent":1359,"audioMediaId":1360},"The fascinating case of Henry Gustav Molaison","**Patients with amnesia offer the cognitive researcher great insight into our memory systems**. Scientists have learned much about human memory and the specialism of the brain from cases like **Henry Gustav Molaison**. \n\nHaving received surgery to his hippocampus for severe epilepsy, he was left with **significant language and long-term memory problems, yet his short-term memory remained intact**. \n\n ![Graph](image://baf4e6eb-af6b-4346-97b7-af92fbecc635 \"Henry Molaison, probably the most important case study in the history of neuroscience\")\n\nHenry had little knowledge of where he was or who cared for him and could not recognize the faces of anyone after the onset of his amnesia. His language production skills were also impacted, leaving him unable to plan and construct meaningful sentences when he spoke.\n\nAnd yet he retained long-term memories and skills from before his surgery, and surprisingly, his short term memory appeared unaffected – performing well on drawing and short recall tasks.\n\nHenry’s case, and others like his, provide strong support for the importance of the hippocampus to long-term memory and suggest that memories from before his surgery had migrated elsewhere in the brain and remained intact. \n\n","bad11672-fe23-4e51-8872-753f700ec208",[1362,1371],{"id":1363,"data":1364,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"d1ca3e26-fa37-4679-b2b4-bc894b2226ce",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1365,"binaryCorrect":1367,"binaryIncorrect":1369},[1366],"What is the hippocampus more important for?",[1368],"Long-term memory",[1370],"Short-term memory",{"id":1372,"data":1373,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"d32398a8-32e3-4a70-b652-da3f372417c3",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1374,"activeRecallAnswers":1376},[1375],"What did the case of Henry Molaison suggest?",[1377],"People with long-term memory problems can continue to have intact short-term memory",{"id":1379,"data":1380,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1384},"672887a2-c7e3-4774-ac43-310b6c67e6f0",{"type":21,"title":1381,"markdownContent":1382,"audioMediaId":1383},"Memory and our mental health","When psychologist **Mark Williams** met with severely depressed patients, he was struck by their reporting of memories being **noticeably vaguer than a control group who weren’t depressed**.\n\nSuch findings led to the suggestion that being unable to recall specific events can increase the likelihood of depression. It seems that our memories may balance out our lives at times of stress, providing comfort when it is most needed.\n\nFurther research has added support to the idea that **memory problems can send our mental health into a downward spiral**, suggesting an opportunity to change the type of treatment offered to people at risk of depression.\n\nWhile the theory has its critics, recent research with refugees suffering from trauma found that memory exercises significantly improved their mood and depression by giving them something to attach themselves to and the motivation to make life changes.\n","54f207be-e9b7-4abf-8f39-07f69a5dcb75",[1385,1394],{"id":1386,"data":1387,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"0afa4eea-92f0-40f4-b610-abdcf360dd0e",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1388,"binaryCorrect":1390,"binaryIncorrect":1392},[1389],"In tests between patients who do and don't have mental health conditions, which group of people generally have a better memory?",[1391],"Non-depressive patients",[1393],"Depressive patients",{"id":1395,"data":1396,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"72945dfe-cd6b-4d59-b5b2-a5208c59f415",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1397,"multiChoiceCorrect":1399,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1401},[1398],"Who discovered that there was a difference in memory between depressive and non-depressive patients?",[1400],"Mark Williams",[1402,1403,1404,1405,1406,1407],"James Gibson","Dennis Bramble","Daniel Liberman","Henry Gustav Molaison","Karl Duncker"," Phil Johnson Laird",{"id":1409,"data":1410,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":1413},"490d113d-f6a8-4691-8735-2410e4a22bb1",{"type":26,"title":1411,"tagline":1412},"Perception and Motion","Our ability to move while perceiving the environment has always been crucial to individual success and our survival as a species",[1414,1470,1551],{"id":1415,"data":1416,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1418},"645b535c-9429-4b9b-b71d-835fc06e0ef6",{"type":25,"title":1417},"Biological and Evolutionary Adaptations",[1419,1433,1449],{"id":1420,"data":1421,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1425},"996f6b06-46db-41dd-b118-3192afcd97b4",{"type":21,"title":1422,"markdownContent":1423,"audioMediaId":1424},"Born to run","Movement is crucial for the survival of all mammals – typically involved in getting to food and escaping from potential danger.  \n\nIndeed, according to evolutionary biologists **Dennis Bramble** and **Daniel Lieberman**, our human ancestors evolved to travel long distances by running as long as 2 million years ago, and it “may have been instrumental in the evolution of the human form.”\n\n ![Graph](image://d25fde2e-4594-4fcb-af24-ec7715688fa7 \"Running is a key part of Lieberman and Bramble's theory of evolution\")\n\nIn fact, **humans perform remarkably well at movement over distance thanks to a diverse set of evolved physiological and psychological adaptations** that may have been key to the survival of the individual, group, and, ultimately, our species.\n\nAfter all, before the arrival of projectile weapons such as spears, running our prey to exhaustion and collapse, known as **'persistence running,**' may have been our only reliable way of obtaining a consistent supply of the calories needed to fuel our power-hungry brain. \n\nBeing good at movement was not a ‘nice to have’ but a necessity facilitated by body and brain.\n\n","5c0d2c34-613c-4e6d-96dc-c4ad4a165fe5",[1426],{"id":1427,"data":1428,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"e1901a12-ea70-420c-b0cc-7cf6c48dcac4",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1429,"activeRecallAnswers":1431},[1430],"How long ago do Dennis Bramble and Daniel Lieberman think that mankind started running?",[1432],"2 million years ago",{"id":1434,"data":1435,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1439},"44e2b67c-6338-4439-b111-c74104ac076c",{"type":21,"title":1436,"markdownContent":1437,"audioMediaId":1438},"Moving through our environments","While a great deal of research has been performed on perception where both subject and object are stationary, the real world is typically one of movement. **Perception does not exist in a context-free, static lab but in complex, noisy environments that change over time** – often very quickly.\n\nTherefore, **research must consider how we process and ultimately respond to a visual environment in constant flux**. After all, we are exceptionally adept at moving successfully within our visual environment and predicting when moving objects will reach us. \n\n ![Graph](image://0ff83807-cd7e-47e1-ada2-7ca0ba9e7db3 \"Catching a ball requires highly complex and responsive visual processing\")\n\nJust think of a child's ability to catch a ball or an adult jumping off a moving escalator, dodging crowds, and rushing to get a train.\n\nThis involves several complex concepts, including how we act on the environment and make sense of moving objects – especially people. To do so, we must detect changes occurring in our visual environment over time.\n\n","c74164b0-561c-42fb-a45f-ec922bb50b4e",[1440],{"id":1441,"data":1442,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"8e95d331-1fcc-4cb1-9ed2-e802858b6375",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1443,"binaryCorrect":1445,"binaryIncorrect":1447},[1444],"Human perception has evolved to function",[1446],"in motion",[1448],"statically",{"id":1450,"data":1451,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1455},"6af5b40b-a119-4ccf-978d-af5034c4e283",{"type":21,"title":1452,"markdownContent":1453,"audioMediaId":1454},"Perceiving the environment","Psychologist and philosopher **James Gibson’s 'ecological theory of perception'**, described in his book in 1979, was at odds with current views of the time. Rather than simply a process for recognizing objects in the world around us, he argued that **perception was primarily for “keeping in touch with the environment**.” \n\nHis theory of ‘**direct perception**’ rejected the idea of mediators, such as mental pictures, getting in the way of ‘information pickup.’ \n\n\n ![Graph](image://0885db07-edf9-411a-bde3-a8dacd630e5b \"Pilots in training for WW2 were helpful in the development of theories of direct perception\")\n\nInstead, when creating training films for pilots during the Second World War, he spoke of ‘**optic flow**’ and the changing parts of the visual environment, and the ‘**focus of expansion**,’ where the point to which we move is static while everything else appears to expand away from it.\n\nMore recently, research has confirmed that **our attention is drawn to the focus of expansion** as we move forward in a stationary environment, highlighting its psychological importance and value for future research.\n\n","f735507b-66c2-451e-b2f6-4bab9762638e",[1456,1463],{"id":1457,"data":1458,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"1b793904-ac8f-4460-b817-cfdc63d55686",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1459,"clozeWords":1461},[1460],"Gibson's theory of direct perception rejected the idea that mental images could get in the way of information pickup, instead arguing that optic flow aids absorption",[1462],"optic flow",{"id":1464,"data":1465,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"e8655dd1-d4cc-4074-b7f2-007c44f1b9a9",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1466,"clozeWords":1468},[1467],"James Gibson's ecological theory of perception argues that perception is about keeping in touch with the environment",[1469],"ecological",{"id":1471,"data":1472,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1474},"c9aec985-6744-4302-80b2-12b0203b0aa2",{"type":25,"title":1473},"Perception and Environment Interaction",[1475,1493,1515,1530],{"id":1476,"data":1477,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1481},"0b8753fe-2910-489a-abc7-ec35037f8bde",{"type":21,"title":1478,"markdownContent":1479,"audioMediaId":1480},"Attributing meaning to perception","We may perceive a chair, but what does it take for us to understand its significance? Gibson suggested that **objects have potential, or what he called ‘affordances.’** The chair’s capacity to ‘afford’ sitting is directly perceivable –  not causing behavior but making it possible.\n\nSubsequent research tested and appeared to confirm his theory using objects presented so briefly that they were not consciously perceived. For example, tool-like images were flashed up, such as a hammer, producing motor priming, while graspable objects, including a razor, reduced reaction time for reaching.\n\nOther theorists have taken on board **Gibson’s 'ecological' approach to perception**, recognizing that even mentioning the word ‘hammer’ can begin the activation of motor processes. Yet, we can take it further. **Top-down processing is particularly vital when visual information is limited** and while considering the many other sources of information we use to reach our goals. \n\nAnd it’s worth noting that Gibson’s idea of ‘affordances’ has been co-opted by interaction designers to refer to the things software and computer systems can allow users to do.\n","862ccd4b-b5b4-4758-ae76-42cc5f0da375",[1482],{"id":1483,"data":1484,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"de0ed666-8709-473d-82bb-3c2fd23508ac",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1485,"multiChoiceCorrect":1487,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1489},[1486],"What did James Gibson call an object's potential?",[1488],"Affordances",[1490,1491,1492],"Expenses","Investments","Revenues",{"id":1494,"data":1495,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1499},"cae9f029-37e3-4219-aded-90fcebc963bf",{"type":21,"title":1496,"markdownContent":1497,"audioMediaId":1498},"Planning and control","**Any action involves some degree of cognition**. Reaching for a pen, shutting the door, or taking the hand of a loved one all require both planning and control.\n\n**Planning is what mostly happens before the action**. Depending on our goals and the environment, we select the target, decide on the timing, and choose how we should grasp it. The information is then combined with environmental information in the part of the brain known as the ‘**inferior parietal lobe**.’\n\n ![Graph](image://b8d5cd13-829b-4061-866c-e605949e102c \"the inferior parietal lobes\")\n\nThe control system then kicks in to ensure the movement is performed, constantly adjusting with feedback from our senses – this includes ‘**proprioception**,’ or the awareness of our body position.\n\nResearch into patients with brain trauma appears to confirm the independence of the planning and control systems. Indeed, a patient referred with ‘**optic ataxia**’, which is a difficulty in reaching and moving through 3D environments, could reach out to grasp objects. However, **they could not readjust when it was moved during the 'grasp,'** suggesting damage only to the control system.\n\n","d773bf5e-245c-4550-b01d-cc85dcd3d19d",[1500,1508],{"id":1501,"data":1502,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"8d4b0f8e-8d15-4e8a-8162-f06ad159debd",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1503,"clozeWords":1505},[1504],"The control system involves proprioception, or the awareness of our body's position which patients suffering from optic ataxia struggle with",[1506,1507],"proprioception","optic ataxia",{"id":1509,"data":1510,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"9f91694c-c591-492a-b783-5e9bc882198d",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1511,"activeRecallAnswers":1513},[1512],"In which part of the brain is planning combined with environmental information?",[1514],"Inferior Parietal Lobe",{"id":1516,"data":1517,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1521},"277ab2d7-ca16-4eec-8855-4d3560e28c63",{"type":21,"title":1518,"markdownContent":1519,"audioMediaId":1520},"Perceiving human motion","Research asking observers to track dots of light on animations of animals moving showed that we are better at detecting and judging 'human' motion than of any other species.\n\nFindings suggest that we have specialist areas of the brain that are more sensitive, or ‘tuned,’ to identifying actions that are similar to our own. \n\n**'Transcranial magnetic stimulation' involves stimulating specific parts of the brain with magnets**, and has been used with willing participants to create temporary ‘lesions’ in the brain, showing harmful interference to the observer's sensitivity.\n\n ![Graph](image://d7097aae-a82f-432a-a8cb-16efe2116d8d \"A patient undergoes transcranial magnetic stimulation\")\n\nThe ability to identify physical movements no doubt has evolutionary value. After all, bodily movements are strongly associated with sharing social and emotional information and help promote understanding and better communication.\n\nIdentification is particularly high regarding actions related to strong emotions such as fear and anger – especially those influenced by speed. Such movements are usually relatively fast, while fearful or sad individuals move more slowly. \n\n","c854d437-7171-4adb-9255-3ed12f56a58c",[1522],{"id":1523,"data":1524,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"a5c5dd38-8c6d-4b69-b0fc-c6241ee32292",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1525,"clozeWords":1527},[1526],"Scientists can use transcranial magnetic stimulation, which involves stimulating the brain with magnets to create lesions in the brain",[1528,1529],"transcranial magnetic stimulation","lesions",{"id":1531,"data":1532,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1536},"02e883d9-4967-4f0e-8041-aa7221196fd7",{"type":21,"title":1533,"markdownContent":1534,"audioMediaId":1535},"Mirror neurons","Studies using monkeys in the 1990s found that whether they performed a given activity or watched another doing so, some of the same neurons were fired. \n\nThis led to the discovery of what has been called **‘mirror neurons,’** which **facilitate learning through the imitation and understanding of others' actions** and are particularly useful for learning speech.\n\nNeuroimaging studies using humans also found that **brain areas involved in motion perception are the same as those in motion production**. A select few studies have even managed to map down to individual neurons.\n\nAnd yet, we should be cautious. Observing a concert pianist or a brain surgeon will not convey all the coding required to perform the actions witnessed. And yet, **mirror neurons do seem to provide sufficient information to predict why another is performing the behavior**, which is highly valuable inside and outside our social groups.\n","d953e37b-f2e4-478d-849f-6eb73e2d8598",[1537,1545],{"id":1538,"data":1539,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"1253d286-0ce8-433b-9903-42b987ef4816",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1540,"clozeWords":1542},[1541],"Neuroimaging studies into mirror neurons found brain areas involved in motion perception are the same as those used in motion production",[1543,1544],"perception","production",{"id":1546,"data":1547,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"52802375-8245-4b11-8343-2a393956d04d",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1548,"activeRecallAnswers":1550},[1549],"What brain feature allows learning through imitation of others' actions?",[1533],{"id":1552,"data":1553,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1555},"802f008f-5c1d-4613-9454-6d806a1f9321",{"type":25,"title":1554},"Body Perception and Awareness",[1556,1570],{"id":1557,"data":1558,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1562},"6e75772a-ce15-4f42-8efb-dbb235b64c2a",{"type":21,"title":1559,"markdownContent":1560,"audioMediaId":1561},"The Rubber Hand iIllusion","Awareness of our body and its position is vital to how we interact and move around our environment. And yet, a landmark study in 1998 showed how fragile our perception, awareness, and understanding of our own body actually is.\n\nDescribed as the ‘**rubber hand illusion**,’ subjects were asked to sit down and place one of their hands to one side, out of sight, behind a barrier. A rubber hand was placed where theirs should have been.\n\n ![Graph](image://cd08deda-c304-43d0-b5f4-d282ef2b4d4f \"The rubber hand illusion\")\n\nThe researcher gently brushed the fake hand and the hidden real one. After a while, they would stop stroking the hidden real hand. Surprisingly, the subjects continued to feel the strokes that they could see happening on the rubber hand.\n\nSuch body ownership illusions suggest **our sense of self may not be as coherent as first thought** and that it can extend to non-human objects.\n\n","4cd63b82-e234-45e0-956b-39702bc20b61",[1563],{"id":1564,"data":1565,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"51a99ace-e42f-4b5d-a242-1368fa22be95",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1566,"activeRecallAnswers":1568},[1567],"What illusion showed that humans can feel touch sensations on appendages that aren't even theirs?",[1569],"Rubber hand illusion",{"id":1571,"data":1572,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1576},"b0673596-a40b-480a-a55a-ec8b7845ccef",{"type":21,"title":1573,"markdownContent":1574,"audioMediaId":1575},"Alien hand syndrome","A 2016 study tested what’s been described as ‘**alien hand syndrome**.’ Subjects reported a sense of ownership over a computer-drawn hand they were operating in a 3D virtual reality environment. \n\nAlso, when asked to imagine the movements of the virtual hand, an electroencephalogram (EEG) was still able to record the brain's electrical activity.\n\n ![Graph](image://b2bd1be5-3676-468a-9212-ce05c5799aa7 \"A patient uses a mirror to simulate their missing forearm\")\n\n\n**‘Phantom limb pain’** is similar. Having been through an amputation, patients report experiencing pain in the limb when it’s no longer there. \n\nAnd the pain is real, often the result of a mix-up of signals between the nervous system and the brain making the body part feel like it’s still there after it's been removed.\n\nIt seems that feedback from vision, touch, position, motion, and our nervous system can be incorrectly combined, changing our sense of ownership, and that thinking of activity can be as real as doing.","9e883ada-61ab-4c11-b573-884bd8fe409b",[1577],{"id":1578,"data":1579,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"8390cd97-1999-4824-992d-7307558fae06",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1580,"multiChoiceCorrect":1582,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1583},[1581],"What syndrome describes when people think that a virtual reality appendage is theirs?",[1573],[1584,1585,1586],"Stolen foot syndrome","Borrowed finger syndrome","Phantom toe syndrome",{"id":1588,"data":1589,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":1592},"01b30af7-00d3-412a-bfad-b68f5bde1ec9",{"type":26,"title":1590,"tagline":1591},"Problem-Solving, Expertise, and Judgment","Our ability to survive and thrive relies on overcoming obstacles and solving problems in everyday life ",[1593,1691],{"id":1594,"data":1595,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1597},"6e814e6b-12e6-4c09-acb5-2bc78dfa5a2b",{"type":25,"title":1596},"Cognitive Processes and Decision-Making",[1598,1613,1636,1650,1668],{"id":1599,"data":1600,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1604},"7ac70d79-51e5-435f-b552-b0a6d7befe8d",{"type":21,"title":1601,"markdownContent":1602,"audioMediaId":1603},"Responding to our environment","**Decision-making, reasoning, and judgment** are crucial to responding to our environment in ways that help us overcome obstacles and work toward our goals. All of them involve **conscious awareness**, though typically not of the processes or thoughts themselves, but rather the product or object of our thinking.\n\nAfter all, choosing socks doesn’t typically involve ‘metacognition,’ or thinking about thinking, but we are aware when we can’t find a matching pair.\n\n ![Graph](image://9d1d6950-ab42-4b92-a266-75e1ba429078 \"Picking socks does not require much metacognition\")\n\nSo, what is a thought? It can refer to a mental event – bringing to mind something that has happened. Yet, it is also associated with a mental faculty, the capacity to think, and being engaged in the activity of thinking itself. \n\nWhile all aspects of such cognition are equally fascinating to the cognitive researcher, underpinning each is our ability to coherently organize our trains of thought to make decisions, reason, and judge.\n\n","ac70c824-e038-4c31-8d4e-55f6c2e0abde",[1605],{"id":1606,"data":1607,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"f192c93a-9a07-4150-8b6c-2ac763da1156",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1608,"activeRecallAnswers":1610},[1609],"According to problem solving theory, what three things are crucial to responding to our environment?",[1611,387,1612],"Decision-making","Judgement",{"id":1614,"data":1615,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1619},"5aeaa259-a02e-4f8c-b287-f0f93545fe61",{"type":21,"title":1616,"markdownContent":1617,"audioMediaId":1618},"Problem-solving","Whether rushing to a meeting when our train is delayed or trying to finish an assignment and finding the library is shut, problem-solving is a vital aspect of the human experience.\n\n**‘Knowledge rich’** problems such as chess require highly-specific knowledge, while in ‘knowledge lean’ problems, including math’s questions, we are often given the required information.\n\nThe German **Gestalt psychologists** also differentiated between problem-solving involving ‘**reproductive thinking**,’ reusing prior experiences, and ‘**productive thinking**’ involving moments of considerable insight – known as the ‘ah-ha experience.’ \n\nThe **2-string problem** famously describes the latter. Participants are challenged with tying the ends of 2 strings hanging from the ceiling, but they are too far apart to hold one and reach the other.  The room also contains several seemingly random objects, including a pair of pliers.\n \nResearchers found that if they 'accidentally' brushed against one of the strings setting it swinging, the subject often experienced an ‘aha’ moment. They recognized they could use the pliers as a pendulum, holding the other string and catching the weighted one on the upswing. ","053f405e-214c-463c-9b0c-df8191a85757",[1620,1628],{"id":1621,"data":1622,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"2a694e61-80a2-4136-90a2-db9ce59332fd",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1623,"clozeWords":1625},[1624],"While knowledge rich problems require highly-specific knowledge, knowledge lean problems, including math questions, often involve us being given the required information",[1626,1627],"knowledge rich","knowledge lean",{"id":1629,"data":1630,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"408a7650-50a8-4a6a-89ae-3db440f2da4e",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1631,"clozeWords":1633},[1632],"In humans, while ‘reproductive thinking,’ involves reusing prior experiences, ‘productive thinking’ involves moments of considerable insight",[1634,1635],"reproductive","productive",{"id":1637,"data":1638,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1642},"a6cd945c-f82c-400f-9ac2-221bbfde0556",{"type":21,"title":1639,"markdownContent":1640,"audioMediaId":1641},"Past experiences","Past experiences aren't always helpful in overcoming the obstacles we face – sometimes, they can even become a ‘blocker.’ \n\n**‘Functional fixedness’ is where we can only see an object as having a limited number of uses.**\n\nIn Karl Duncker’s classic 1945 experiment, he gave his participants matches, a candle, and tacks in a box, amongst other objects. When he asked them to attach the candle to the wall above the table so that it would not drip, they often tried, unsuccessfully, to nail it to the wall using the tacks. \n\nThey ‘fixated’ on the box the tacks were in as a container rather than a potential platform. The best solution was to tack the empty box to the wall, then use the inside as a candle holder.\n\nSimilarly, we often find ourselves ‘**mentally set**’. After all, as Albert Einstein apparently said, doing the same thing over and over again and expecting different results is the definition of insanity. And yet, at times, most of us are guilty of repeating past problem-solving techniques even when they don’t work – but it's never too late to change our approach.\n","bd63cfdf-f35f-4150-a593-061be1321677",[1643],{"id":1644,"data":1645,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"e2b51168-381c-43eb-a864-35e6c7db412c",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1646,"activeRecallAnswers":1648},[1647],"What is it called when we can only see an object as having a limited, finite number of uses?",[1649],"Functional fixedness",{"id":1651,"data":1652,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1656},"0b6ef168-a4ab-4a88-81f4-704ccd601993",{"type":21,"title":1653,"markdownContent":1654,"audioMediaId":1655},"Becoming an expert","**Expertise is often the result of years of gaining appropriate skills and knowledge within a specific field or environment**. The expert becomes highly efficient at solving problems within their domain and can see patterns and insights that others would miss.\n\nMedical expertise is very literally a matter of life and death. When doctors' eye movements were tracked while looking at medical scans those with the most expertise almost immediately fixated on the cancer, suggesting the use of holistic or global processes.\n\nIn fact, an early study of radiographers found that even when images were shown for only 200 milliseconds, experts were able to make a correct assessment 70% of the time.\n\nSimilar studies in other areas, including chess, suggest that experts use fast, seemingly automatic processes not available to non-experts. And yet, it remains unclear exactly how such methods work or even how they are acquired – though thousands of hours of practice are vital. ","490337ac-f4d6-4eff-bc43-3689b1823a5a",[1657],{"id":1658,"data":1659,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"39b5175a-cea3-46d4-9780-ccfcd6f00708",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1660,"multiChoiceCorrect":1662,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1664},[1661],"How long did an image need to be shown to a radiographer for so they could make a 70% accurate judgement, showing that experience leads to expertise?",[1663],"200 milliseconds",[1665,1666,1667],"2 seconds","2 minutes","2 hours",{"id":1669,"data":1670,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1674},"d3695f07-5c15-4d70-9e08-abbb52154086",{"type":21,"title":1671,"markdownContent":1672,"audioMediaId":1673},"Errors in Judgment","**Judgment** and **decision-making** overlap – the former influences the latter and is revised with new information. We may be 90% sure all swans are white until someone tells us otherwise, when our confidence drops to 50%. Then on holiday, we see one that is not, and we are 100% sure not all swans are white.\n\nBecause much of our knowledge is incomplete, **we often turn to rules of thumb or ‘heuristics’ to help with judgment tasks**. So, if someone or something appears to belong to a category we are already aware of, and they appear representative, we base our judgment on what we think we know based on that assumption. We then add in what’s called ‘base-rate’ information, or the likelihood of something happening or being true.\n\nAnd yet, we are notoriously wrong. The ‘**conjunction fallacy**’ confirms that we often believe that the combination of 2 events is more likely to happen than 1 on its own.\n","6317e311-0d2b-4fac-9f46-75b7972c5975",[1675,1682],{"id":1676,"data":1677,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"0f533c88-5992-414b-8fe6-67ff8f9d0c31",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1678,"activeRecallAnswers":1680},[1679],"What do we call rules of thumb that aid quicker cognition?",[1681],"Heuristics",{"id":1683,"data":1684,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"eb62cd6d-825d-4fb6-bf93-20c57f2b028b",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1685,"binaryCorrect":1687,"binaryIncorrect":1689},[1686],"What fallacy confirms we believe a combination of two events is more likely than one?",[1688],"Conjunction Fallacy",[1690],"Logical Fallacy",{"id":1692,"data":1693,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1695},"a60ac13d-4dcd-415b-8a91-dbfd26f9c4aa",{"type":25,"title":1694},"Decision-Making and Reasoning",[1696,1717,1733,1754,1768],{"id":1697,"data":1698,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1702},"fbcec562-d986-4992-bc26-b7d066487e56",{"type":21,"title":1699,"markdownContent":1700,"audioMediaId":1701},"Making the Right Decision","**Making the right decision typically involves choosing from among several possibilities**, often without having all the information to hand or even being clear on the consequences. \n\nParticipants in a study were asked to choose between a sure win of $800 or an 85% chance of winning $1000. Two-thirds of people chose the smaller average gain of $800 over the potential $1000.\n\nWhen repeated, participants were asked whether would opt for a guaranteed loss of $800 or an 85% chance of losing $1000. Despite the average loss in the first choice being $800, two-thirds of people chose the potential loss of $1000.\n\nAccording to the ‘prospect theory,’ people experience ‘loss aversion’, so they take greater risks on what they might gain over what they could lose.\n\nOther studies have uncovered something equally fascinating, including the ‘**sunk cost effect**.’ If we have invested resources in something, even if it proves unfavorable, we are likely to continue. However, expertise in the area can override the effect, for example, doctors stopping treatment when clearly not effective.\n","397139ef-0947-4a05-91eb-4b4f26eb3423",[1703,1710],{"id":1704,"data":1705,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"58f7b34c-d284-4fc9-a40d-b70bb319df6d",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1706,"clozeWords":1708},[1707],"Studies into the sunk cost effect show that even if an investment proves unfavourable, we are still likely to continue with it",[1709],"sunk cost effect",{"id":1711,"data":1712,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"8cf9f9da-0b9d-4347-ba33-16090de71b1a",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1713,"activeRecallAnswers":1715},[1714],"What term is used for the phenomenon where people are prepared to take greater risks on what they might gain over what they could lose?",[1716],"Loss aversion",{"id":1718,"data":1719,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1723},"1ab306fb-20d9-44e4-9173-e0156e18a352",{"type":21,"title":1720,"markdownContent":1721,"audioMediaId":1722},"Poor deductive reasoning","All spiders have 8 legs. A tarantula is a spider. Therefore, tarantulas have 8 legs. **'Deductive reasoning' refers to the logical conclusions we can draw with certainty**. And yet, such ‘**conditional reasoning**’ can also become confusing, leading us to incorrect deductions. \n\nFor example, when presented with the following 2 premises, “If Mary is angry, then I am upset” and “I am upset,” many conclude that “Mary is angry.” And yet, this needn't be the case – I could be upset because I have lost my new phone. \n\nResearch suggests that the inferences we draw often are based on our poor understanding of probability and our potential inability to think of counterexamples that fit the situation. \n\nIt seems that, far from being logical thinkers, humans frequently rely on their general knowledge of causal factors and people’s goals and preferences. While it can seem illogical, it often makes sense in the real world. ","e088c570-7ea6-4efd-92ef-798c38406647",[1724],{"id":1725,"data":1726,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"08cc5a9b-c9ad-4fa0-b0cd-07514514a27a",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1727,"binaryCorrect":1729,"binaryIncorrect":1731},[1728],"Given that humans have poor understanding of probability and counter-examples, what type of arguments can be challenging for us?",[1730],"deductive",[1732],"constructive",{"id":1734,"data":1735,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1739},"b722c157-4ee1-4069-a72d-cc1bf561f8bc",{"type":21,"title":1736,"markdownContent":1737,"audioMediaId":1738},"Creating Mental Models","Phil Johnson-Laird, Professor at Princeton University’s Department of Psychology, suggested that **we reason using ‘mental models’ to help us understand the logical outcomes of a set of premises**. \n\nWhen given a set of premises, such as “Joanne is older than Ben” and “Mary is younger than Ben,” we draw up a mental model consistent with both. **If we find counterexamples, the model is rejected; if not, the conclusion is considered valid**.\n\nSuch thought processes may involve visual imagery and preserving spatial relationships but are constrained by our limited working memory.\n\nWhile many studies have found evidence supporting our use of mental models, the approach assumes people engage in deductive reasoning more often than they do. Yet, most people find such logical thinking incredibly difficult. The theory also fails to consider our background knowledge or how we approach more ambiguous reasoning problems.","232500bf-16fc-4009-ba7d-98b4317739ae",[1740,1747],{"id":1741,"data":1742,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"6404cd48-24ad-42b3-a647-2392bbff6bfe",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1743,"clozeWords":1745},[1744],"The limitation of mental models is that they are constrained by our limited working memory",[1746],"working memory",{"id":1748,"data":1749,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"69bb9cab-8dec-4998-92a4-2ce73f5b8192",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1750,"activeRecallAnswers":1752},[1751],"What theory, proposed by Phil Johnson-Laird suggested that preserving spatial relationships helps us remember things?",[1753],"Mental Models",{"id":1755,"data":1756,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1760},"e47932ec-b9e4-478a-ab91-274df85230a2",{"type":21,"title":1757,"markdownContent":1758,"audioMediaId":1759},"Inductive reasoning","‘Inductive reasoning’ travels in only 1 direction, from more specific to more general – and is the opposite of deductive reasoning.\n\nWe use such reasoning every day. Each time I turn the tap, water comes out. When I turn the tap next time, more water will be available. Such inferences are incredibly helpful, if not 100% reliable. There could be a burst pipe, and there may be no more water. \n\nThe more observations that feed our inductive reasoning, statistically speaking, the more likely they are to be true. And yet, as philosopher of science **Karl Popper** recognized, when testing a hypothesis, instead of seeking additional confirmation, we must pursue ‘**falsification**.’\n\nAfter all, “all frogs are green outside Brazil,” until you stumble across a purple one. Humans make assumptions because they aren’t yet aware of what is currently unknowable. And yet, despite their likelihood of incorrectness and incompleteness, such an approach has helped keep individuals and groups safe throughout our long evolutionary journey.\n","4cde41a8-4abe-4f2d-8787-2f1ce23bc69c",[1761],{"id":1762,"data":1763,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"16c1a200-2967-42dc-8bf3-5d17f1ca0a4c",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1764,"clozeWords":1766},[1765],"Unlike deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning is based on assumptions that we make",[1767],"inductive reasoning",{"id":1769,"data":1770,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1774},"8901628b-4c89-4288-8ba7-9bf11f501096",{"type":21,"title":1771,"markdownContent":1772,"audioMediaId":1773},"Informal Reasoning\n","**Human reasoning is limited** and fails easily. Anecdotally we know this when we try and perform complex mental arithmetic in our heads and get it wrong or mistakenly take the wrong exit trying to avoid traffic on the way home. While some of these limitations are likely to be down to our mental ‘hardware,’ they also result from judgment biases and failing to understand the problem. \n\nWe can also be conservative when using our cognition – choosing to reason informally even when we have the skills and knowledge to reason deductively.\nNot only that, but according to what’s known as the **‘Dunning-Kruger effect,’ we are often unaware of our incompetence**, failing to recognize our errors, meaning that we continue to make the same mistakes repeatedly.\n\nWe are also more likely to be persuaded by the arguments given by someone who appears to be an expert – even when they are not.\n \n**Informal reasoning may be easier but carries greater risks of coming up with the wrong answer.**\n","ef2f3bb1-12e8-49fa-bcf2-46722697a563",[1775,1782],{"id":1776,"data":1777,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"88d02416-1f2c-414e-82cf-b2ad33a3086c",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1778,"clozeWords":1780},[1779],"Much of our human limitations come from judgment biases and a failure to understand a problem",[1781],"judgment",{"id":1783,"data":1784,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"cbed526b-4b2a-4edf-83e1-e3ac6276c7c8",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1785,"binaryCorrect":1787,"binaryIncorrect":1789},[1786],"What effect means that we are often unaware of our own incompetence when attempting logical reasoning problems?",[1788],"Dunning-Kruger",[1790],"Smith-Jones",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1792,"height":1792,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1793},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1792,"height":1792,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1795},"\u003Cg fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\">\u003Cpath d=\"M12.586 2.586A2 2 0 0 0 11.172 2H4a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v7.172a2 2 0 0 0 .586 1.414l8.704 8.704a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 3.42 0l6.58-6.58a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 0-3.42z\"/>\u003Ccircle cx=\"7.5\" cy=\"7.5\" r=\".5\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",1778179483416]