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1.41783L252.467 2.47876L251.45 2.3637L251.707 0.60165C252.118 0.401088 252.563 0.253475 253.041 0.15797C253.519 0.0529708 253.958 1.99446e-05 254.359 0Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\u003C/g>",{"id":13,"data":14,"type":15,"maxContentLevel":27,"version":28,"tiles":29},"aafe83f6-77a8-4195-a62b-25f6d30dc572",{"type":15,"title":16,"tagline":17,"description":17,"featureImageSquare":18,"baseColor":19,"emoji":20,"shapePreference":4,"allowContentSuspension":21,"allowContentEdits":21,"editorsChoice":21,"accreditations":22,"certificatePriceLevel":25,"certificationTitle":26},8,"The Timeless Wisdom of Great Greek Philosophers","From Stoics to pre-Socratics, learn how the ancients used to think","955aafc9-7a85-4cdb-8b25-ad61a74dc34d","#B58751","🤔",true,[23],{"authority":24},1,2,"Greek Philosophy",9,5,[30,367,621,878,1142,1400,1681,1955,2189,2413],{"id":31,"data":32,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"orbs":36},"4dba1ee8-e2bc-40e8-8760-e1c321544e2e",{"type":27,"title":33,"tagline":34},"The Pre-Socratics: the Origin of Greek Philosophy","This tile contains an overview of pre-Socratic philosophy and the ways in which these early thinkers tried to answer the universe's biggest questions.",3,[37,110,210],{"id":38,"data":39,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":41,"introPage":49,"pages":57},"4256db50-38c0-442f-b1d7-3490a660c23e",{"type":25,"title":40},"Introduction to Pre-Socratic Philosophy",{"id":42,"data":43,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"d2e763fc-567b-4b6c-8432-7f3a045cbe47",{"type":35,"summary":44},[45,46,47,48],"Pre-Socratic philosophers were the first to challenge religious explanations of the world","They explored metaphysics to understand the universe's ultimate nature","They asked fundamental questions like \"What is reality made of?\" and \"Is reality fixed or in flux?\"","Pre-Socratic thinkers also pondered how to live a good life without relying on religion",{"id":50,"data":51,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"9039381d-9365-4511-a5bc-ff19af927482",{"type":52,"intro":53},10,[54,55,56],"Who is considered the first Pre-Socratic philosopher?","What was the main focus of Pre-Socratic philosophy?","How did Pre-Socratic thinkers differ from mythological explanations?",[58,63],{"id":59,"data":60,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"72d46e6c-842e-4ee2-ae0e-de09ee54d671",{"type":24,"markdownContent":61,"audioMediaId":62},"The history of Western philosophy begins thousands of years ago, in Ancient Greece. It was here that the first serious efforts to understand the world, beyond the guise of religion and myth, were undertaken.\n\nWhile Socrates, Plato, or Aristotle may be the first names that come to mind when thinking about ancient Greek philosophers, this revolutionary era of thought starts even before them with the aptly named **pre-Socratic** schools of philosophy.\n\n![Graph](image://a5ce5fb9-15cd-46b3-af4e-acebc727c970 \"Raphael's 'The School of Athens'. Image:\")\n\nPre-Socratic philosophy is the emergence of rational thought from the world of supernatural belief and metaphysics. Though we now take for granted reason and rationality, and we can comprehend the world through the lens of science, ancient man believed existence was beholden to the whims of gods. All natural phenomena, human endeavors, and even human knowledge were seen as the product of divine forces acting upon humanity.","91fcefba-3f7a-4a48-bf72-2dd75c29bfb7",{"id":64,"data":65,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"reviews":68},"83a74eb3-6bea-4ca4-aec4-69a4f04cb848",{"type":24,"markdownContent":66,"audioMediaId":67},"To combat the superstitious view of the world, pre-Socratic philosophers turned to **metaphysics** and **cosmogony** to find a new way of understanding.\n\nMetaphysics is the study of the ultimate constitution of the universe, and cosmogony is the branch of science that considers the ultimate origin of the universe. Pre-Socratic philosophers found that by delving into these areas of study, they were able to look beyond religion to understand the world.\n\nHowever, moving beyond organized religion to understand the world brought a whole new set of fundamental questions that pre-Socratic philosophers were forced to face. These fundamental questions were, *What is reality made of? What is the origin of the universe? Is reality fixed or in flux?*\n\nBut these were not the only concerns of early philosophers; ethics also came into play with this venture into philosophy, because without religion or myth, philosophers had to attempt to answer the question, *How does one live a good, fulfilling life?*","0f815150-c17e-408b-955e-f0773a3a8adb",[69,79,99],{"id":70,"data":71,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"95f24aea-c756-464e-b92b-8e4a5f0894d4",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":73,"binaryCorrect":75,"binaryIncorrect":77},11,[74],"What is cosmogony the study of?",[76],"The ultimate origin of the universe",[78],"The ultimate constitution of the universe",{"id":80,"data":81,"type":72,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"f5ad5a8c-a53a-49ae-a0be-037b34ed9096",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":82,"multiChoiceQuestion":86,"multiChoiceCorrect":88,"multiChoiceIncorrect":90,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":94,"matchPairsPairs":96},[83,84,85],"85b6c192-d4e9-4e62-b7c0-302b7ad97770","612d6627-dec6-408b-88cc-e0aca1543b48","3af14893-9141-412b-87f8-78dfb5b74790",[87],"Which of the following most closely applies to metaphysics?",[89],"Study of the ultimate constitution of the universe",[91,92,93],"Branch of science dealing with the origin of the universe","Problem faced by early philosophers","A concept proposed by the Eleatics and Parmenides, arguing against the idea of flux or changeability",[95],"Match the pairs below:",[97],{"left":98,"right":89,"direction":35},"Metaphysics",{"id":83,"data":100,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":101,"multiChoiceQuestion":102,"multiChoiceCorrect":104,"multiChoiceIncorrect":105,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":106,"matchPairsPairs":107},[80,84,85],[103],"Which of the following best describes cosmogony?",[91],[89,92,93],[95],[108],{"left":109,"right":91,"direction":35},"Cosmogony",{"id":111,"data":112,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":114,"introPage":122,"pages":129},"3bef29c6-8917-4778-9023-35004164aed0",{"type":25,"title":113},"The One, The Many, and the Four Elements",{"id":115,"data":116,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"9aa1125a-5551-4cd8-9344-266b0f6dda88",{"type":35,"summary":117},[118,119,120,121],"Pre-Socratic philosophers believed all matter came from a single origin","They debated whether the universe was in constant change or had an underlying order","They questioned if truths were absolute or relative to individuals and communities","Early Greeks thought everything was made of water, earth, fire, or air",{"id":123,"data":124,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"967b155c-a8dd-416d-a5ce-e9306591fd62",{"type":52,"intro":125},[126,127,128],"What is the 'one and the many' concept?","Who first debated the origin of all matter?","How does 'the one and the many' relate to the four elements?",[130,147,162,175],{"id":131,"data":132,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":135},"956392f7-46cd-433f-a53f-f86846dce04a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":133,"audioMediaId":134},"Over a period of 200 years, pre-Socratic philosophers attempted to find a new, rational understanding of the universe despite having limited resources and knowledge.\n\nTo understand the changing of seasons as something other than the movement of gods, philosophers had to search for a new understanding of the world through keen observations and new theories on metaphysics. In their search for a new understanding, early philosophers faced three major questions that would go on to define the first schools of the discipline.\n\n![Graph](image://16355896-4b1e-49f0-8363-b3c6b43824ad \"The Four Seasons. Image: Alphonse Marie Mucha, Public domain via Art Institute Chicago\")\n\nThe first issue is the problem of **the one and the many**. To an observer, the world is made up of such an enormous variety of objects: living to inanimate, solid to liquid, seen to unseen. And yet, despite these variations, early philosophers found it rational to propose that all matter actually arose from a single origin, and they then debated what that origin was.","07b118a3-f0b5-40c4-afa7-430de44e7f00",[136],{"id":137,"data":138,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"33ad6a9e-0675-46af-a616-48a5538e6989",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":139,"multiChoiceCorrect":141,"multiChoiceIncorrect":143,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[140],"Which of these statements would a pre-Socratic philosopher probably have found rational?",[142],"All matter arises from a single origin",[144,145,146],"Matter arises from many origins","The origins of matter are constantly changing","There is an enormous variety of matter",{"id":148,"data":149,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"reviews":152},"674b96af-fdfe-4fc8-9799-4059d9ee5e71",{"type":24,"markdownContent":150,"audioMediaId":151},"The second issue pre-Socratic philosophers also had to face was the issue of \"change\" or \"constancy\".\n\nObserving the turning of the seasons, the shifting from day to night, and even the changes in one’s own life leads one to surmise that everything changes all the time. These changes were commonly explained by the whims and fancies of the gods, but early philosophers weren’t satisfied with that.\n\nThe pre-Socratic philosophers wondered if, despite the seemingly eternal flux in the universe, there wasn’t an underlying constancy. Although the seasons change every few months, they vary in a constant pattern. The view of the world as one of constant change and chaos versus one with an underlying order would go on to be one of the distinguishing traits of early pre-Socratic schools.","e6298c27-9ca2-420f-9600-4f697a0a6b84",[153],{"id":154,"data":155,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"a4e528b0-99bf-4f3b-b073-eb7fd9b9ccc6",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":156,"binaryCorrect":158,"binaryIncorrect":160},[157],"One of the defining traits of early pre-Socratic schools was",[159],"Some constancy underlay the constant change of the world",[161],"There is only eternal chaos in the universe",{"id":163,"data":164,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":167},"7e955c85-2980-4e5e-aca1-94de2591aa67",{"type":24,"markdownContent":165,"audioMediaId":166},"The pre-Socratic philosophers were left to decide whether there is an essence of constancy that underlies the constant flux of the world, as they were attempting to identify whether there was a common point of origin for existence. While they were answering these questions, a third problem arose: **relativism**.\n\nSuppose any one of these early philosophers were to identify a theory that perfectly answered the world's great mysteries and then some; would these answers work for everyone? Are answers true for one or true for all? If there are absolutes, how are we supposed to know what they are? The crux of this problem revolves around the question of whether there are absolutes or whether all ideas and values are the product of man’s own creation and are relative to an individual or community.","7bf2efd5-7a24-43b4-9674-a0e36848ec8a",[168],{"id":169,"data":170,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"d80ca5bc-ef38-469c-a7d5-52bf202eaf10",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":171,"activeRecallAnswers":173},[172],"What is pre-Socratic relativism?",[174],"The question of whether knowledge is absolute or man-made",{"id":176,"data":177,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":180},"c7b145ba-96a3-4e67-bc5c-68c6ec4d0607",{"type":24,"markdownContent":178,"audioMediaId":179},"Early Greeks also held the view that four basic elements composed all life on Earth and those were water, earth, fire and air. These four elements went on to define the early schools of ancient Greek philosophy. While many schools of thought were formed in an attempt to develop a cohesive, logical view of the cosmos, two major pre-Socratic schools emerged – the Milesians and the Eleatics.\n\n![Graph](image://618e26d2-94f1-4439-82fd-a8fa71a60bc0 \"The four elements. Image: Ihcoyc, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nEach of these ancient schools of pre-Socratic philosophy attempted to formulate a rational view of the world and the cosmos from what limited knowledge they were able to gain from the world around them. Because of this, early philosophers identified one of the four elements as being the central point of origin for the universe.","4f0bc7dc-d107-4416-9a40-b6eb90465b49",[181,189,199],{"id":182,"data":183,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"5da032c6-a2c6-456c-9971-2d2a2456e277",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":184,"activeRecallAnswers":186},[185],"What were the two major pre-Socratic schools?",[187,188],"The Milesians","The Eleatics",{"id":190,"data":191,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"8acf30e7-86d6-4c29-98e6-b0b5e407a021",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":192,"activeRecallAnswers":194},[193],"Early Greeks believed what were the four basic elements of all life?",[195,196,197,198],"Earth","Air","Fire","Water",{"id":84,"data":200,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":201,"multiChoiceQuestion":202,"multiChoiceCorrect":204,"multiChoiceIncorrect":205,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":206,"matchPairsPairs":207},[80,83,85],[203],"Which of the following most closely applies to relativism?",[92],[89,91,93],[95],[208],{"left":209,"right":92,"direction":35},"Relativism",{"id":211,"data":212,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":214,"introPage":222,"pages":229},"cd391fa5-1de9-4e6f-8d20-18d658035225",{"type":25,"title":213},"The Milesians, Ionians, and Eleatics",{"id":215,"data":216,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"6c60cf0b-0ec0-4561-91e9-faf7f6bfa457",{"type":35,"summary":217},[218,219,220,221],"Thales of Miletus thought water was the universal element of all things","Anaximander believed life came from 'the boundless,' an indefinable substance","Anaximenes claimed air, in different states, was the origin of all matter","Parmenides argued that all reality is 'the One,' a perfectly unified form",{"id":223,"data":224,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"a3e1e56e-8e89-4475-bc4e-25b53ca2d83b",{"type":52,"intro":225},[226,227,228],"What key idea did Thales of Miletus propose about the nature of the universe?","How did the Ionians differ from the Eleatics in their understanding of change?","What was Parmenides' main argument against the concept of change?",[230,243,286,307,312,339],{"id":231,"data":232,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":235},"156d1b2d-ec2d-462d-ba12-11f759a9ce81",{"type":24,"markdownContent":233,"audioMediaId":234},"The Milesians, from the city of Miletus, were the first known philosophers of ancient Greece. Thales of Miletus, known today as the father of philosophy, constructed a theory of the world as one that was innately chaotic, which would go on to define the school of Milesians. Despite this eternal chaos, Milesians sought to understand their world and attempted to discern any order within the chaos.\n\n![Graph](image://97ea12e0-63de-4fbc-876e-3029a22fe6ab \"Thales of Miletus. Image: Public Domain via Wellcome Collection\")\n\nTurning to the elements, Thales believed that water was the universal element of all things and the common origin of life. Water, he argued, can be found as a solid, liquid, and gas, and it is an essential nutrient for life to grow. He saw this as sufficient evidence for water being the universal element of origin. While we now know it not to be true, Thales was famed for his scientific mind. He even correctly predicted a solar eclipse in 585 BC.","c6cd588a-0bad-4168-8b7b-c329aa4ca4b7",[236],{"id":237,"data":238,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"4f1dc0cb-7069-4830-9808-7f4a11bc9084",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":239,"multiChoiceCorrect":241,"multiChoiceIncorrect":242,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[240],"Which of the four elements did the pre-Socratic philosopher Thales believe was the foundation of all life?",[198],[195,196,197],{"id":244,"data":245,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":248},"c5c168b9-c9a1-41b9-8074-b723a468bf61",{"type":24,"markdownContent":246,"audioMediaId":247},"Milesian philosophers all agreed that the world was innately chaotic, but they didn’t agree on what the common point of origin was. Anaximander did not support Thales’ claim that water was the universal origin. Instead, he believed that life originated from something indefinable, an element he called ‘the boundless.’ This nameless substance was what all existence sprung from and would ultimately return to.\n\n![Graph](image://0d658912-da2d-47a4-aae3-0d282993a917 \"Anaximander of Miletus (painted in the 19th Century). Image: Attributed to Pietro Bellotti, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAnaximander also believed the chaos of the world was at play even within the elements. If a single element was the unifying origin, it would consume or override all others, so the universal origin had to be something beyond the four natural elements.","395a418b-33f0-47cf-b44c-a382926ebbc4",[249,258,275],{"id":250,"data":251,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"f09a8cb1-5c69-4dd4-98ba-f9d85262d425",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":252,"binaryCorrect":254,"binaryIncorrect":256},[253],"Who believed that if a single element was the unifying origin, it would consume or override all others, so the universal origin had to be something beyond the four natural elements?",[255],"Anaximander",[257],"Anaximenes",{"id":259,"data":260,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"d583feb3-e67b-4f09-9abf-81452458f264",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":261,"multiChoiceQuestion":265,"multiChoiceCorrect":267,"multiChoiceIncorrect":269,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":271,"matchPairsPairs":272},[262,263,264],"784f1cf4-2087-4f2b-bfea-dd3743a5b9cb","4668bab2-152f-400e-acf4-2f29e7e341f5","b6119052-c15c-4b2f-b24f-c4ddae4187da",[266],"Who was the person that predicted a solar eclipse in 585 BC?",[268],"Thales of Miletus",[255,257,270],"Pythagoras",[95],[273],{"left":268,"right":274,"direction":35},"Predicted a solar eclipse in 585 BC",{"id":262,"data":276,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":277,"multiChoiceQuestion":278,"multiChoiceCorrect":280,"multiChoiceIncorrect":281,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":282,"matchPairsPairs":283},[259,263,264],[279],"Who disagreed with the assertion that water was the universal origin?",[255],[268,257,270],[95],[284],{"left":255,"right":285,"direction":35},"Did not support the claim that water was the universal origin",{"id":287,"data":288,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":291},"b46207a3-1171-4134-9434-4356010e1445",{"type":24,"markdownContent":289,"audioMediaId":290},"However, Anaximenes, Anaximander’s student, rebuked those claims. Anaximenes proposed the idea that air, either in a compressed or expanded state, was the universal origin. Air is essential for life, and he believed it was the substance of the soul. He claimed it was only whether the air was compressed or expanded that determined which state of matter it was.\n\n![Graph](image://c3b44eab-9cf5-4aa0-b435-096370c419b5 \"Anaximenes. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nAnaximenes proposed that compressed or expanded air formed all matter. This was the first quantifiable or measurable theory of the universe, and it’s from this view that the Ionian school of philosophy emerged. One of the most notable members of this school was Pythagoras. Before he was known for his mathematical theorems, he was recognized for seeing the world like fire.","7bcd8f4b-41d2-4e01-9eec-34c263954092",[292,301],{"id":293,"data":294,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"0e1a7f83-6152-47f7-88f8-42cb3a18ae1f",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":295,"binaryCorrect":297,"binaryIncorrect":299},[296],"Which pre-Socratic school of philosophy evolved from Anaximenes' view of the world as compressed or expanded air?",[298],"Ionian",[300],"Milesian",{"id":302,"data":303,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"6f0b28f8-c555-48b5-803a-f6accca9e69e",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":304,"activeRecallAnswers":306},[305],"Famous for his mathematical theorems, which Ionian philosopher believed fire was the source of all things?",[270],{"id":308,"data":309,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"5d7ca974-a74a-42f2-80a0-2681ae889766",{"type":24,"markdownContent":310,"audioMediaId":311},"Fire is constantly changing. It’s not only destructive but it also has the potential to create as it provides heat for life and renewal. A fire’s flames are constantly moving, a representation of the chaotic, shifting state of the universe.\n\nPythagoras believed that this fire was the ultimate unifying element of the universe and that it’s only through mathematics that man is able to identify an underlying cause or rationality behind the ever-changing universe.\n\n![Graph](image://fd1252e7-661b-4ef6-b862-b4277a9d3c45 \"A Bust of Pythagoras. Image: The original uploader was Galilea at German Wikipedia., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","e09c6b57-f09d-4ae4-a271-83f1af9915ad",{"id":313,"data":314,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":317},"8abb28a2-7bbc-46f0-b706-efe7a3f36e61",{"type":24,"markdownContent":315,"audioMediaId":316},"The most radical school of pre-Socratic philosophy was the Eleatics (pronounced 'El-ee-A-tics\"). These philosophers rebuked the idea of the world as one of disorder and chaos and argued instead that all of reality was actually ‘the One.’\n\nParmenides, the most famous philosopher to propose this view, argued that while the world may appear to be full of separate, distinct objects – such as a chair, a tree, a dog, even oneself – that’s just an illusion.\n\n![Graph](image://2f1073e3-a313-4c77-98cc-ac1713c5614c \"A Bust of Parmenides. See page for author, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAll existence, Parmenides argued, was a part of a perfectly unified form that makes up the entire cosmos. For something to exist, or even for an idea to be true, it must be in harmony with the One.\n\nThe Eleatics believed that our senses are ultimately deceiving and that knowledge could only come through deductive thought, or logos, once the senses had been put aside.","4a0c494d-ea7b-4b61-a22f-c0d4fffd2b0c",[318,327],{"id":319,"data":320,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"9d765c1b-ce91-4a5d-ae48-10f2edc9f85e",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":321,"binaryCorrect":323,"binaryIncorrect":325},[322],"What is the Greek name for deductive thought, that the Eleatics believed was the only way to obtain true knowledge?",[324],"Logos",[326],"Legos",{"id":85,"data":328,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":329,"multiChoiceQuestion":330,"multiChoiceCorrect":332,"multiChoiceIncorrect":334,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":335,"matchPairsPairs":336},[80,83,84],[331],"Which of the following best describes 'The One'?",[333],"A concept proposed by the Eleatics and Parmenides, arguing against the idea of flux",[89,91,92],[95],[337],{"left":338,"right":93,"direction":35},"The One",{"id":340,"data":341,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":344},"f89f0268-e9fa-4684-9a32-3b11471cb087",{"type":24,"markdownContent":342,"audioMediaId":343},"More than 90 pre-Socratic philosophers sought to look beyond myth and religion to understand the universe. While some of their ideas have been disproved with the advancement of science and time, each of these early philosophers’ thoughts went on to influence the most well-known ancient Greek philosophers – Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.\n\nThese early thinkers’ groundbreaking theories and their tireless search for truth, reason, and wisdom have been the basis for much of human advancement through the centuries. While only fragments of their writings have survived until today, their creative thinking and depths of reason have inspired centuries of philosophers, artists, and scientists alike. Did you know Thomas Jefferson identified as an Epicurean?","7af6acec-6aed-4973-9779-e2cef6b51e4f",[345,356],{"id":263,"data":346,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":347,"multiChoiceQuestion":348,"multiChoiceCorrect":350,"multiChoiceIncorrect":351,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":352,"matchPairsPairs":353},[259,262,264],[349],"Who suggested that the universal origin was air?",[257],[268,255,270],[95],[354],{"left":257,"right":355,"direction":35},"Proposed that air was the universal origin",{"id":264,"data":357,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":358,"multiChoiceQuestion":359,"multiChoiceCorrect":361,"multiChoiceIncorrect":362,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":363,"matchPairsPairs":364},[259,262,263],[360],"Who is the philosopher that believed fire was the ultimate unifying element of the universe?",[270],[268,255,257],[95],[365],{"left":270,"right":366,"direction":35},"Believed that fire was the ultimate unifying element of the universe",{"id":368,"data":369,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"orbs":372},"197043b9-c72a-4e4b-98ee-8df9ac90db72",{"type":27,"title":370,"tagline":371},"The Milesian Philosophers","Learn how the first school of philosophy, the Milesians, sought to find meaning in a disordered world.",[373,495,570],{"id":374,"data":375,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":377,"introPage":385,"pages":392},"4108a892-a966-4be9-8156-39aacb5e6929",{"type":25,"title":376},"Understanding Milesian Philosophy",{"id":378,"data":379,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"a3e99165-7fb8-413b-a195-97e25c7352bc",{"type":35,"summary":380},[381,382,383,384],"Thales of Miletus is the father of philosophy and founded the Milesian school","Milesian philosophers believed in an 'arche,' a single substance underlying all reality","The arche was seen as alive and the source of all things, living and nonliving","Aristotle wrote that the arche was a permanent substance that never disappeared, even when it changed forms",{"id":386,"data":387,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"4eff9326-5825-441b-b5a5-8c47c54e2e02",{"type":52,"intro":388},[389,390,391],"Who were the three main Milesian philosophers?","What was Thales' primary belief about the fundamental substance of the world?","How did Anaximander explain the origin of the cosmos?",[393,410,441,456],{"id":394,"data":395,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":398},"3ab43499-8e9f-412f-a95d-45a033a76a59",{"type":24,"markdownContent":396,"audioMediaId":397},"In a world where everything from the weather to emotions to the movement of stars was explained by a mythology of anthropomorphized gods, the attempt to grasp onto a scientific explanation of the world was unheard of. And yet, that is exactly what early philosophers attempted to do.\n\n**Thales of Miletus** is considered the father of philosophy, and it is from the Ionian town of Miletus that the first school of philosophy emerged – the Milesians. These early ‘philosophers of nature’ utilized methodological observation to formulate a new theory of metaphysics and cosmology.","1f659478-4a69-4e5e-bcab-8350a116830d",[399],{"id":400,"data":401,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"6f5a6c81-a2ed-4cc4-b41c-8c3d62913589",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":402,"multiChoiceCorrect":404,"multiChoiceIncorrect":406,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[403],"Thales, considered the 'father of philosophy', came from which Ionian town, home of the first school of Greek philosophy?",[405],"Miletus",[407,408,409],"Sinope","Aegina","Syracuse",{"id":411,"data":412,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"reviews":415},"181be1b0-5a14-4a45-88ff-822856b1e2fe",{"type":24,"markdownContent":413,"audioMediaId":414},"To move beyond the realm of fickle gods as the explanation for all natural phenomena, early Milesian philosophers attempted to answer the fundamental question, *What is the world made of?* To answer this, they had to develop a new theory of metaphysics, which is the study of ultimate reality.\n\n![Graph](image://38d83d12-2c2d-455c-83ee-0ae0e056b5d9 \"Thales of Miletus. Wilhelm Meyer, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nDespite viewing the world as one of constant change and infinite varieties, the Milesians believed that beneath the flux was a single, permanent substance underlying it all. This substance they called the **‘arche.’** The arche was theorized to be alive and endowed with a living spirit; thus, it was the basis for all reality. This was the substance from which all things, living and nonliving, came and to which they eventually would return.","76cfc70f-2896-4914-ba51-fa9a06a8a55c",[416,423,430],{"id":417,"data":418,"type":72,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"0de3d318-4b95-4a12-896b-747a7787e0c4",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":419,"activeRecallAnswers":421},[420],"What materialist question did early Milesian philosophers attempt to answer?",[422],"What prime substance is the world made of?",{"id":424,"data":425,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"c5b0b5b9-3c8f-4c27-bb9f-77db317097ef",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":426,"activeRecallAnswers":428},[427],"What is metaphysics?",[429],"Metaphysics is the study of ultimate reality",{"id":431,"data":432,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"e8af834f-9801-44cc-96db-95cf48c9cc3d",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":433,"multiChoiceCorrect":435,"multiChoiceIncorrect":437,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[434],"Which of these is the most accurate description of the 'arche' in Milesian thought?",[436],"A single, permanent substance underlying everything",[438,439,440],"The natural state of change or flux","The governing principle underlying all ethics","The essential spirit of humanity",{"id":442,"data":443,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":446},"2bb31b8d-d3a8-49c5-b7f0-17132c526cbc",{"type":24,"markdownContent":444,"audioMediaId":445},"In the case of the Milesians, they saw ultimate reality as that of a ‘world of becoming.’ To them, this *becoming* of the world meant it was in a state of constant change or flux. That ceaseless change was complemented by an infinite plurality of differences, that is, an infinite variety of forms or objects that could come from a constantly shifting reality.\n\nAristotle wrote about the early philosophers’ beliefs in the arche, or a permanent substance underlying and unifying reality, in his work *Metaphysics*. He wrote: *'Principles which were the nature of matter were only principles of all things \\[...\\] just so they say nothing else comes to be or ceases to be; for there must be some entity - either one or more than one - from which all other things come to be, it being conserved.'*","043ced77-bedd-47c9-9364-4129b50c612f",[447],{"id":448,"data":449,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"17d78610-718d-46ff-bde5-993901e00350",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":450,"binaryCorrect":452,"binaryIncorrect":454},[451],"To the Milesians, the world was in:",[453],"A state of constant change or flux",[455],"A perfect, thus static state",{"id":457,"data":458,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":461},"b6ad75f4-e70b-40f6-a419-cd9328672553",{"type":24,"markdownContent":459,"audioMediaId":460},"In the context of the Greek use of the words, ‘arche’ can importantly be translated as ‘to rule.’ What Aristotle is explaining is that early philosophers believed the arche to be a substance that presided over all other matter and did not disappear when it changed forms.\n\nIn other words, whatever the fundamental substance which comprised the arche was, it could be changed into a new form by loss or acquisition, but it was always present, even in the new form.","29f02806-6f97-4f4a-95d4-2d8fe14333fb",[462,471,483],{"id":463,"data":464,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"eb798ea0-aa58-4f8f-a5d6-a508e22f3d5e",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":465,"binaryCorrect":467,"binaryIncorrect":469},[466],"According to Aristotle, the arche was always present",[468],"but could change into a new form",[470],"and never changing",{"id":472,"data":473,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"7af65886-2086-4295-8720-5c355d3b4b19",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":474,"multiChoiceCorrect":476,"multiChoiceIncorrect":477,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":479,"matchPairsPairs":480},[475],"Who was the initiator of the first school of philosophy?",[268],[187,188,478],"Zeno of Elea",[95],[481],{"left":268,"right":482,"direction":35},"Initiated the first school of philosophy",{"id":484,"data":485,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"734a8c68-8e71-463c-bd4e-783d27e38588",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":486,"multiChoiceCorrect":488,"multiChoiceIncorrect":490,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":491,"matchPairsPairs":492},[487],"Who believed in the concept of arche?",[489],"Milesians",[268,188,478],[95],[493],{"left":489,"right":494,"direction":35},"Believed in the concept of 'arche'",{"id":496,"data":497,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":499,"introPage":507,"pages":514},"417f8d69-a1e0-4ebb-954d-935ab75b8b9a",{"type":25,"title":498},"Thales and Anaximander",{"id":500,"data":501,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"8eecefd3-596d-48ad-9ef2-50e54e76d753",{"type":35,"summary":502},[503,504,505,506],"Thales of Miletus predicted the eclipse of 585 BC, ending a war","Thales believed water was the fundamental element of the cosmos","Thales thought Earth floated on water, explaining earthquakes as waves","Anaximander proposed the Apeiron, an indefinable substance above the elements",{"id":508,"data":509,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"a8d9cd8c-edac-426a-9266-50a66d26e6fb",{"type":52,"intro":510},[511,512,513],"What did Thales of Miletus believe was the fundamental substance of the universe?","How did early philosophers use the four elements to explain the cosmos?","Why did Thales think water was the 'arche'?",[515,541,555],{"id":516,"data":517,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"reviews":520},"043477dd-5b9a-4aa6-aa58-cb2eb0dfe34f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":518,"audioMediaId":519},"Thales of Miletus is perhaps the most well-known of the Milesian philosophers. Known today as the first of the Seven Sages of Greece and the father of philosophy, Thales was respected in his time as a renowned scientist and astronomer. So certain of his own scientific knowledge was Thales that he accurately predicted the eclipse of 585 BC. This prediction was so stunning to other men that it actually ended a nearby war.\n\nThales was also known for having formulated a theory of the cosmos that divided the year into four seasons and 365 days. To accomplish this feat, he’d developed a working theory of the path of the sun. Incredibly, his estimation of the sun and moon’s size was 1/720 of the true size of the celestial bodies. However, Thales is perhaps more well-known now for his early metaphysical formulations.","9ed181ff-f6c0-4823-9250-99135b0f17dd",[521,530],{"id":522,"data":523,"type":72,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"d9ac392f-5a20-4519-bed2-ebf9a1b82c1c",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":524,"binaryCorrect":526,"binaryIncorrect":528},[525],"Thales correctly predicted that the earth was a sphere",[527],"FALSE",[529],"TRUE",{"id":531,"data":532,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"c596c875-23b6-430c-8d17-2f976af0e74f",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":533,"multiChoiceCorrect":535,"multiChoiceIncorrect":537,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[534],"Which of these was an achievement of Thales?",[536],"Accurately predicting an eclipse in 585 BC",[538,539,540],"Correctly estimate the circumference of the earth in 567 BC","Writing an early theory of gravity","The 'Cave Theory' of metaphysics",{"id":542,"data":543,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"reviews":546},"cd139f9f-7fb0-4ee9-bdde-a80f9ad2bd1c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":544,"audioMediaId":545},"Using nature and acquired scientific knowledge to guide them, early Milesian philosophers turned to the four elements – earth, water, air, and fire – to understand the fundamental makeup of the cosmos.\n\nThales of Miletus believed that water was the arche or the substance underlying a constantly shifting, chaotic reality. Since water could uniquely move from a solid to a liquid to a gas, Thales believed it was the first and fundamental element from which all others sprung. Not only that, but Thales developed a theory of cosmology that Earth was actually floating in a pool of water. Earthquakes could be explained by waves on the water, he believed, and Earth was solidified from the water on which it sat, just as the mud was.","af5a8c2b-9ad9-44a3-a6e0-86e0404d80ae",[547],{"id":548,"data":549,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"06308794-86dc-421e-8bd3-3a4a323b7ef6",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":550,"multiChoiceCorrect":552,"multiChoiceIncorrect":553,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[551],"Which element did Thales of Miletus believe was the 'arche'?",[198],[197,195,554],"Wind",{"id":556,"data":557,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":560},"b89b446a-4675-49f7-974a-75914600c511",{"type":24,"markdownContent":558,"audioMediaId":559},"Anaximander, a student of Thales, is a Milesian philosopher who agreed with the belief that the world was in a constant state of flux. However, he rebuked Thales’ claims of water as the arche or underlying, unifying substance. Instead, Anaximander reasoned that, for a substance to be the origin of all reality, it had to be something above the elements and all known matter.\n\nHe called this substance the Apeiron, which means the ‘boundless’ or the ‘indefinable.’ He argued that none of the elements themselves had the power to be the ultimate, unifying substance; it could only be something above the elements. Considering the state of the cosmos to constantly be in flux, the Apeiron was an indefinable, boundless form of eternal motion.","17b96932-e231-425c-8be1-3994644567ec",[561],{"id":562,"data":563,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"132082f4-e297-408a-a139-c19755073c06",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":564,"binaryCorrect":566,"binaryIncorrect":568},[565],"What was the substance that Anaximander named 'Apeiron'?",[567],"The ultimate, unifying substance",[569],"An alternative to the four elements",{"id":571,"data":572,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":574,"introPage":582,"pages":589},"945bdda8-c357-4c30-9966-8d00b565039d",{"type":25,"title":573},"Understanding the Apeiron",{"id":575,"data":576,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"bfc1a8e6-4091-4c18-bd3f-53acc2d79bb4",{"type":35,"summary":577},[578,579,580,581],"Anaximander's Apeiron is an infinite, limitless substance that forms all things","The Apeiron is made of mixed opposites: hot and cold, wet and dry","Anaximander believed the world was surrounded by fire-filled, hollow wheels","Anaximenes, Anaximander's student, thought air was the arche, forming matter through condensation and vaporization",{"id":583,"data":584,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"40d68a04-303f-47a0-9941-62cc9a363280",{"type":52,"intro":585},[586,587,588],"What is the Apeiron according to Anaximander?","How does the Apeiron influence the cosmos?","Why did Anaximander believe the Apeiron was essential?",[590,604,616],{"id":591,"data":592,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"reviews":595},"7a8c3d21-dcee-4c03-b826-f139f149d6d7",{"type":24,"markdownContent":593,"audioMediaId":594},"Anaximander chose to look beyond matter and the natural world to find the unifying substance or ‘arche’ that was so important to the Pre-Socratics. He used his theory of the Apeiron to illustrate  further this constant change and the infinite variations of the universe. Anaximander proposed that the world was made of two pairs of opposites – hot and cold, and wet and dry.\n\nThese characteristics correspond to the four elements and, mixed together, they form the Apeiron, the limitless substance that forms all things and to which all things eventually return. Cosmologically, Anaximander did not agree with Thales's belief that the world was suspended on water; instead, Anaximander believed that the world was surrounded by hollow, concentric wheels that were made up of fire and the Apeiron.\n","3b4e9456-c715-4bbb-bbeb-83cc3670be40",[596],{"id":597,"data":598,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"f35ffe50-50b7-41c9-8013-232e2c44fed2",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":599,"activeRecallAnswers":601},[600],"What two pairs of opposites, corresponding to the four elements, did Anaximander propose the world was made of?",[602,603],"Hot and cold","Wet and dry",{"id":605,"data":606,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":609},"3a72d508-117a-4608-aa13-a761ada0b16c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":607,"audioMediaId":608},"Anaximenes was a student of Anaximander, and he is known for further developing the notion of the arche and using scientific observations to do so. Anaximenes believed the arche to be air. Air, he believed, was the unifying substance as it only had to expand or compress to form all states of matter.\n\nTo further explain this belief, he turned to the scientific processes of condensation and vaporization. Condensation – the process of water in the form of gas or vapor turning into a liquid – formed clouds and weather patterns. Anaximenes believed that air could further condense until it formed a solid, namely, earth.\n\nAdditionally, he believed that vaporization, or the process of liquid turning into a gas, could explain the production of fire as water is further vaporized. This scientific explanation for the arche demonstrates a definitive shift into early reason and empiricism.","3593c7e4-b814-4da8-b468-4312e411f3d7",[610],{"id":611,"data":612,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"f6a3f5fa-cc3c-4417-8a73-0dfad9105f44",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":613,"activeRecallAnswers":615},[614],"Which substance did Anaximenes, Anaximander's student, believe to be the arche?",[196],{"id":617,"data":618,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"bb011f34-cbfc-4b0a-9fdf-f87419e78a7d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":619,"audioMediaId":620},"Despite the different metaphysical claims of pre-Socratic Milesian philosophers, they were all driven by the search for the arche. Whether they turned to the elements or natural phenomena or took a more supernatural approach, Milesian philosophers believed there had to be a supreme substance or one from which all others evolve.\n\nAs David Roochnik writes, *'‘First principle’ translates the Greek arche, but it could also be rendered as ‘origin,’ ‘source,’ ‘beginning,’ and significantly, ‘ruler.’ The arche is thus the origin that persists and continues to exert authority.'*\n\nWith so much important knowledge at our fingertips, it can be difficult to appreciate how novel these philosophical explorations were and how fundamental they are for society and culture as we now know it. We can actually thank these early philosophers, and their attempts to think about the fundamental nature of things, as opposed to the surface level, for concepts of democracy and politics as well as their contributions to mathematics, science, medicine, and even zoology.","db0c67f8-9435-441c-9e4d-a4b346ad24c7",{"id":622,"data":623,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"orbs":626},"a9ede603-0507-4a2a-a214-090cd09cb0e3",{"type":27,"title":624,"tagline":625},"The Eleatic Philosophers","The Eleatic school of philosophy believed that all nature was unified and ordered and subscribed to the doctorine of the One. Find out what this means and why in this tile.",[627,697,766,836],{"id":628,"data":629,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":631,"introPage":639,"pages":646},"52205538-229c-4f89-b14f-bb4f3c781d00",{"type":25,"title":630},"Introduction to Eleatic Philosophy",{"id":632,"data":633,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"bf40353d-6d12-4833-a4e5-718cb55e18e6",{"type":35,"summary":634},[635,636,637,638],"The Eleatics believed the world is a unified, ordered essence called the 'One'","They argued that change, motion, and decay are illusions","The Milesians saw the world as chaotic and ever-changing","Eleatics challenged the Milesian view by emphasizing an unchanging reality",{"id":640,"data":641,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"198e91ea-40b2-4230-a1cf-18cd423f3e17",{"type":52,"intro":642},[643,644,645],"Who founded the Eleatic school of philosophy?","What is the core belief of Eleatic philosophy?","How did Eleatic philosophers view the concept of change?",[647,663],{"id":648,"data":649,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"reviews":652},"a2defda7-bd44-4a47-9b03-9c166c2ef0ce",{"type":24,"markdownContent":650,"audioMediaId":651},"Milesian philosophers believed that the world was ultimately one of chaos and that it was only the discovery of the arche, or the supreme substance underlying all reality, that could attempt to make order of the world. The Eleatic school of philosophy heartily disagreed with this.\n\nThe Eleatics are a school of philosophers from Elea in modern-day Italy who believed that the world was one of complete order and unity, so much so that the observation of change, motion, or decay was actually only an illusion. This radical school of philosophy explored the depths of human reason by making bold claims about the metaphysical state of the universe and the importance of man’s reason to make sense of it.","e65d72fc-5345-41a1-b098-e85ada1de07c",[653],{"id":654,"data":655,"type":72,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"54f85697-14c1-4382-9a08-c7cfe7a352be",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":656,"multiChoiceCorrect":658,"multiChoiceIncorrect":659,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[657],"Which Italian school of Pre-Socratic philosophers heartily disagreed with the Milesians?",[188],[660,661,662],"The Etruscans","The Stoics","The Cynics",{"id":664,"data":665,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":668},"0eda3ef5-bf3b-4107-bd15-ce51492256a9",{"type":24,"markdownContent":666,"audioMediaId":667},"The Eleatic philosophers, originating from the city of Elea, shared specific views on the nature of reality. At the core of their philosophy was the concept of the 'One,' a unified and ordered essence from which everything emanates. According to them, anything that exists or holds truth is an aspect of this One, and nothing can be separate or distinct from it.\n\nThis view stands in sharp contrast to the ideas of the Milesian school of philosophy, which posited that the world is in a constant state of change and disordered flux. The Eleatics went as far as to say that any perception of change or variety in the world is an illusion, fundamentally challenging the Milesian perspective.\n\nIn summary, while the Eleatic philosophers believed in an unchanging, unified reality governed by the principle of the 'One,' the Milesian thinkers embraced a world characterized by continual change and disorder.","b976f2b7-cbb3-4bfd-987a-8e2c8047263a",[669,676,685],{"id":670,"data":671,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"3b55639c-17a6-4d16-83a8-4c9611d223d9",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":672,"binaryCorrect":674,"binaryIncorrect":675},[673],"The Eleatic school of philosophy believed that there is one supreme substance underlying all reality",[529],[527],{"id":677,"data":678,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"0ce83347-caf6-406d-9cea-8b38a29174cd",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":679,"multiChoiceCorrect":681,"multiChoiceIncorrect":683,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[680],"Which of these statements would an Eleatic philosopher be likely to agree with:",[682],"There is an unchanging reality, governed by the 'One'",[684],"Reality is characterised by change and flux, and permanence is an illusion",{"id":686,"data":687,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"120400d3-f841-4333-a7f7-6a1d397ac5b2",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":688,"multiChoiceCorrect":690,"multiChoiceIncorrect":692,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":693,"matchPairsPairs":694},[689],"Which school of philosophy believed in the concept of the One?",[691],"Eleatic school of philosophy",[268,489,478],[95],[695],{"left":691,"right":696,"direction":35},"Believed in the 'One'",{"id":698,"data":699,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":701,"introPage":709,"pages":716},"56c701ef-8f4d-4bd0-a7a6-306e43bd2b73",{"type":25,"title":700},"Parmenides and His Philosophy",{"id":702,"data":703,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"76ca7f37-d467-4ecb-9d09-940923abcf03",{"type":35,"summary":704},[705,706,707,708],"Parmenides founded the Eleatic school of philosophy and wrote governing rules for Elea","He proposed that all reality is the One, and change, motion, and death are illusions","Parmenides argued that something cannot come from nothing, so all existence is unified","He believed motion was impossible because non-being or nothingness cannot exist",{"id":710,"data":711,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"b4f996e0-8762-4de7-a4a5-3a559ebf61c1",{"type":52,"intro":712},[713,714,715],"What is the central idea of Parmenides' metaphysical theory?","How did Parmenides describe the nature of the universe?","What was Parmenides' view on the concept of change?",[717,733,748],{"id":718,"data":719,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":722},"a1c6f328-e8f5-480f-b77f-5f3c4248c838",{"type":24,"markdownContent":720,"audioMediaId":721},"Parmenides was a pre-Socratic philosopher who is considered the founder of the Eleatic school of philosophy. Despite being considered today the father of metaphysics, he was actually extremely interested in politics and wrote the governing rules for the ancient city of Elea.\n\n![Graph](image://61ded235-7bc1-4e80-9705-98632889ea18 \"Sergio Spolti, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHowever, the legacy of Parmenides resides in his metaphysical propositions for the universe and his influence on the philosophers who followed.\n\nParmenides was the first philosopher to propose the theory that all reality was ultimately the One and that change, motion, and death were merely an illusion. In discussing the nature of reality, Parmenides wrote, *'…it is unborn and imperishable, whole, unique, immovable and without end. It was not in the past, nor yet shall it be, since it now is, altogether, one and continuous.'*","132ab61e-fccb-4ae6-8419-a9b673dadfe2",[723],{"id":724,"data":725,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"bf77a140-e48a-4408-bade-fa6e44ec27f7",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":726,"multiChoiceCorrect":728,"multiChoiceIncorrect":730,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[727],"Who was the first philosopher to propose the theory that all reality was ultimately ‘One’ and change, motion, and death were merely an illusion?",[729],"Parmenides",[731,732,255],"Thales","Zeno",{"id":734,"data":735,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"reviews":738},"ca19391f-28fe-4911-95df-2e01068a6643",{"type":24,"markdownContent":736,"audioMediaId":737},"Parmenides believed in a monistic view of the world, in which all reality is completely unified and unchanging. He argued that, for something to exist or be born, it must come from a substance that existed before it, as something cannot come from nothing. All trees come from seeds, all children come from parents, et cetera.\n\nParmenides wrote, *'It needs must be that what can be thought and spoken of is; for it is possible for it to be, and it is not possible for what is nothing to be.'* This might sound a little vague and circuitous. Basically what he meant in this quote is that if you can speak of something, or think of it, it must have some truth, and be part of the larger, unified truth of the universe.","17adef00-bcbc-46da-a4b6-6b7d43b08dae",[739],{"id":740,"data":741,"type":72,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"c90019f5-e3fb-4eac-b0fd-8cf1c32f2bab",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":742,"binaryCorrect":744,"binaryIncorrect":746},[743],"What did Parmenides believe in terms of existence and non-existence?",[745],"Something cannot come from nothing",[747],"We don't know where matter comes from, therefore it could come from nothing",{"id":749,"data":750,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":753},"bd990506-39da-4862-8942-95ed205aa6c4",{"type":24,"markdownContent":751,"audioMediaId":752},"Parmenides also considered it impossible for something that is to become something that is not, since he believed nothingness to be illogical. If all reality is part of one being, and something can only exist if it comes from something that also exists, then nothing can truly die or become nonexistent, since that nonexistence stands in contradiction to existence.\n\nThe concept of nonexistence was not the only one that Parmenides disagreed with; he also believed that observations of motion were wrong as well. In fact, Parmenides believed motion itself was impossible. Just as he believed that everything must come from something and, therefore, all existence is one, unified substance, he also believed it was impossible for nothingness to generate.\n\nIn other words, something cannot come from nothing. Taking this concept a step further, Parmenides believed it was impossible for something to move from a state of being to non-being.\n\nHe saw that it was illogical to believe that something that does not exist – in this case, non-being or nothingness – does, in fact, exist. Thinking this sounds paradoxical? You’re right. Paradox actually means ‘contrary to appearance,’ which is exactly what Parmenides proposed, that the appearances we observe of reality are wrong.","674581f2-3635-4b1c-be59-d1ff47eb46e6",[754],{"id":755,"data":756,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"45f7288b-e7d7-47bb-bc4c-4f990f0323f5",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":757,"multiChoiceCorrect":759,"multiChoiceIncorrect":762,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[758],"Which of these statements would Parmenides agree with (select more than one)?",[760,761],"Motion is impossible","Nothing can become nonexistent",[763,764,765],"Existence is an illusion","When we die we cease to exist","There is no unifying substance to the universe",{"id":767,"data":768,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":770,"introPage":778,"pages":785},"0e634f44-5c55-4ac8-999f-9e56daf7e6bd",{"type":25,"title":769},"Parmenides' Concept of Oneness",{"id":771,"data":772,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"055afc5b-5c0a-4a8e-8505-2be453773c23",{"type":35,"summary":773},[774,775,776,777],"Parmenides believed that everything is part of the One, so nothing is truly separate","He argued that empty space is impossible because it represents nothingness","Parmenides thought our senses deceive us, making us believe in change and motion","True understanding comes from reason and logic, not from our senses",{"id":779,"data":780,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"365463de-9f27-4708-adfd-b9b9a65fceec",{"type":52,"intro":781},[782,783,784],"What did Parmenides believe about the nature of Oneness?","How did Parmenides view the concept of separateness?","Why did Parmenides reject the idea of empty space?",[786,799,823],{"id":787,"data":788,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":791},"d6a409ff-cc20-4979-be5a-20e1937c630f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":789,"audioMediaId":790},"Similar to Parmenides’ belief that death or nonexistence was illogical, he also proposed that it was a mistake to believe that there are separate or distinct objects. Nothing could stand in opposition to the One or the supreme form of being or it wouldn’t exist. Since nothing can stand in contradiction to it, he argued, that also meant that nothing could be separate from it. If everything is part of the One, then all actually *is* one.\n\nTo believe that a person is separate from a tree or from a building or even another person is merely a trick of our senses, Parmenides believed, for if something exists it must be part of the One. Additionally, for an object to be separate from another, there must be empty space separating them. That empty space is merely another example of nothingness or what is not, and nothingness is an impossibility.","84fbdabf-a314-45b4-ab90-e98b7f21fa6f",[792],{"id":793,"data":794,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"3cecbf85-def0-4af8-bb28-346f62d69e4e",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":795,"binaryCorrect":797,"binaryIncorrect":798},[796],"Parmenides believed that nothingness is an impossibility",[529],[527],{"id":800,"data":801,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":804},"5042fa48-64f3-43e5-97dc-5e10cc24e28e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":802,"audioMediaId":803},"It was the belief of Parmenides that what we observe to be change, motion, or even death is merely an illusion. In fact, he proposed the notion that all of our senses were faulty and even deceptive. Parmenides believed that it is only through the use of reason, or the ‘mind’s eye,’ that we have any hope of understanding the world around us.\n\nTo truly understand reality, Parmenides insisted on abandoning the senses and, instead, turning to purely abstract and logical reasoning for knowledge. After abandoning one’s own senses that might lead one to believe in a changing, inconsistent universe and developing the mind’s eye, reality would be understood as one unified, static fullness.","0d8204db-3b45-48ce-922a-c4b0d555d8be",[805,814],{"id":806,"data":807,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"eaea5d0e-6706-475b-9424-9dcc9926f566",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":808,"binaryCorrect":810,"binaryIncorrect":812},[809],"There is no 'One', because we can observe changeability in the universe' Would Parmenides agree with this?",[811],"No, because he believed that motion is illusory and superficial",[813],"Yes, because he believed that the universe was in flux",{"id":815,"data":816,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"395b6bcb-425f-4229-9835-98772994e37e",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":817,"binaryCorrect":819,"binaryIncorrect":821},[818],"Parmenides believed that we understand the world around us through:",[820],"Reason",[822],"Our senses",{"id":824,"data":825,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":828},"e7473f4e-0720-43a0-a8b8-7178aa961946",{"type":24,"markdownContent":826,"audioMediaId":827},"This emphasis on reason and logical deductions to form a working theory of the universe represents a major shift from the common use of religion and mythology to explain the cosmos. The emergence of **rationalism** that is seen in the Eleatic school of philosophy directly influences many of the philosophers who followed and even extends down to us today.\n\nParmenides’ articulation of the proposed disparity between true reality and observations of reality is the first articulation of the duality of reality and appearance, a concept that is embedded today in modern Western thought. This strict adherence to logic and deduction forms an ontology that, while difficult to buy into today, has shaped modern society’s understanding of how true reality may not be fully articulated or understood by relying on one’s own senses alone.\n\nFor example, listening to a piece of music would not betray the nature of sound waves to the listener, nor would sitting in a chair help someone understand the atomic structure of that chair. Our senses can guide us, but as Parmenides points out, they cannot teach us or even reveal to us the true nature of existence.","360da872-9c1e-44a4-b59a-960cac3cb106",[829],{"id":830,"data":831,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"89a7c159-659b-451f-96b5-44bfbd938895",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":832,"activeRecallAnswers":834},[833],"Parmenides was the first to articulate what concept?",[835],"The difference between true reality and our perceptions",{"id":837,"data":838,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":840,"introPage":848,"pages":855},"c1115019-70e8-4af1-9fea-bfdaab686081",{"type":25,"title":839},"Zeno and the Eleatic Influence",{"id":841,"data":842,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"5c341467-d3db-4942-9cc6-c10847bdef7b",{"type":35,"summary":843},[844,845,846,847],"Zeno of Elea created paradoxes to defend Parmenides' theories","Zeno's arguments, called *ad absurdum*, aimed to show contradictions in assumptions","Aristotle credited Zeno with inventing the dialectical method","Parmenides believed true understanding comes only through logic and reason",{"id":849,"data":850,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"f203790e-bf2f-4f0e-8d84-a2eae4de4e64",{"type":52,"intro":851},[852,853,854],"What is Zeno's most famous paradox?","How did Zeno's paradoxes challenge the concept of motion?","What was the main idea behind the Eleatic school of philosophy?",[856,861],{"id":857,"data":858,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"39ce2405-8009-47a7-b526-9a23b4bfd6b5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":859,"audioMediaId":860},"Parmenides’ radical and paradoxical thinking would go on to inspire many philosophers after him, such as Zeno of Elea and, most notably, Plato. Zeno of Elea was Parmenides’ student and is most well-known for his work on paradoxes that were meant to defend Parmenides’ theories. It's important that we don't confuse him with Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, who we will discuss later.\n\n![Graph](image://8f92a36b-9a81-4e49-a3cf-2d3089276598 \"Zeno of Elea. Jan de Bisschop, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHe called these arguments *ad absurdum* because he hoped to point out the illogical nature or absurdity of some assumptions or observations and how those assumptions ultimately lead to contradictions. While many of Zeno’s paradoxes have been disproved through the centuries,\n\nAristotle actually credited Zeno as being the inventor of the dialectical method, or the exchange of propositions and counters to them, to arrive at a logical conclusion.","a5e64eeb-667f-45fc-a62d-e6483dba576c",{"id":862,"data":863,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":866},"a4e8847a-34e5-4743-9af1-2319ec0bd2ab",{"type":24,"markdownContent":864,"audioMediaId":865},"While modern science may not support some of Parmenides’ more radical claims, his strict insistence on the importance of logic and deductive reasoning does hold firm today. Ultimately, he rejected the epistemological soundness of relying on or even using sensory experience to understand the world.\n\nTrue understanding could only come through logic and reason. This formulation of an indivisible and unified ‘Oneness’ composing reality is in direct opposition to Milesian philosophers, who saw reality as innately fractured and knowledge to be an attempt to produce an order from that chaos.\n\nThe main criticism of the Eleatic school is that it proposes pure metaphysics, or ideas of the ultimate reality, while also attempting to explain natural philosophy. Despite these criticisms, the Eleatic influence remains significant, and it developed many early theories of the nature of reality that are still maintained today.","4c5ec9e4-1b40-486a-be2c-1a0689546b46",[867],{"id":868,"data":869,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"73bd135b-5f34-48d2-a435-eb90db3b0705",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":870,"multiChoiceCorrect":872,"multiChoiceIncorrect":873,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":874,"matchPairsPairs":875},[871],"Who used paradoxes to uphold the theories of Parmenides?",[478],[268,489,691],[95],[876],{"left":478,"right":877,"direction":35},"Defended Parmenides' theories through paradoxes",{"id":879,"data":880,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"orbs":883},"6a69343d-0247-4d7a-aa27-165dd142cf3f",{"type":27,"title":881,"tagline":882},"The Philosopher Socrates","One of the most famous philosophers of all time. Learn all about the scientist and sage, Socrates.",[884,969,1041],{"id":885,"data":886,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":888,"introPage":896,"pages":903},"1d8844f3-7f2b-48f8-b3a8-e2e3c5f0c239",{"type":25,"title":887},"Socrates and the Socratic Method",{"id":889,"data":890,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"cc5f1b13-707b-4531-9e0b-dc14d0d6b6b3",{"type":35,"summary":891},[892,893,894,895],"Socrates was an Athenian philosopher who used questions to challenge beliefs","The Socratic Method involves asking questions to reveal contradictions","Socrates focused on ethical questions like What is goodness?","He accepted his death sentence to stay true to his beliefs",{"id":897,"data":898,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"a18993a9-648e-4b8d-b6a2-f21b3e4ff038",{"type":52,"intro":899},[900,901,902],"What is the main goal of the Socratic Method?","How does the Socratic Method differ from traditional teaching?","Why did Socrates use questions in his discussions?",[904,909,935,952],{"id":905,"data":906,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"c4f457f7-2d30-4b20-80ac-08007b7bc2b8",{"type":24,"markdownContent":907,"audioMediaId":908},"Socrates is one of the most widely recognized of the ancient Greek philosophers, and he produced a profound legacy that some even recognize as forming the basis of Western philosophy. Native to Athens, Greece, he became so famous that he was even the butt of many jokes in local theatrical productions.\n\n![Graph](image://3992d58a-1b49-4e12-8033-6d7c00e658b0 \"Socrates. From The Louvre's collection. Louvre Museum, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe magnitude of his thought and this dramatic shift are made even greater because of the way Socrates’ life ended. After being charged with impiety and sentenced to death by poisoning, Socrates accepted this punishment willingly because he was so sure of the virtues and philosophies he’d developed in his life.","22c03f87-dc60-44ad-a7a0-256d050f6ef1",{"id":910,"data":911,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"reviews":914},"ca0b67a9-6adb-4228-a202-88c9c6616646",{"type":24,"markdownContent":912,"audioMediaId":913},"Socrates’ legacy on philosophy and even on modern Western civilization cannot be overstated. He drew on the ideas of philosophers before him and found that there were even deeper questions to answer.\n\nMany of his teachings came in the form of an inquiry; he asked questions that could not be answered easily to foster further conversation and, he hoped, to point out to others some contradictions of values. This methodology came to be known as the **Socratic Method**.\n\nWhile this method is more commonly understood today in the education realm involving a cross-examination of students and teachers, Socrates used this method to demonstrate that the answers to a series of questions often do not form a cohesive idea and must then be revised until that cohesion is found.","4cf8878f-bd0e-4c43-b9b4-e188f4cd0e49",[915,926],{"id":916,"data":917,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"c0371dd1-ec41-4077-a736-c3b86a67fbd6",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":918,"multiChoiceCorrect":920,"multiChoiceIncorrect":922,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[919],"How did Socrates die?",[921],"Sentenced to death by poisoning",[923,924,925],"Of old age","Illness while still young","Fell from a horse",{"id":927,"data":928,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"05dde1af-c036-49ab-8218-34aa54266e05",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":929,"binaryCorrect":931,"binaryIncorrect":933},[930],"What is the Socratic Method?",[932],"A way of asking difficult questions to bring truths out in conversation",[934],"A system for observing nature and making empirical deductions",{"id":936,"data":937,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":940},"ae442265-ba1d-4c61-a613-7f6822723328",{"type":24,"markdownContent":938,"audioMediaId":939},"Socrates used what is now known as the Socratic Method to help his students understand that some questions aren’t easily answered and require further, careful examination. For example, Socrates asks a student, ‘What is piety?,’ and the student replies that piety is whatever the gods hold dear.\n\n![Graph](image://ccb1a4b9-2b2a-42b8-b039-cb08f534f8b2 \"Socrates engaging in the Socratic Method with a student. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nSocrates then asks, ‘Do all the gods hold dear the same things or actions?’ The student must admit that no, the gods do not. Then, Socrates asks, are the same actions considered both pious and impious? Yes, the student begrudgingly agrees. As a result, the student is forced to reconsider their first answer or supposition.\n\nThis brief example demonstrates the heart of Socrates’s methodology and his tireless search for an understanding of the most fundamental truths that people may believe they already know. This examination of truths, and later of self, would become the method that Socrates is most known for and that structures most of his philosophy.","8f04d6c0-0ab4-4a00-99ea-ac781c754495",[941],{"id":942,"data":943,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"95af7332-a8f3-4216-aad8-38d82a805d2d",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":944,"multiChoiceCorrect":946,"multiChoiceIncorrect":948,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[945],"When Socrates's students would give a rushed answer, he would",[947],"Ask another question",[949,950,951],"Give the correct answer","Talk about another topic","Punish them",{"id":953,"data":954,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":957},"5eac6422-3b33-4579-ae61-6290bf36bd0c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":955,"audioMediaId":956},"While philosophers before him were interested in the underlying structures of reality, Socrates became interested in even larger questions. While philosophers who came before him asked, *How does one live a good life in a constantly fluctuating universe?*, Socrates asked, *What is goodness?*\n\nSocrates was determined to find a firm understanding of vice and virtue and how these seemingly conflicting forces play a role in the lives of each and every one of us.\n\nThis fundamental shift in philosophical thinking is a movement away from metaphysical or natural philosophy and toward the ethical or practical side of philosophy.\n\nSocrates was not as concerned with natural phenomena or ‘things in the sky and below the earth’ as philosophers before and after him were. Instead, Socrates was intensely focused on how he and others could become the best human beings possible.","13395609-2514-448f-bbac-1867a5550734",[958],{"id":959,"data":960,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"3918d6ea-51df-42d6-a6d7-90651708085d",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":961,"multiChoiceCorrect":963,"multiChoiceIncorrect":965,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[962],"Which of these was a contribution of Socrates to philosophy:",[964],"Moving towards more ethical and practical thought",[966,967,968],"Focusing on the metaphysical","Asking how to live a good life","Studying cosmogony, or the roots of things",{"id":970,"data":971,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":973,"introPage":981,"pages":988},"4d30e5ae-b7b5-4a93-ba45-24f1b941f1fc",{"type":25,"title":972},"The Examined Life and Virtue",{"id":974,"data":975,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"fe995b58-ff7a-4956-9d01-05beb06fdff7",{"type":35,"summary":976},[977,978,979,980],"Socrates said the unexamined life is not worth living","Self-examination helps uncover true motivations and desires","Virtue, defined by Socrates, includes courage, justice, prudence, and temperance","Ignorance is the root of evil, according to Socrates",{"id":982,"data":983,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"4e52c13b-ac78-4f7c-ac53-83743314b742",{"type":52,"intro":984},[985,986,987],"What did Socrates mean by \"the unexamined life is not worth living\"?","How did Socrates define virtue?","Why did Socrates believe the pursuit of knowledge was essential for a good life?",[989,1011,1028],{"id":990,"data":991,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":994},"8d1f7eaa-8cc8-4820-98de-0d0e88a4a4ad",{"type":24,"markdownContent":992,"audioMediaId":993},"Self-examination is one of the highest practices Socrates taught; indeed, he famously said, 'The unexamined life is not worth living.' While this may seem extreme, Socrates did, in fact, place extreme importance on self-examination to lead a fulfilling life. Socrates taught the importance of constant investigation into what our personal drives and motivations are and whether they are fulfilling to us or are merely satisfying a role or societal obligation.\n\n![Graph](image://3026d611-a98c-40ea-980c-427cb8dfb577 \"The Thinker. Image: Smallbones, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nWithout this examination, we will ultimately be led by external forces that do not have our own best interests or psyche in mind. Similarly, that examination of one’s own internal motivations and desires, and whether they reflect what is actually fulfilling or desirable to us, will help us to uncover exactly what will help create a balanced psyche.","10f28e9a-98a5-4229-84a5-962f388dbedf",[995,1004],{"id":996,"data":997,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"b3ab5329-cbed-461c-8446-3ea3bfcd4ba2",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":998,"binaryCorrect":1000,"binaryIncorrect":1002},[999],"Socrates taught the importance of constant investigation into",[1001],"What our personal drives and motivations are",[1003],"What the fundamental substance of reality is",{"id":1005,"data":1006,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"b48b83df-41f7-4b6d-8860-3d2fb0723aa7",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1007,"activeRecallAnswers":1009},[1008],"What is Socrates' famous saying about life fulfillment?",[1010],"The unexamined life is not worth living",{"id":1012,"data":1013,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1016},"04be4e11-32d5-4b89-b37a-a02313d96e27",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1014,"audioMediaId":1015},"As Socrates stated, 'There is only one good, knowledge, and one evil, ignorance.' The ultimate good, Socrates proposed, was virtue, or what he defined as moral excellence. It can be found in the person who possesses courage, justice, prudence, and temperance. Socrates believed that virtue was the highest good because it alone could provide happiness.\n\nVirtue brings happiness because it brings order to people’s minds and actions and balances the impulses and desires that ultimately make one only unhappy and unfulfilled. These desires might be for wealth, status, or power. To become virtuous, Socrates believed that one must seek out a true understanding of what virtue is. \n\nOnce one knows what true virtue is, they will be able to live virtuously in their actions, motivations, and drives. This knowledge and possession of virtue is what brings true happiness.","c9e56c1f-d096-4a05-9541-07565ba3a59e",[1017],{"id":1018,"data":1019,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"5879fba5-8ae9-412b-a145-f9c5771e21ee",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1020,"multiChoiceCorrect":1022,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1024,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1021],"What did Socrates say was the only good?",[1023],"Knowledge",[1025,1026,1027],"Kindness","Love","Fulfillment",{"id":1029,"data":1030,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1033},"bd2e2f1e-32b8-4713-9b10-7a62c9cc1f2a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1031,"audioMediaId":1032},"Socrates’ proposition that virtue is the ultimate good begs the question: If virtue brings happiness, why do so many commit evil? Socrates believed that evil was the result of ignorance. If ignorance is the root of evil, then evil is committed involuntarily from a lack of knowledge. Socrates believed that it was knowledge of virtue that led people to act selflessly and against their own interests.\n\nIgnorance of virtue and what it means to live virtuously leads people to act on base impulses and desires. It allows them to be pressured by figures of authority, or even their own peers, to live against their best interests. One’s own best interest, Socrates believed, was wisdom, truth, and a healthy psyche. If someone understood how their actions were hurting themselves and others, they would not commit them, and, therefore, ignorance was the root of evil.","7465b404-b901-4868-8199-3c456344be84",[1034],{"id":1035,"data":1036,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"ec946f99-6675-42f7-8a9b-a46239caee49",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1037,"activeRecallAnswers":1039},[1038],"What did Socrates believe was the cause of evil?",[1040],"Ignorance",{"id":1042,"data":1043,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":1045,"introPage":1053,"pages":1060},"855a4270-1b41-4ddb-96cc-2550c99081bb",{"type":25,"title":1044},"Tyranny and the Psyche",{"id":1046,"data":1047,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"5e87133d-2621-48a8-b0c3-23630c6fbff4",{"type":35,"summary":1048},[1049,1050,1051,1052],"Socrates saw tyranny as both external (authority/peers) and internal (desires/emotions)","External tyranny makes you value what society values, like wealth and status","Internal tyranny comes from unchecked desires and can be just as harmful","Socrates believed balancing passion, appetites, and reason leads to a virtuous life",{"id":1054,"data":1055,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"aa3d403b-c38c-4b35-baeb-29e5a6e3f894",{"type":52,"intro":1056},[1057,1058,1059],"What did Socrates believe was the impact of external tyranny on the psyche?","How did Socrates describe internal tyranny?","Why did Socrates think internal tyranny was more damaging than external tyranny?",[1061,1066,1081,1098,1103,1118],{"id":1062,"data":1063,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"df5d5172-acc5-42e1-9b1c-d09fa46db385",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1064,"audioMediaId":1065},"A concept that intrigued Socrates, even right up to his death, was tyranny. He saw tyranny as both an external force, coming from figures of authority or peers, and an internal force in the form of our own desires, appetites, and emotions.\n\nSocrates proposed that fighting the injustice of tyranny could be done only by attaining knowledge of virtue and living in a virtuous way that can’t be influenced or swayed by external forces or internal desires. While this may seem simple on paper, it’s definitely easier said than done.\n\nHowever, it was easy for Socrates. His willingness to take on the sentencing of poisoning for impiety was proof to himself of just how strong his virtue and willingness to fight tyranny was. He states in *Apology, 'The tyrannical government of the Thirty, powerful as it was, did not intimidate me into any wrongdoing \\[i.e., acting against my values\\].'*","f44f599e-2181-4227-bdec-9a18c01e7846",{"id":1067,"data":1068,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1071},"a732fe8d-a6a0-4e8a-a589-ae755376a35e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1069,"audioMediaId":1070},"Socrates saw tyranny in two forms, external and internal. External tyranny comes in the form of authority or conformity to peers that begins to shape one’s values. Authority and conformity ultimately lead an individual to value only what society values, for example, the pursuit of wealth, status, or reputation. It can also lead one to act in ways that go against their own values.\n\nIf someone allows the masses or society to dictate how they live and what they value, they actually end up becoming part of that same authoritative force that urges others to live or act against their own values and psyche. To break this cycle, Socrates believed it was important to establish an internal set of values revolving around wisdom, truth, and the health of one’s own psyche (or mental health) so as not to be a victim or participate in external tyranny.","706745d7-c317-46c9-a925-82473635e534",[1072],{"id":1073,"data":1074,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"1bbfe418-9f31-460f-8eac-49458f64bc6c",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1075,"binaryCorrect":1077,"binaryIncorrect":1079},[1076],"Authority and conformity ultimately lead an individual to value",[1078],"Only what society values",[1080],"Their own values and psyche",{"id":1082,"data":1083,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1086},"687c4483-4dc9-4799-8408-6ec7cb568866",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1084,"audioMediaId":1085},"External tyranny, or the pressure of authority and conformity, was not the only tyrannical threat that Socrates saw. He also believed the threat of internal tyranny could be just as significant. This tyranny comes in the form of personal appetites, desires, and the drive for status. While it is easy to see how external pressure can change the behavior of an individual, Socrates also saw the internal threat to one’s own psyche.\n\nIf a person does not temper their own internal desires – for wealth, fame, success, and the like – then there is no way to overcome external tyranny or to establish a virtuous life. Happiness is realized only through knowledge and virtue. To create a healthy and balanced psyche, Socrates believed it was important to perform a self-examination of what one actually desires and whether those desires are in line with a virtuous life.","a446fc18-4fec-4e50-8579-611110e8c160",[1087],{"id":1088,"data":1089,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"323ed36a-b523-4509-b7d3-503eccbdd1c4",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1090,"multiChoiceCorrect":1092,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1094,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1091],"In order to create a healthy and balanced psyche, Socrates saw that it was important to",[1093],"Perform a self-examination",[1095,1096,1097],"Conform to society","Listen to our own desires","Listen to authority",{"id":1099,"data":1100,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"0d72300b-e83e-43b4-9627-bfa04df63c0c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1101,"audioMediaId":1102},"Socrates believed three forces were at play within each of us: *thumos, epithumia,* and *logos*. Thumos translates to ‘passion’ and describes internal emotions, pride, anger, and the drive for status. Epithumia translates to ‘appetites’ and describes the desires and wants we each possess. Logos translates to ‘word’ or ‘thought’ and describes the capacity for logic or reasoning.\n\nThumos and epithumia could be virtues but they could also easily be vices, Socrates proposed, if they are not constantly examined and kept in check by the individual. It is good, he believed, to have desires and motivations and pride in our work.\n\nHowever, without constant examination, what can be a virtue can easily become a vice and an internal tyrant, especially if left unchecked or influenced by external tyrannical forces. To foster a balanced psyche, each of these forces must be equalized so that no single aspect becomes our own personal tyrant in our heads and our lives.","f90737d1-b27a-46b7-a8c0-8312c7f83c7d",{"id":1104,"data":1105,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1108},"937b7bba-0a06-4e49-9cde-d130f284b73a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1106,"audioMediaId":1107},"In his *Apology*, Socrates asks:\n\n*'For you see what our discussions are all about – and is there anything about which a man of even small intelligence would be more serious than this: What is the way we ought to live?'*\n\nMost people never contemplate this question; therefore, not only do their lives go unexamined, but their psyches, or mental health, may suffer as they find themselves leading unfulfilling lives. To correctly answer how one ought to live, it’s necessary to examine one’s own desires, drives, and motivations and to identify external forces that influence them.\n\nAs Socrates said, *'…\\[O\\]nce we know ourselves, we may learn how to care for ourselves, but otherwise, we never shall.'*  Socrates believed that most people spend their lives chasing after notions such as status, wealth, and pleasure, but, ultimately, these are empty. To find true happiness, we must lead a virtuous life.","8e52ff1f-4732-49ca-8530-6e49a610230b",[1109],{"id":1110,"data":1111,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"7599a99e-be01-4ef4-9f04-7e77e6af726a",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1112,"binaryCorrect":1114,"binaryIncorrect":1116},[1113],"What leads people’s psyches, or mental health, to suffer, according to Socrates?",[1115],"Never contemplating the question 'What is the way we ought to live'",[1117],"Not conforming to society",{"id":1119,"data":1120,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1123},"ee1d04f6-2653-48b5-877c-ed067e22e00e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1121,"audioMediaId":1122},"We live in an era of ‘the grind’ or ‘the hustle’ where productivity to the point of exhaustion is glorified and the highest value in society is reputation and wealth. But what if we took the time to live by Socrates’ philosophy? How often do our busy lives give us time to examine our values, to examine what we really want?\n\nIf we were to slow down and complete that examination of values, would we be happy with our lives? Are the ambitions we’re chasing after ones we’ve decided for ourselves, or have society and our internal desires chosen them? Socrates’ wisdom may seem distant, but it’s highly practical and useful. A thorough examination of what values we’re chasing and what values we want to embody can help us even now, in the 21st century, lead more fulfilling and meaningful lives.","5e0dff89-7086-4041-8c30-853df27e105d",[1124,1133],{"id":1125,"data":1126,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"61421d1a-c924-492d-82dc-a8783640e948",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1127,"binaryCorrect":1129,"binaryIncorrect":1131},[1128],"If we are to live by Socrates’ philosophy, we need to",[1130],"Slow down and examine our values",[1132],"Focus on productivity and efficiency",{"id":1134,"data":1135,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"5f591022-dce5-4e38-8e16-0d4ab16c9ef6",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1136,"binaryCorrect":1138,"binaryIncorrect":1140},[1137],"To be happy, according to Socrates' philosophy, we should chase the ambitions that",[1139],"We have decided for ourselves after self-examination",[1141],"Lead to wealth, reputation, and status in society",{"id":1143,"data":1144,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"orbs":1147},"9dd8a398-0eb7-45d4-8f40-83d2dc7efb2f",{"type":27,"title":1145,"tagline":1146},"The Philosophy of Plato","Learn all about the silent philosopher, his concept of platonic forms, political philosophy and ideas of happiness.",[1148,1240,1310],{"id":1149,"data":1150,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":1152,"introPage":1160,"pages":1167},"26b906e3-5fcd-4c86-8c3b-3c20d7288887",{"type":25,"title":1151},"Understanding Plato",{"id":1153,"data":1154,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"bab753c5-efdd-49e7-b537-0eb13c80f0c4",{"type":35,"summary":1155},[1156,1157,1158,1159],"Plato was a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle","Plato founded The Academy, the first university in Western history","Plato's *The Republic* explores justice and the ideal political system","Plato believed the perfect city-state would never exist due to human greed and desire",{"id":1161,"data":1162,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"6a2a05b7-c6af-4b5d-aa9f-c0be5a6b241c",{"type":52,"intro":1163},[1164,1165,1166],"Who was Plato's teacher?","What is the name of Plato's most famous work?","How did Plato's ideas influence Western philosophy?",[1168,1183,1205,1227],{"id":1169,"data":1170,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1173},"bf235721-e073-4b5b-88a6-646cf448f92f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1171,"audioMediaId":1172},"If someone were to ask you to name an ancient Greek philosopher, Plato likely is one of the first to come to mind. His contributions to the study of philosophy are unparalleled, and many of his writings and dialogues extend in their entirety to us today.\n\nThe philosopher Alfred North Whitehead once summed up Plato’s importance: ‘All of Western philosophy is but a footnote to Plato.’\n\n![Graph](image://5589f3df-ede0-4daf-b83f-fa5c3cd89588 \"Plato. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nPlato was a student of Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle. To some, Plato is considered the first true philosopher, as he is credited with crafting and articulating a rigorous system of thought encompassing metaphysical, ethical, political, and epistemological issues with a distinct methodology. His legacy and impact on religion and Western civilization as a whole cannot be overstated.","9f953bc0-a936-427a-9e0c-4044d06dcef2",[1174],{"id":1175,"data":1176,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"2d118268-535a-441e-946d-6330e2953fad",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1177,"binaryCorrect":1179,"binaryIncorrect":1181},[1178],"Plato was Aristotle's",[1180],"Teacher",[1182],"Student",{"id":1184,"data":1185,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1188},"dceadacc-bf0f-4667-8d2a-4ca1f32bdd77",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1186,"audioMediaId":1187},"Born into a wealthy, aristocratic family, Plato is thought to have been named Aristocles at birth. The name Plato came to this philosopher later in life as a result of his remarkably wide chest and shoulders or forehead by some accounts.\n\nAfter the trial and death of his teacher and friend, Socrates, he was encouraged by peers to leave Athens, as he was suspected by authorities of a plot to free Socrates. Plato did leave and traveled the world before later returning to Athens and establishing **The Academy**, which is considered to be the first university.\n\nIt was at The Academy that Plato engaged in rigorous debate with students and peers and would go on to write his famous dialogues. His enduring writings are in the form of a series of dialogues between characters in which his philosophical ideas are expressed through propositions and counterpropositions.\n\n![Graph](image://5d56c694-20fb-4bfe-87a4-7d356c07f548 \"Plato's Academy. Image: Alx bio, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en via Wikimedia Commons\")","05ec2939-dab7-41a9-8be5-e8772cdcd4c4",[1189,1198],{"id":1190,"data":1191,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"5317a741-87ff-437d-85f5-4c3abfbc6f96",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1192,"multiChoiceCorrect":1194,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1196,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1193],"Which philosopher was Plato a student of?",[1195],"Socrates",[1197,731,729],"Aristotle",{"id":1199,"data":1200,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"1fcde1b5-d7cf-4b4b-816e-772bb861a4e2",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1201,"binaryCorrect":1203,"binaryIncorrect":1204},[1202],"Plato was born into a poor family",[527],[529],{"id":1206,"data":1207,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1210},"15f014f6-71e8-4f8a-bd9c-eeeaba33072d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1208,"audioMediaId":1209},"The death of Socrates, Plato’s friend and teacher, did not leave Plato unscathed. It instilled within him a passionate contempt for democracy and a search for a new system of government that allowed those most deserving to rule to rise to positions of leadership.\n\nHis thoughts on politics are seen in his work, *The Republic*, in which he explores the question of justice and its relationship to a happy, fulfilled life. He believed that the best political system was one that allowed for specialization, where each individual makes a living in the role that is best suited for them (i.e., farmer, teacher, judge, etc.).\n\nEncouragement of this specialization would, in turn, discourage the pressure from society that leads individuals to seek wealth, reputation, or fame. If the political government is run by unjust men who are slaves to their own desires or appetites, they will go on to poison the entire democracy – as seen with Socrates’ death.","0a2a11f6-6600-4984-a91d-c86d3efed9fd",[1211,1220],{"id":1212,"data":1213,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"7c2cc5a4-b7f3-4ff9-bc69-0dd861dce7c4",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1214,"binaryCorrect":1216,"binaryIncorrect":1218},[1215],"How did Plato express his philosophical ideas?",[1217],"Through a series of dialogues between characters",[1219],"Through abstract prescriptive text",{"id":1221,"data":1222,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"9ecafba8-606d-4ff2-be97-a90a604c2cd1",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1223,"activeRecallAnswers":1225},[1224],"Which book did Plato write to express his thought on politics?",[1226],"The Republic",{"id":1228,"data":1229,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"reviews":1232},"97f33694-fcbf-4768-b85b-9cd0f4fd95e4",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1230,"audioMediaId":1231},"According to Plato, the perfect city-state is one in which the most virtuous men rule and the citizens are free to live their lives in roles to which they are most suited. Nevertheless, he also believed that this state has not existed and will not exist.\n\nHowever bleak this thought may seem, Plato believed that, ultimately, there would always be enough men out of touch with virtue and driven by their own dark desires of greed, wealth, and status for this ideal city-state never to exist. All forms of government, therefore, were doomed to be unjust and wreak injustice upon their citizens because these human drives and appetites ran too unbridled among men.\n\nAdditionally, because these men are likely to use any means necessary to achieve their desire for status or reputation, they are likely to be elected leaders because they may lie or cheat to appear most appealing to the voters.","53efa35b-9450-4750-afad-592dc165bb6e",[1233],{"id":1234,"data":1235,"type":72,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"512d573e-8aa5-4ac1-922a-e6fa17796539",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1236,"binaryCorrect":1238,"binaryIncorrect":1239},[1237],"Plato believed that the perfect city-state has not existed, and will not exist",[529],[527],{"id":1241,"data":1242,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":1244,"introPage":1252,"pages":1259},"4e64d036-0b38-4cbd-b08b-176bbfe5f873",{"type":25,"title":1243},"Plato's Philosophy of Happiness",{"id":1245,"data":1246,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"5135eabb-5097-4458-8d1a-010b41f4d6a4",{"type":35,"summary":1247},[1248,1249,1250,1251],"Plato believed true happiness, or eudaimonia, comes from understanding and contemplating the Forms like justice and beauty","Plato expanded on Socrates' idea of virtue, defining it as excellence that enables a happy life","Plato's concept of the soul includes three parts: reason, spirit, and appetite, which must be balanced for happiness","Plato compared the soul to a pair of horses, where the noble horse represents reason and the unruly horse represents appetite",{"id":1253,"data":1254,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"b447e956-1192-4769-b342-7210696fcdca",{"type":52,"intro":1255},[1256,1257,1258],"What did Plato think happiness was?","How does Plato's idea of happiness differ from today's view?","Why did Plato believe happiness is tied to virtue?",[1260,1265,1285,1300,1305],{"id":1261,"data":1262,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"8f71d02c-e7b0-4600-806e-10fed4523fe8",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1263,"audioMediaId":1264},"Plato built upon Socrates’ idea that the reason people live unhappy or unfulfilled lives is that they lack the necessary knowledge of what it takes to be happy. Plato introduced the notion that it was not purely the lack of knowledge that leaves people unfulfilled, it is that they do not engage with a series of metaphysical entities he called **forms.**\n\n![Graph](image://9fb44cb2-a855-4e75-a73c-15e2198cc1e7 \"Plato depicted pointing upwards, towards the world of forms. Image: Raphael, Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nFor Plato, the understanding and contemplation of the Forms themselves - such as justice, beauty, and equality - was a key part of achieving a good life and true happiness or **eudaimonia**. It’s important to note that ‘happiness’ to the philosophers does not mean happiness as we view it today. Now, it is seen as an emotion, something fleeting or in response to the environment.\n\nHowever, to the ancient philosophers, happiness, or eudaimonia, was a state of flourishing. When they asked the question, *How can I be happy?* that’s closer today to, *How can I live a good life?*","0048439b-cfe7-48ae-9c3c-5468c6703e0f",{"id":1266,"data":1267,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1270},"c6cb3778-b21d-478a-8574-a0fd83db8a87",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1268,"audioMediaId":1269},"As a student of Socrates, Plato agreed with his teacher that virtue, or *arête*, was at the heart of happiness and that it alone could aid in its attainment. However, Plato expanded on what exactly arête was.\n\nHe described arête as a fundamental excellence that transcends knowledge or material aspects. For example, the excellence of a pen is its ability to print clearly. The excellence of a car is its ability to go, just as the excellence of a painter is their ability to capture beauty and evoke emotion. In this way, virtue, or excellence, is whatever enables one to lead a happy life.\n\nSocrates believed it was the knowledge of virtue that led to the attainment of virtue and, therefore, happiness. But Plato saw it differently.","a16c11f8-66dc-47d8-a1b6-0e57d074879f",[1271,1278],{"id":1272,"data":1273,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"418c090d-6e9d-4988-a004-eda03408cb5a",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1274,"binaryCorrect":1276,"binaryIncorrect":1277},[1275],"Plato disagreed with Socrates that virtue was at the heart of happiness",[527],[529],{"id":1279,"data":1280,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"3e0d0fd9-fdf9-4d10-8bb5-adbdd84c39eb",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1281,"activeRecallAnswers":1283},[1282],"How did Plato describe arete or virtue?",[1284],"A fundamental excellence that transcends knowledge or material aspects",{"id":1286,"data":1287,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1290},"64be1e8c-c0fc-48bb-bbcd-9906e615172c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1288,"audioMediaId":1289},"Plato believed there were three parts to the human soul–reason, spirit, and appetite–that must be balanced before happiness or ‘eudaimonia’ could be attained.\n\nAccording to Plato, each person possesses an incorporeal and internal soul composed of the three elements of reason, spirit, and appetite. Plato believed this inner soul was separate from the material body and that it was responsible for the higher elements of the human mind, such as reason and wisdom. This soul, according to Plato, would live on even after death in an immortal state of being.\n\nPlato also believed that three elements comprised our immortal soul. Each of these elements of the soul has its own desires and whims that must be brought into balance with one another.","63ed843d-ee08-47cc-9da6-4c6166034d04",[1291],{"id":1292,"data":1293,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"8dff7b3e-440f-419f-8adc-26eade8ebdfa",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1294,"binaryCorrect":1296,"binaryIncorrect":1298},[1295],"What did Plato believe would happen to the soul after death?",[1297],"Live in an immortal state of being",[1299],"Die with the material body",{"id":1301,"data":1302,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"23ee35d8-70f2-41a4-8e8a-591a7fe78e54",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1303,"audioMediaId":1304},"The three elements of the human soul, according to Plato, each have their own desires. Reason desires truth and justice and strives for the good, just as guardians or judges would in a city. The spirit of the soul seeks honor, courage, and competition; these elements correspond to the military force of a city who defends the whole of the individual and lives by higher ideals.\n\nThe final part, and the lowest part, of the soul is the appetite, which seeks food, drink, sex, and wealth. In a city, the appetite represents the bankers or artists who are consumed only with pleasure and greed.\n\nAccording to Plato, happiness is attained by balancing these three elements. Each aspect of the soul has the potential for goodness, but it also has the potential to overshadow the others. An imbalanced soul affects the psyche of the individual and leads one to chase desires and values that do not lead to happiness.","f5e2edfd-44e5-48b9-a210-0f7591875ea3",{"id":1306,"data":1307,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"69257d7b-eaa3-4795-b666-d09cd82de562",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1308,"audioMediaId":1309},"Plato compares the dynamic state of an individual’s soul and its ability to overwhelm or mislead to a pair of horses. One horse is purebred and correlates to the higher, spiritual aspects of the soul that respond to reason, virtue, and truth. This horse requires no whipping into shape.\n\nThe other horse, of ignoble breeding, is unruly and requires whips and training. This is the lower aspect of the soul, the appetite. If this horse is not trained and allowed to run free, it will overtake the noble horse and become unmanageable, leading to disorder and destruction.\n\nNot only can the lower soul become unruly, but the higher spirit responding to virtue and truth will not be balanced if it is not nourished. That is to say, if one does not seek self-understanding and virtue, the spirit of the soul will not flourish or come into balance.","8b0498bc-1867-42a2-9da6-a57008a8a1ec",{"id":1311,"data":1312,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":1314,"introPage":1322,"pages":1329},"882c446c-e41b-48b8-ae37-f4661f9861bb",{"type":25,"title":1313},"Plato's Metaphysics",{"id":1315,"data":1316,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"9ec77d42-f442-4f5b-bef8-ee69501835a3",{"type":35,"summary":1317},[1318,1319,1320,1321],"Plato believed in a deeper, unchanging reality called the world of forms","The allegory of The Cave shows how most people mistake shadows for reality","True knowledge comes from understanding the perfect forms beyond our world","Values like justice and equality exist on a transcendental layer of reality",{"id":1323,"data":1324,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"62da5fac-fb68-4aea-8e07-3aa9eef4e565",{"type":52,"intro":1325},[1326,1327,1328],"What is the main idea behind Plato's allegory of the cave?","How does the allegory of the cave explain Plato's theory of forms?","Why does Plato use prisoners in a cave to illustrate his metaphysical ideas?",[1330,1352,1376],{"id":1331,"data":1332,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1335},"686d1de4-5208-4c14-a1b3-c9da45383f11",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1333,"audioMediaId":1334},"Plato’s metaphysics continue to baffle even today. Like philosophers before him, he saw the world as ever-changing, with evidence found in the seasons, the crumbling of buildings, and the death of people, animals, and nature.\n\nHowever, Plato believed that underlying this ever-changing reality was a deeper, more stable, and permanent reality. He called this deeper reality the world of forms or *eidos*, which is **permanent, unchanging, and perfect**.\n\nFor example, a perfect circle is a form that exists in that deeper layer of reality. If a man comes to know the form of a perfect circle and attempts to draw it, he will inevitably fall short, just as all material or observable reality falls short of the ideal forms. Plato believed that true knowledge came from the identification and comprehension of these forms. Unless one understands that these forms exist, there’s no way to emulate them or attempt to grasp them.","44390de4-de9f-4009-a46f-3dc11f86a3d7",[1336,1345],{"id":1337,"data":1338,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"63bd9788-2a6f-4b2b-912c-ba28e49ba289",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1339,"activeRecallAnswers":1341},[1340],"What are the main characteristics of Plato’s world of forms?",[1342,1343,1344],"Unchanging","Perfect","Permanent",{"id":1346,"data":1347,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"d92f387f-4f91-453f-a73a-edcd0c5dc052",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1348,"binaryCorrect":1350,"binaryIncorrect":1351},[1349],"According to Plato, with hard work, it is possible to draw a circle as perfect as the circle in the world of Forms",[527],[529],{"id":1353,"data":1354,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"reviews":1357},"7a7f5d18-dd03-41f3-ba33-7b9432a3fb86",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1355,"audioMediaId":1356},"An excellent example of the disparity Plato saw between the natural world and the true reality of forms, or a higher, transcendental layer of reality, is his allegory of The Cave.\n\nIn this story, he describes men chained to a wall in a cave watching shadows flicker on the wall in front of them. Eventually, one breaks away to discover the city and the fire beyond that was casting the shadows on the wall.\n\n![Graph](image://c39fe71c-ac07-462b-95fb-498eb549387f \"An illustration of Plato's cave. Image: 4edges, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nTo Plato, most men exist in the cave merely staring at shadows on the wall and attempting to discern them as reality. They’ve never broken away from their chains, turning around to see the three-dimensional world that is casting the shadows onto the wall. Because of this, they imagine the shadows on the wall to be the only true world.\n\nEnlightenment and true knowledge come from stepping out of the cave and identifying the truer forms or *eidos* that make up those shadows.","bd102d67-6ee9-489b-8946-d5c00abdf7cb",[1358,1367],{"id":1359,"data":1360,"type":72,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"5688f044-0416-464e-9ad9-102ac789d891",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1361,"binaryCorrect":1363,"binaryIncorrect":1365},[1362],"Plato compares the dynamic state of the soul and its ability to overwhelm or mislead an individual to",[1364],"A pair of horses",[1366],"Wild fire and calm water",{"id":1368,"data":1369,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"03dfb3c7-b1ad-4d02-9627-47b4579cc881",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1370,"binaryCorrect":1372,"binaryIncorrect":1374},[1371],"In Plato's Allegory of The Cave, how do most men think of the shadows cast upon the wall?",[1373],"They believe them to be reality",[1375],"They realize they are just shadows, and not the true form of the world",{"id":1377,"data":1378,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1381},"ebe4526e-a247-4c1a-af3b-ab5eb385f23f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1379,"audioMediaId":1380},"At the heart of Plato’s philosophy is the notion that the reality we see is not the only reality there is. Reality as we know it is only a shadow of what’s there.\n\nWhile this may seem far-fetched, we can understand this on a practical level. Take, for example, justice or equality. Both of these values can be seen in real-world actions, language, and behaviors; however, the manifestations of these values are only a fraction of their true reality.\n\nThe depth of these values and the idea of them are not something that exists with a physical state to be measured and quantified. These values, and others, exist on a transcendental layer of reality. Knowledge of this deeper reality brings us closer to it. If we want to see more virtue in the world and strive to lead happy, fulfilling lives, then we must decide to *step out of the cave and see the truer world beyond the shadows on the wall.*","eb3544de-437f-44be-a5be-e566b111a61a",[1382,1391],{"id":1383,"data":1384,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"f100d492-fd5c-42be-bf7c-026afecbd0ce",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1385,"binaryCorrect":1387,"binaryIncorrect":1389},[1386],"At the heart of Plato’s philosophy is the notion that the reality we see is",[1388],"Only a shadow of what’s there",[1390],"The only reality there is",{"id":1392,"data":1393,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"84f9b2a4-1e69-4118-a73f-8eb99bdeafdd",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1394,"multiChoiceCorrect":1396,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1398,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1395],"Whose philosophy does this best describe: To lead happier lives, we have to step out of the cave and see the truer world beyond the shadows on the wall",[1397],"Plato",[1195,1197,1399],"Epicurus",{"id":1401,"data":1402,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"orbs":1404},"7b6be07d-3762-4f75-9fdb-4d13a8eb4337",{"type":27,"title":1197,"tagline":1403},"This tile takes a look at the philosphy and ideas of the philosopher known today as the first teacher. Learn all about Aristotle and his principles of life and logic.",[1405,1492,1562],{"id":1406,"data":1407,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":1409,"introPage":1417,"pages":1424},"65dbe94f-fa68-4e72-bcb1-14983157ad1a",{"type":25,"title":1408},"Introduction to Aristotle",{"id":1410,"data":1411,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"004af8d0-21d6-4f8b-b09f-3eb5b81b122c",{"type":35,"summary":1412},[1413,1414,1415,1416],"Aristotle was a student of Plato who founded the Peripatetic school in Athens","He focused on the form of logical arguments, like syllogisms, rather than just their content","Aristotle valued both deductive and inductive reasoning for discovering truths","He believed in using empirical methods to understand the universe and the human mind",{"id":1418,"data":1419,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"bc79f1f5-8402-4861-9a91-a636308568b1",{"type":52,"intro":1420},[1421,1422,1423],"What was Aristotle's birthplace?","How did Aristotle's approach to philosophy differ from Plato's?","What field did Aristotle contribute to with his work \"Poetics\"?",[1425,1442,1457,1470],{"id":1426,"data":1427,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1430},"e6b4401e-d6b9-4d9e-b3e1-61952855d117",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1428,"audioMediaId":1429},"Aristotle is one of the towering figures of ancient Greek philosophy. As a student of Plato, Aristotle made many contributions to the fields of logic, rhetoric, mathematics, ethics, politics, and, of course, philosophy. Infamously, Aristotle rejected his teacher’s theory of forms and instead took a more empirical stance on metaphysics and philosophy than either Plato or Socrates.\n\n![Graph](image://b836eac9-866b-4fc0-ad53-80bfd06bef35 \"Aristotle. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nA prolific writer, Aristotle wrote dialogues, essays, and more than 200 philosophical treatises, only 31 of which remain today. His legacy is so plentiful and profound that he is known today as ‘the First Teacher’ or, simply, ‘The Philosopher.’ In 334 BC, Aristotle founded the Peripatetic school of philosophy at the Lyceum in Athens.","64b9a585-b191-4aa5-866d-01501d1fd37d",[1431],{"id":1432,"data":1433,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"afa30f56-f335-47d6-ab17-bc3349fdd1ed",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1434,"multiChoiceCorrect":1436,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1438,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1435],"Aristotle founded the Peripatetic school of philosophy at the Lyceum in Athens in",[1437],"334 BC",[1439,1440,1441],"545 BC","34 BC","21AD",{"id":1443,"data":1444,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"reviews":1447},"77cc95c1-362c-4809-b9a0-f924522cc539",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1445,"audioMediaId":1446},"Aristotle took an empirical approach to philosophy and was particularly interested in the logic of philosophical propositions. While philosophers before him were interested in the content of their arguments, Aristotle was interested in the form of a deduction or logical argument itself.\n\nAn example is syllogism. This form of argument takes two statements, which, if true, mean the following third statement must be true. If this sounds confusing, here’s an example.\n\n- Dogs have fur.\n- Only mammals have hair or fur.\n- Therefore, dogs are mammals.\n\nAristotle was interested in the form of the argument and the validity of the statements rather than the metaphysics that may form the argument itself.\n\nHe identified that, through logic, deeper truths of reality and ourselves could break through. According to Aristotle, written words symbolize spoken words, which symbolize ideas. While the language may vary according to culture, the ideas or thoughts behind the many different languages and words are unifying.","62fa49c0-f3a4-4c69-9b7d-ac84cfd0d08e",[1448],{"id":1449,"data":1450,"type":72,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"90e29aa3-cbba-40c4-b4c5-3ce75f76661c",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1451,"binaryCorrect":1453,"binaryIncorrect":1455},[1452],"Which of these is a correct syllogism?",[1454],"Cats have fur. Whiskers is a cat. Therefore Whiskers has fur.",[1456],"Dogs have fur. Whiskers has fur. Therefore Whiskers is a dog.",{"id":1458,"data":1459,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1462},"dd5b7fb6-247e-4f66-b779-062ac6cedeee",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1460,"audioMediaId":1461},"Aristotle’s emphasis on logic and empirical thought does not stop at deductive reasoning or attaining what is true from a series of true statements. He also believed that inductive reasoning, or reasoning based on the inference of universal truths, was equally important.\n\nAristotle did not believe that observations or sensory data should be ignored as more radical philosophers before him did; instead, he believed this type of knowledge was important if it could be supported or proved. While deductions are easily understood as a syllogism, inductions are truths that come as a logical conclusion after proving that the data or ideas on which the induction relies are true.\n\nAn example of an induction is the observation that snow falls when it rains and it is cold. On a cold day, one might notice clouds forming, signifying rain. An inductive inference to conclude based on data and observations is that snow will soon fall.","9ba8c3cf-5ef3-40f1-801e-8ceb48c39154",[1463],{"id":1464,"data":1465,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"a9fba869-91c0-45cf-9b8d-a9ebf35e73cf",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1466,"binaryCorrect":1468,"binaryIncorrect":1469},[1467],"Aristotle believed that observations, or sensory data, should be ignored as they can be deceiving",[527],[529],{"id":1471,"data":1472,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1475},"aff52b56-2b89-4872-9f79-f3d8e76a14e5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1473,"audioMediaId":1474},"One of Aristotle’s core philosophies was the importance of the psyche, or mental health, and the dignity of the human mind. Aristotle was firm in his belief that humans were driven by a desire for knowledge and similarly desired an explanation of things in the world around them.\n\nWhile the depth of the knowledge each person wants may vary – let’s face it, not all of us are intellectuals or scientists – there is an innate curiosity about the mechanics of the universe that resides in each of us. However, to attain this knowledge, Aristotle believed it was important to use empirical methods and form sound arguments rather than base them on observations or sensory information alone.\n\nKnowledge of the fundamental function and form of an object or idea is necessary. Because of this, Aristotle formulated a system of logic, deductive reasoning, and rhetoric with the intention of helping himself, and humanity, realize a deeper understanding of the universe.","f50bfc99-ad09-46ea-8aeb-b4610a5746df",[1476,1482],{"id":1477,"data":1478,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"21916cd4-5e4b-4ef3-914b-13130ab6746c",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1479,"activeRecallAnswers":1481},[1480],"Which Greek philosopher is believed to have formulated a system of logic, deductive reasoning, and rhetoric?",[1197],{"id":1483,"data":1484,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"5b0be2c0-880f-4ed9-874d-7bee5c59fc9b",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1485,"multiChoiceCorrect":1487,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1488,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1486],"Aristotle was firm in his belief that humans were driven by a desire for",[1023],[1489,1490,1491],"Wealth","power","status",{"id":1493,"data":1494,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":1496,"introPage":1504,"pages":1511},"46a2ab32-f6c7-4e0d-ace7-e3c64cdd049c",{"type":25,"title":1495},"Aristotle's Observations",{"id":1497,"data":1498,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"125e367f-35cd-42cd-9e45-42a49caa511f",{"type":35,"summary":1499},[1500,1501,1502,1503],"Aristotle believed the first step in learning is identifying problems and contradictions","Aristotle concluded Earth is spherical by observing water droplets and slopes","Aristotle deduced the heavens are spherical by studying eclipses","Aristotle valued both sensory observations and credible beliefs (endoxa) for knowledge",{"id":1505,"data":1506,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"b0e9f705-1763-453f-8712-c67860ad0a49",{"type":52,"intro":1507},[1508,1509,1510],"What does Aristotle mean by 'endoxa'?","How did Aristotle verify information?","Why is 'endoxa' important in Aristotle's philosophy?",[1512,1525],{"id":1513,"data":1514,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1517},"5980f1f8-bd7c-4ae2-9fce-fba8380a7127",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1515,"audioMediaId":1516},"According to Aristotle, the first step in acquiring knowledge is to identify the problems and contradictions that present themselves when we attempt to learn. He writes, *'\\[P\\]eople who inquire without first stating the difficulties are like those who do not know where they have to go.'*\n\nWhile philosophers before him attempted to parse out intellectual reality from material reality, Aristotle believed that observations were imperative to collect information and form educated inferences on the nature of the universe. Consequently, Aristotle’s devotion to scientific observation and deduction led him to make astounding discoveries.\n\nAfter careful observation that water forms spherical droplets and pools in the lowest place of any slope or plane, Aristotle concluded that Earth had to be spherical itself. After even closer observation of eclipses, he deduced that the heavens must be spherical as well. The fact that Earth is round isn’t exactly news today, but Aristotle learned that without satellites or maps.","5d6261c5-8188-49c3-af74-8fe718bc7a1a",[1518],{"id":1519,"data":1520,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"f1843b35-0d81-4819-a2c6-2e5380610916",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1521,"activeRecallAnswers":1523},[1522],"How did Aristotle conclude that the heavens must be spherical?",[1524],"After close observation of eclipses",{"id":1526,"data":1527,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1530},"8e6a7157-5887-489d-bf04-7f78c523e500",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1528,"audioMediaId":1529},"While Aristotle placed a heavy emphasis on knowledge attained from the senses and observations, he also believed in the importance of *endoxa* or ‘credible belief or opinion.’ It’s because of the importance he placed on endoxa that he studied the teachings and writings of his teacher, Plato, and the philosophers who came before him. According to Aristotle, these credible beliefs come in many forms, and as long as they can be placed into a sound, logical argument, they can be considered true even if they are not empirically provable.\n\nIt was Aristotle’s belief that both endoxa and observations from our senses were jumping-off points for the attainment of more knowledge. Aristotle valued what he called endoxa as well as observations and sensory experience, but he realized it was imperative to find a way to verify the information that comes from senses or from beliefs and ideas.","47f426b7-1704-46a1-9d8c-7ea0703d8dbd",[1531,1540,1547],{"id":1532,"data":1533,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"986a5971-0159-43bc-aa5c-a2fa7d851f5e",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1534,"binaryCorrect":1536,"binaryIncorrect":1538},[1535],"From observing the shapes of water, Aristotle concluded that the earth was",[1537],"Spherical",[1539],"Flat",{"id":1541,"data":1542,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"4206a71c-3ba6-4c1a-a332-d3ecb45a1184",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1543,"binaryCorrect":1545,"binaryIncorrect":1546},[1544],"According to Aristotle, as long as credible beliefs (or endoxa) can be put into a sound, logical argument, they can be considered true even if they are not empirically provable",[529],[527],{"id":1548,"data":1549,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"72ce9ebf-ac63-4a4f-b645-9e957aec6858",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1550,"multiChoiceCorrect":1552,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1554,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1558,"matchPairsPairs":1559},[1551],"Which of is a term used by Aristotle to refer to widely accepted views or opinions?",[1553],"Endoxa",[1555,1556,1557],"A system devised by Aristotle to verify ideas, observations, and beliefs","Proposes that pleasure is the greatest of all goods","Believes that bodily pleasures are the most intense and should be the most sought after",[95],[1560],{"left":1553,"right":1561,"direction":35},"A term used by Aristotle to refer to widely accepted views or opinions",{"id":1563,"data":1564,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":1566,"introPage":1574,"pages":1581},"ace097c6-b932-4dc7-8c57-090357e43db4",{"type":25,"title":1565},"Aristotle's Causal Accounts",{"id":1567,"data":1568,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"2afbaa32-3842-4cd7-948a-9a8db641ae5c",{"type":35,"summary":1569},[1570,1571,1572,1573],"Aristotle's Four Causes: material, formal, efficient, and final","Material cause: what something is made of (eg, bronze for a statue)","Final cause: the purpose or function of something (eg, a statue to honor)","Aristotle saw purpose in nature, unlike the mechanistic view of his predecessors",{"id":1575,"data":1576,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"964f9c48-8cb6-479c-9dea-90fc350915fd",{"type":52,"intro":1577},[1578,1579,1580],"What is Aristotle's concept of substance?","How does Aristotle define form?","Why does Aristotle believe substance and form are inseparable?",[1582,1595,1615,1644,1657],{"id":1583,"data":1584,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1587},"30d89e19-7d2a-4ae0-b2fa-f620ce793900",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1585,"audioMediaId":1586},"To form a basis of understanding and a way in which to verify ideas, observations, and beliefs, Aristotle devised what is called the **Four Causal Accounts of Explanatory Adequacy**. This doctrine is one of the most important aspects of Aristotle’s philosophy as it demonstrates his desire to form a cohesive system of thought based on sound, verifiable information and ideas.\n\nThe material cause is the first and represents the identification of what something is made of so as to attain knowledge. Next is the formal cause, which is the pattern, structure, or form that something takes. The efficient cause is the agent or entity responsible for making an object take its specific pattern, structure, or form. Finally, the aptly named final cause comes when someone can explain what the purpose or function of the thing being learned is.","2dd74900-4a8d-4097-aa8e-787557015272",[1588],{"id":1589,"data":1590,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"983c0fd3-4d67-4053-a78b-881efcb1161c",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1591,"activeRecallAnswers":1593},[1592],"What is the name of the system that Aristotle created to verify ideas and observations?",[1594],"The four causal accounts of explanatory adequacy",{"id":1596,"data":1597,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1600},"7e2c9ace-675a-4bf3-93ea-d631a4327c60",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1598,"audioMediaId":1599},"The Four Causal Accounts can be a little hard to get our heads round. Aristotle knew this too, so he came up with an example of the kind of observations that can be made using it. The example he used would be the deductions we could make about a bronze statue:\n\nThe material cause, or what it’s made of, is bronze.\n\nThe formal cause, or the form and structure of the object, is the body of its subject.\n\nThe efficient cause, or what has made the object and given it form, is the sculptor.\n\nLastly, the final cause of the statue, or its purpose, is to honor and memorialize.\n\nThese causes for knowledge are not limited to physical objects but should be extended to ideas as well. Aristotle saw that it is important to understand what role an idea or belief plays, what structure it forms in society or in our psyche, and the final cause or purpose it carries.","77e89c24-2699-4f9b-bdd7-a25f5a368a4e",[1601,1608],{"id":1602,"data":1603,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"4566a55c-6772-4107-bfcd-4df851a472f2",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1604,"binaryCorrect":1606,"binaryIncorrect":1607},[1605],"Aristotle's four causes are limited to physical objects",[527],[529],{"id":1609,"data":1610,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"2acc4a61-a356-43d2-862f-75a2e7d08fa7",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1611,"activeRecallAnswers":1613},[1612],"What is Aristotle's 'Final Cause'?",[1614],"The Final Cause was the purpose or function of an object or idea",{"id":1616,"data":1617,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1620},"06ed021a-f17b-4920-9706-4cf8f2bc640e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1618,"audioMediaId":1619},"Aristotle received a significant amount of criticism through the centuries for applying the final cause to nature. That means he thought that all things in nature could have a final cause – a higher purpose.\n\nHis critics see the application of this final cause as a teleological view of nature in which Aristotle assigns a purpose to all living things, even internal organs and matter. While it may sound strange today to study the metaphysical reason for a liver or tooth, this teleological view of nature is based on a response to the mechanistic view of nature that came to Aristotle from his predecessors, the pre-Socratics.\n\nThis mechanistic view was one in which all physical phenomena were reducible to elemental processes that are innately without purpose and accidental. Aristotle didn’t buy this.\n\nInstead, Aristotle saw innate purpose in nature. This view can be described as a *teleological* view, with *telos* meaning ‘end result’ or ‘reason.’ He explained that if the final cause – the ultimate purpose or function of an object or even a part of an object – was true, then it would be true for each of its parts as well.\n\nHe believed that the form behind the whole of the being was also intrinsic in each of the smaller parts making up that being. While the metaphysical purpose of a tooth may not ever be precisely known, according to Aristotle, it can be understood as sharing in the same final cause as a human being, since that cause is embedded into each of its parts.","d48e15ab-933f-4619-a44b-df333e28f8a7",[1621,1630,1637],{"id":1622,"data":1623,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"b8faa026-630e-4c33-95ae-cacfd803fa91",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1624,"binaryCorrect":1626,"binaryIncorrect":1628},[1625],"Aristotle adopted the",[1627],"Teleological view of nature",[1629],"The mechanistic view of nature",{"id":1631,"data":1632,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"ca1ff280-1c3c-4229-9fff-4ac8fee2ccb2",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1633,"activeRecallAnswers":1635},[1634],"What does a teleological view of nature (according to Aristotle) mean?",[1636],"There is a 'metaphysical' purpose to all matter and living things",{"id":1638,"data":1639,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"d400fe56-69cd-4954-b1c5-bfb08903812d",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1640,"binaryCorrect":1642,"binaryIncorrect":1643},[1641],"According to Aristotle, since a tooth is part of a human being, then it shares the same ultimate purpose or 'final cause' as a human being",[529],[527],{"id":1645,"data":1646,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1649},"a024a82d-fbaa-4dca-ba31-259fd060fd0b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1647,"audioMediaId":1648},"Aristotle’s emphasis on empiricism and logic does not mean he discounts the metaphysical. Make no mistake: Aristotle, just like other philosophers, believed it is wrong to reduce reality to merely natural phenomena and what is observable.\n\nHowever, he infamously criticized Plato, his friend and teacher, and Plato’s theory of forms. According to Aristotle, the separation of material reality from a transcendental reality of forms was erroneous, as it lacks an explanation for how an object participates in the function of that metaphysical form.\n\nAristotle also criticized Plato’s belief that true reality was something transcendent and beyond experience or knowledge. Aristotle saw the world as a dance between observable reality and the deeper, unchanging forms that underlie reality, but he believed that, ultimately, these two are unified and work with each other.","51745b7c-af25-497f-a849-4f7728cd83ad",[1650],{"id":1651,"data":1652,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"16f404e4-e86a-4aa1-9a5b-bf2320ec4a15",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1653,"binaryCorrect":1655,"binaryIncorrect":1656},[1654],"Due to his emphasis on observation and logical reasoning, Aristotle believed that reality should be reduced to its merely natural phenomena",[527],[529],{"id":1658,"data":1659,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1662},"73ce34bc-4451-485f-bc57-ccfa87949342",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1660,"audioMediaId":1661},"While metaphysics is the study of ultimate reality, according to Aristotle, metaphysics also encompasses the study of our own nature. He saw metaphysics as the interplay of substance and form.\n\nSubstance is the basic category to which all other categories refer, or rather a particular object that possesses properties. For example, take Joe. Joe is the primary substance and he has hair, teeth, eyes, et cetera. Joe can exist without that hair or those teeth, but that specific hair and those teeth cannot exist without Joe. These, then, are secondary properties.\n\nPlato saw form and substance as separate, with form, or a transcendental, deeper layer of reality, being the more important and more distant of the two. To Plato, the substance of Joe would be less worthy of study than the ideal form of a man.\n\nAristotle, in contrast, believed substance was the most knowable as it is the most real, the most important for us to understand to live happy lives. As a secondary property, form cannot be separated from the substance, working cohesively with it to provide well-rounded knowledge.\n\nThis meant Aristotle’s philosophy was much more concerned with the observable than Plato’s.","f3fdd2ff-f41d-421f-8277-b0bab536db0b",[1663,1670],{"id":1664,"data":1665,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"0fd5f452-ba6c-4f56-a38f-9d59f74323fe",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1666,"activeRecallAnswers":1668},[1667],"What is Aristotle's view of 'substance'?",[1669],"Substance is a particular object that possesses properties",{"id":1671,"data":1672,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"2b4d81cf-6b5c-4843-a324-d1f1b25c2d49",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1673,"multiChoiceCorrect":1675,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1676,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1677,"matchPairsPairs":1678},[1674],"Which of the options below best describes the Four Causal Accounts of Explanatory Adequacy?",[1555],[1561,1556,1557],[95],[1679],{"left":1680,"right":1555,"direction":35},"Four Causal Accounts of Explanacy Adequacy",{"id":1682,"data":1683,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"orbs":1686},"e520154a-162e-45ea-a4da-554782919ab0",{"type":27,"title":1684,"tagline":1685},"The Epicureans","Founded on the philosophy of Epicurus, the Epicurean school created a complete and practice system of philosophy that focused on empirical knowledge of the goal of human life.",[1687,1779,1842],{"id":1688,"data":1689,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":1691,"introPage":1699,"pages":1706},"9a0550ef-7c08-4c7a-9aac-472e2ca61c57",{"type":25,"title":1690},"Understanding Epicurus",{"id":1692,"data":1693,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"31d70ece-0a66-4d5b-9194-79de693ffd0f",{"type":35,"summary":1694},[1695,1696,1697,1698],"Epicurus founded a school of philosophy focused on achieving happiness through pleasure","Epicurus believed true pleasure comes from the absence of physical pain and mental distress","Epicurus lived simply, contrary to rumors of indulgence and excess","Epicurean ethics emphasize discipline and practical living to attain the ultimate good of life",{"id":1700,"data":1701,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"ca898b71-4e7f-44ea-8d99-0bc85cd6eb26",{"type":52,"intro":1702},[1703,1704,1705],"What is the main goal of Epicurean ethics?","How does Epicurus define pleasure?","Why does Epicurus value simple living?",[1707,1721,1726,1741],{"id":1708,"data":1709,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1712},"f8ae621c-900f-4719-b77e-e15ac0a7b798",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1710,"audioMediaId":1711},"The Epicurean school of philosophy was founded on the philosophy of **Epicurus**, one of the sages of ancient Greece. Born in 341 BC, Epicurus created a complete and practical system of philosophy that focused on empirical knowledge of the goal of human life.\n\n![Graph](image://98d2ca44-199f-4ca4-8fb2-ff1a69bd62d5 \"A Bust of Epicurus. Image: Dudva, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nEpicurus moved to Athens at the age of 18 but soon thereafter traveled with his father to Colophon on what is now the coast of Turkey. It was in Colophon that Epicurus studied philosophy under the teachings of Nausiphanes.","ec07dba4-f34d-41cc-b0fa-473ca28081e6",[1713],{"id":1714,"data":1715,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"d9a5fecd-c12e-4afc-b913-39fa743ed043",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1716,"multiChoiceCorrect":1718,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1720,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1717],"When was Epicurus born?",[1719],"341 BC",[1439,1440,1441],{"id":1722,"data":1723,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"25bfd306-657a-4211-bd4e-310a9f7807a4",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1724,"audioMediaId":1725},"A decade later, Epicurus moved to the island of Lesbos, where he taught philosophy himself. Gathering a steady school of followers, he returned to Athens and purchased a property known simply as ‘The Garden,’ where he would continue his teaching to many students and peers.\n\nWhile philosophers before him studied morality and what makes people good, Epicurus attempted to understand what it was that makes people *happy*. Epicurus persisted in this quest, and, through his studies, he deduced that it is the attainment of pleasure that leads to happiness.","f570cec2-3e33-4ee8-ad84-866a618933bf",{"id":1727,"data":1728,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1731},"7295c479-636b-4e7a-81dc-94e78f655a1c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1729,"audioMediaId":1730},"This new avenue of thinking was not well received at the time and brought Epicurus significant scorn and criticism. His school and commune known as The Garden was the basis of many vicious rumors and gossip involving 10-course feasts and even days-long orgies. However, this couldn’t be farther from the truth. Epicurus owned only two cloaks to his name and lived off a simple diet of bread, olives, and cheese. He often called philosophy his bride in lieu of taking a real one.\n\nDespite the bitter misunderstandings from peers and critics for proposing pleasure as the path to happiness, Epicurus believed that pleasure was more than just feeding the bodily appetites. True pleasure comes from the lack of physical pain or a disturbed psyche, in other words, poor mental health.\n\nWhile this may seem simple, Epicurean philosophy has inspired philosophers for centuries because of its complex, descriptive, and naturalistic theories. While other philosophers are puzzled over the metaphysical and transcendental, Epicurus takes a radically materialistic position grounded in observation and study.","90561c7f-79ad-4e36-a4ac-ce490047d53d",[1732],{"id":1733,"data":1734,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"f85ef092-2c34-4e30-a39d-9e9117721a1a",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1735,"binaryCorrect":1737,"binaryIncorrect":1739},[1736],"Epicurus believed that pleasure",[1738],"Comes from the lack of physical pain or a disturbed psyche",[1740],"Was feeding the bodily appetites",{"id":1742,"data":1743,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1746},"cc48a129-c0b4-4d37-a427-5a97a00b149d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1744,"audioMediaId":1745},"Perhaps one of the most practical notions to come from the Epicurean school of philosophy is its stance on ethics. Ethics concerns moral values and value judgments. This means it is mainly concerned with the questions of what is good or bad and how one ought to live.\n\nPhilosophy, especially as it relates to ethics, is concerned with two major questions: *What is the ultimate good of life?* and *How do I live in order to attain that good?* Epicurus considered these questions to be of the utmost importance, lending a more practical aspect to philosophy than was seen in some of the philosophers who preceded him.\n\nTo answer the first question, Epicurus decided that **pleasure was the ultimate good** to be pursued. However, he was very careful to be clear about how he defined pleasure, making it clear that discipline was one of the highest virtues that could be attained alongside the pursuit of pleasure.","d37d926b-dd7d-49c2-b719-a0fa643fe004",[1747,1757,1765],{"id":1748,"data":1749,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"3ef9e296-6cce-4a1d-ba38-ea0b4000579b",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1750,"multiChoiceCorrect":1752,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1754,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1751],"One of the most practical notions to come from the Epicurean school of philosophy is its stance on",[1753],"Ethics",[98,1755,1756],"mythology","logical reasoning",{"id":1758,"data":1759,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"f12f84a0-b058-4abc-9e42-4712bcc60119",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1760,"activeRecallAnswers":1762},[1761],"What are the two major philosophical questions in relation to ethics?",[1763,1764],"What is the ultimate good of life?","How do I live in order to attain that good?",{"id":1766,"data":1767,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"2e8ca285-5c80-49a3-8524-fbda2262ce19",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1768,"multiChoiceCorrect":1770,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1771,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1775,"matchPairsPairs":1776},[1769],"Who is the philosopher that believed considerate pleasure is the path to happiness?",[1399],[1772,1773,1774],"Cyrenaic school of philosophy","Diogenes","Zeno of Citium",[95],[1777],{"left":1399,"right":1778,"direction":35},"Believed in considerate pleasure as the path to happiness",{"id":1780,"data":1781,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":1783,"introPage":1791,"pages":1798},"82026398-861b-446a-a21d-2642a0b8b186",{"type":25,"title":1782},"Epicureanism vs Hedonism",{"id":1784,"data":1785,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"ab491fcf-de4c-4861-b2c1-e31c419ea9a5",{"type":35,"summary":1786},[1787,1788,1789,1790],"Cyrenaic hedonism focuses on intense bodily pleasures like food, drink, and sex","Epicurus believed the highest pleasure is the absence of pain, fear, or anxiety","Overindulging in bodily pleasures can lead to more intense pain than the pleasure they bring","To live the most pleasurable life, one must be able to decline bodily or sensual pleasures",{"id":1792,"data":1793,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"07231850-ffdd-4fee-bb84-82559c480667",{"type":52,"intro":1794},[1795,1796,1797],"What did Epicurus believe was the ultimate goal of life?","How did Epicurus define pleasure?","Why did Epicurus think some pleasures should be avoided?",[1799,1804],{"id":1800,"data":1801,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"9cfad420-6e78-4ff8-a639-a11003b0b81e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1802,"audioMediaId":1803},"In discussing Epicurean ethics, it’s important to distinguish Epicurean philosophy, which strives for the attainment of pleasure to live a good life, from *hedonism*. Hedonism proposes that pleasure is the greatest of all goods, which Epicurus, no doubt, would agree with.\n\nWhen thinking of hedonism, however, most people come up with a concept that most closely relates to the *Cyrenaic* theory of hedonism. The Cyrenaic school of philosophy believed that bodily pleasures were the most intense and, therefore, should be the most sought after of the pleasures in life. These bodily pleasures include those of food, drink, and sex, and the more one has of them the better a life they enjoy.","af6741cc-ac6e-4ad9-9f0c-9eda4e9f482e",{"id":1805,"data":1806,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1809},"1e94731f-14a7-45ad-a1ac-17b7f40dc7ce",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1807,"audioMediaId":1808},"However, Epicurus’ philosophy disagrees with this simplification of hedonism in distinct and important ways. While Epicurus acknowledged the power of bodily pleasure, he believed that the highest pleasure was better thought of as the **absence of pain, fear, or anxiety**. Epicurus agreed with the Cyrenaic school of philosophy that bodily pleasures were, in fact, the most intense. While that much may be obvious, he also thought it was clear that one could have too much of a good thing.\n\nOverindulging in these bodily pleasures is not necessary to live a good life and actually might prevent it. These bodily pleasures, while intense, are fleeting and short, and they may lead someone to act against their own interests and others to obtain them. Often, these pleasures are followed by a more intense pain than the pleasure they bring. A night drinking with friends might feel fun at the time, but the hangover the next day will last longer and is a heavy price to pay for fleeting fun and pleasure. \n\n![Graph](image://5d4e0ab3-099e-4c4e-accd-6df75dcf0e66 \"Excessive drinking is hedonistic, not Epicurean. Image: Gordito1869, CC BY 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis observation of the precarious balance between pleasure and pain brings Epicurus to one of his most important philosophical propositions: to live the most pleasurable life, one must be able to decline bodily or sensual pleasures.","31730639-2847-4507-bfed-22b890fe6013",[1810,1821,1832],{"id":1811,"data":1812,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"42a5372b-4f5f-41aa-a0cf-5ecfbdaa12dd",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1813,"multiChoiceCorrect":1815,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1816,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1817,"matchPairsPairs":1818},[1814],"Which of the following most closely applies to Hedonism?",[1556],[1561,1555,1557],[95],[1819],{"left":1820,"right":1556,"direction":35},"Hedonism",{"id":1822,"data":1823,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"7978781c-e8ed-49a7-a862-e3bcca15c854",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1824,"multiChoiceCorrect":1826,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1827,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1828,"matchPairsPairs":1829},[1825],"Which of the following most closely applies to the Cyrenaic theory of hedonism?",[1557],[1561,1555,1556],[95],[1830],{"left":1831,"right":1557,"direction":35},"Cyrenaic theory of hedonism",{"id":1833,"data":1834,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"13ea4b0a-cabe-439c-b61c-d6d95a3c4783",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1835,"multiChoiceCorrect":1837,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1838,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1839,"matchPairsPairs":1840},[1836],"Which school of philosophy advocates for the belief that bodily pleasures are the most intense and should be the most sought after?",[1772],[1399,1773,1774],[95],[1841],{"left":1772,"right":1557,"direction":35},{"id":1843,"data":1844,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":1846,"introPage":1854,"pages":1861},"67779de7-2fa8-4063-b87b-87f4fe52f209",{"type":25,"title":1845},"Desire and Discipline",{"id":1847,"data":1848,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"ba1d8ba6-c49c-4da3-a05f-9ba14381ae8c",{"type":35,"summary":1849},[1850,1851,1852,1853],"Epicurus believed true pleasure is freedom from pain, anxiety, and fear","Natural and necessary desires are basic needs like food, water, and shelter","Unnatural and unnecessary desires, like wealth and fame, lead to endless dissatisfaction","Happiness comes from simple pleasures and meaningful work, not luxury or romantic relationships",{"id":1855,"data":1856,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"a187215a-82fe-4825-9ec0-3d08ec438726",{"type":52,"intro":1857},[1858,1859,1860],"What did Epicurus believe was the main obstacle to happiness?","How did Epicurus suggest overcoming the fear of death?","Why did Epicurus think desires could be a stumbling block to happiness?",[1862,1884,1912,1917,1922],{"id":1863,"data":1864,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1867},"db8cba78-6e05-4adb-a742-4e41fce8fe22",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1865,"audioMediaId":1866},"To Epicurus, discipline over bodily and sensual pleasures was the way to avoid most of the pain and discomfort in life. He believed that the fleeting satisfaction that sensual pleasure brings, and the longer-lasting pain that may follow, would lead to a terrible cycle, and little lasting happiness.\n\nInstead, and perhaps even paradoxically, Epicurus believed that a life spent avoiding chasing after bodily pleasures was sure to be the most pleasurable life.\n\nAs Epicurus writes in his Letter to Menoeceus, *'When, therefore, we say that pleasure is a chief good, we are not speaking of the pleasure of the debauched man, or those who lie in sensual enjoyment, as some think who are ignorant… but we mean freedom of the body from pain and of the soul from confusion.'* Epicurus believed that the pleasure we should seek in life as the ultimate good is not bodily pleasure but the freedom from pain, anxiety, fear, and confusion.\n\nWhile Epicurus's pursuit of pleasure as the ultimate good – alongside the absence of pain, anxiety, and fear – may seem simple enough, he believed that what stopped most people from obtaining this pleasure was their ignorance of the nature of their own desires.","56549cd0-6b4e-4cc2-b1ac-400820a3733d",[1868,1877],{"id":1869,"data":1870,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"03662782-a753-4cee-b14e-a81b36abc40f",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1871,"binaryCorrect":1873,"binaryIncorrect":1875},[1872],"To Epicurus, discipline over bodily and sensual pleasures was",[1874],"The way to avoid the most pain and discomfort in life",[1876],"An unnecessary cause of suffering",{"id":1878,"data":1879,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"42763f68-cbcb-40a0-9a87-4a18fce76929",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1880,"binaryCorrect":1882,"binaryIncorrect":1883},[1881],"Epicurus believed that the ultimate good to be sought after in life is pleasure",[529],[527],{"id":1885,"data":1886,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1889},"d08a670a-ac13-460c-8e3c-6cf7b1aebf2d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1887,"audioMediaId":1888},"To further explain this ignorance and to help people gain knowledge and insight into their own desires, Epicurus placed the different types of desires into three categories: *natural and necessary desires, natural and unnecessary desires*, and *unnatural and unnecessary desires.*\n\n**Natural and necessary desires** are shared by all mammals and include the desire for food, water, and shelter. These desires are innate and are not shaped by society or external influence. They are necessary, as the lack of any one of them can lead to bodily harm or death.\n\n**Natural and unnecessary desires** are desires that are natural but that one should satiate not for the sake of pleasure alone, but only to avoid pain. These desires are, most commonly, sexual gratification.\n\n**Unnatural and unnecessary desires**, according to Epicurus, are those shaped by societal influences rather than by basic human needs. These desires include the pursuit of wealth, fame, and status. Unlike natural desires, which are finite and can be sated, unnatural and unnecessary desires are often insatiable. The constant striving for more in these areas can lead to dissatisfaction and a life filled with pain.","fc2147d2-f967-40ab-97ea-0c4d0576da86",[1890,1899,1905],{"id":1891,"data":1892,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"f1e843d0-718d-494e-81a2-1fe2e929ea4e",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1893,"activeRecallAnswers":1895},[1894],"What are the three categories of desire according to Epicurus?",[1896,1897,1898],"Natural and Necessary Desires","Natural and Unnecessary Desires","Unnatural and Unnecessary desires",{"id":1900,"data":1901,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"7fe37db7-6a74-4689-8efe-939929d1653d",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1902,"activeRecallAnswers":1904},[1903],"According to Epicurus' categories of desire, food, water, and shelter are _____",[1896],{"id":1906,"data":1907,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"f227441c-462e-409c-92db-46dffbb94e58",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1908,"binaryCorrect":1910,"binaryIncorrect":1911},[1909],"Epicurus believed that all desires are equal",[527],[529],{"id":1913,"data":1914,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"77481004-d3e4-4cec-8501-28181f9577b5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1915,"audioMediaId":1916},"**A good life is a simple life**, Epicurus concluded in his philosophy. A simple life is one in which all fundamental needs are met while superfluous wants and darker desires are controlled by a firmly developed discipline. Discipline is necessary to achieve happiness from these simple pleasures, as control must be applied to the appetites and desires of our own baser instincts and pressure from society.\n\nTo be content with a life of basic needs and simple desires, we must dive into our own psyches and discover the unnecessary desires that rule our minds and actions. Once these unnecessary desires are rooted out, we must actively seek to control them and reject them.","65666085-1df0-4448-aa9b-bc8ae9e77d41",{"id":1918,"data":1919,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"1dcab17e-3022-4c99-a1d4-c4d2602316ef",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1920,"audioMediaId":1921},"According to Epicurus, people commonly make three mistakes when they define happiness. The first mistake is that happiness means having romantic or sexual relationships. Looking at the couples around him, he saw that this clearly wasn’t true, as so many relationships are filled with pain, misunderstanding, and unhappiness. Epicurus also noticed that friendships often bring more happiness than romantic relationships.\n\nThe second mistake is the desire for wealth. While money may bring peace of mind, the relentless pursuit of money makes one unhappy. What brings more happiness than money is meaningful work that contributes to the betterment of society.\n\n![Graph](image://9be27d15-1341-45f6-a771-2e68a4968dbc \"Luxury watches. Image: Kevin Sweeney, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe final mistake Epicurus saw in defining happiness is the love of luxury. The desire for nice clothes or possessions is really a misplaced desire for beauty. While art brings peace to the mind with the beauty it evokes, luxury is a cheap imitation. It also fuels the desire for wealth and status, which only furthers unhappiness.","4eb41d7f-272d-4cf0-b7dd-5602f08e71b0",{"id":1923,"data":1924,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1927},"4a51a6df-7b2b-436e-a164-44aeb06cc189",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1925,"audioMediaId":1926},"One of the greatest discoveries from Epicurus is the realization that humans aren’t very good at making themselves happy. Too often, people chase after the wrong things – relationships, wealth, and luxury – to find happiness. They may believe this will make them happy, but they never find true pleasure or fulfillment.\n\nIf people remain unaware that these pursuits are empty, they will be doomed to chase them endlessly. Epicurus was firm in his belief that often it’s our own selves that stand in the way of our happiness.\n\n*If we simply took time to reflect on pleasure as a state without pain, fear, or anxiety and reflected on all the things we spend our time chasing that are empty and unfulfilling, we could then turn our minds to simpler pleasures and goods.*","e96b3d4e-d3b2-4b5b-b963-c4c8d9ef8a7b",[1928,1937,1944],{"id":1929,"data":1930,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"ce8b0a47-ee3f-43c4-a23f-9db03ff1ef66",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1931,"activeRecallAnswers":1933},[1932],"According to Epicurus, what are the three mistakes that people make when defining happiness?",[1934,1935,1936],"Desiring romantic or sexual relationships","Desiring wealth","Desiring luxury",{"id":1938,"data":1939,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"2cd5803e-c224-4e8f-8454-92be0dce6907",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1940,"binaryCorrect":1942,"binaryIncorrect":1943},[1941],"Epicurus realized that humans aren’t very good at making themselves happy",[529],[527],{"id":1945,"data":1946,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"babf9f33-c79f-4f79-8721-19700cd47299",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1947,"multiChoiceCorrect":1949,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1951,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1948],"Who did Epicurus believe to often stand in the way of our happiness?",[1950],"Our own selves",[1952,1953,1954],"Society","Friends and family","Cultural norms",{"id":1956,"data":1957,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"orbs":1959},"b35e068d-5703-4853-8920-5b1698826280",{"type":27,"title":662,"tagline":1958},"The Cynics encouraged their followers to remove themselves from the chains of society and live free, enlightened lives. Learn all about this controversial and influential philosophy.",[1960,2067,2112],{"id":1961,"data":1962,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":1964,"introPage":1972,"pages":1979},"fc7dc86b-a14c-4fd4-b63a-778d2a8666d1",{"type":25,"title":1963},"Introduction to Cynicism",{"id":1965,"data":1966,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"15642de9-b266-482e-b143-864c9f8a0607",{"type":35,"summary":1967},[1968,1969,1970,1971],"Cynicism is an ancient Greek philosophy founded in Athens, meaning 'dog-like'","Diogenes, a famous Cynic, lived as a beggar to break free from societal constraints","Ancient Cynics believed people could transform their lives through their own will","Diogenes saw philosophy as a practical way of life, not just theoretical study",{"id":1973,"data":1974,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"9e5e0118-2d68-43d0-acd0-d15b8ea74a7c",{"type":52,"intro":1975},[1976,1977,1978],"Who founded the philosophy of Cynicism?","What is the main principle of Cynicism?","How did Cynicism challenge societal norms?",[1980,1985,2014,2027],{"id":1981,"data":1982,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"a170f88e-ad7a-4304-b284-e17f6279e1f6",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1983,"audioMediaId":1984},"We all want a happy, worry-free life, but unfortunately, that’s probably not going to happen. If you believe this, does that make you cynical?\n\nWell, the Cynics are actually an ancient school of Greek philosophy founded in Athens. The word ‘cynic’ itself translates to ‘dog-like,’ after the strange life choices of this school’s founder. Perhaps one of the most famous, and most fascinating, of the Cynics was **Diogenes**. He lived as a beggar after willfully giving up all wealth, material comfort, and reputation. Diogenes became the face of the school of Cynicism, which encourages its followers to remove themselves from the chains of society and live free, enlightened lives.\n\n![Graph](image://bf47a592-0022-4ab1-8f8f-4dd9eb413f98 \"The 'dog-like' Diogenes. Image: Public domain via Picryl\")\n\nThis school of philosophy inspired many philosophical movements that followed, such as Stoicism and Skepticism, and even more modern philosophers such as Friedrich Nietzsche.","559fc9e3-2e16-40f1-bed5-6c04338ce6cf",{"id":1986,"data":1987,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1990},"50dded0d-7f5c-4b6a-b741-25287b204944",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1988,"audioMediaId":1989},"Diogenes believed that the ‘evil’ life was the easiest path to take. This life was one of willful ignorance lived by nearly all individuals as they blindly conform to the behavior of the masses. It’s also a life of corruption of the individual by external forces. As a self-professed free man, self-sufficient and happy, Diogenes claimed to know how to escape from this evil path.\n\nHe had broken free of arbitrary social constraints and, instead, lived according to his own self-generated internal laws and simple pleasures. This self-achieved freedom and happiness led Diogenes to claim that he was a king among men, an interesting title given that he lived in a tub and begged for his food.","b8703007-3897-4413-afc2-959c49b031a6",[1991,1999,2005],{"id":1992,"data":1993,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"d43ca909-fbd3-4385-b528-ea43efbfabc2",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1994,"multiChoiceCorrect":1996,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1997,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1995],"Who was the most famous of the Cynics?",[1773],[1399,1998,732],"Seneca",{"id":2000,"data":2001,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"34972ae4-6fc9-4cd8-bc0d-3a0397b1652c",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2002,"activeRecallAnswers":2004},[2003],"Which famous Cynic famously lived as a beggar?",[1773],{"id":2006,"data":2007,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"2e0c8440-fea0-4dc6-a43e-1547f4ac2b69",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2008,"binaryCorrect":2010,"binaryIncorrect":2012},[2009],"Diogenes believed that the easiest path to take was",[2011],"The 'evil' life",[2013],"The ‘virtuous’ life",{"id":2015,"data":2016,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2019},"0760fe91-702e-4afd-8034-68fe648f3b80",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2017,"audioMediaId":2018},"Today, the word cynic is used to describe someone who thinks pessimistically about their fellow human beings and about their existence in general. These dark personalities may even agree that life would have been better if it had never happened at all.\n\nThe ancient Cynics differed in their beliefs, but they would agree with the modern cynic’s low opinion of humanity. According to Diogenes, most people are lazy, ignorant, and blindly obedient. However, the ancient Cynic did not see existence as dourly as a modern cynic may.\n\nIn fact, ancient Cynics believed that, despite humanity’s bleak condition, people ultimately have the power to transform their lives through their own will. This transformation will help achieve freedom, self-sufficiency, and happiness. In Diogenes’ own words, the pain of existence comes from *'not life itself, but living an evil life.'*","eef2ad2b-635e-4182-b353-0f1a5755bdb2",[2020],{"id":2021,"data":2022,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"db4541e8-e202-441b-b7c3-a3e1326ca02e",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2023,"binaryCorrect":2025,"binaryIncorrect":2026},[2024],"Modern Cynicism is the same as Ancient Cynicism",[527],[529],{"id":2028,"data":2029,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2032},"d72f1f1d-ce7d-4ffd-ae8c-c9c3ce9f3598",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2030,"audioMediaId":2031},"Diogenes saw philosophy as something more than simply theoretical study. He believed that philosophy truly was a way of life, and he attempted to demonstrate that every chance he could.\n\nDiogenes believed the study of abstract, metaphysical speculation, as seen in so much of philosophy, was ultimately pointless if men continued to live a life of conformity and obedience. He was more concerned with the true Greek definition of philosophy as a way of life.\n\nIn a famous example of this scorn for impractical inquiry, a story is told of Diogenes listening to philosophers debating whether motion exists. This view was one most notably espoused by the pre-Socratic philosopher Parmenides. After gaining the attention of the philosophers around him, Diogenes simply stood up and walked away, proving practically that motion does indeed exist.\n\n**For Diogenes, philosophy was useful only if it could be put into action and could change the course of people’s lives and behaviors.** His dire outlook on humanity was tempered only by the hope of the transformation of individuals through their own free will.","6cfd754d-f117-40aa-98a3-c0664ffd2508",[2033,2040,2049,2056],{"id":2034,"data":2035,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"d55b7e93-6f3e-4360-b2cf-e06e982b41a0",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2036,"binaryCorrect":2038,"binaryIncorrect":2039},[2037],"Diogenes thought philosophy was not just theoretical study, but a way of life",[529],[527],{"id":2041,"data":2042,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"d8206048-65b0-41d0-9a5f-dc21c8e37731",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2043,"binaryCorrect":2045,"binaryIncorrect":2047},[2044],"Diogenes believed the study of abstract, metaphysical speculation as seen in so much of philosophy was ultimately",[2046],"Pointless",[2048],"Crucial",{"id":2050,"data":2051,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"459f1e5f-13a2-4cfc-a167-55b3642d9a10",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2052,"activeRecallAnswers":2054},[2053],"What was Diogenes' view of philosophy and its value to society?",[2055],"For Diogenes, philosophy was only useful if it could be put into action and could change the course of people's lives and behaviors",{"id":2057,"data":2058,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"d188cf61-570d-4fb8-960d-e272947b6b40",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2059,"multiChoiceCorrect":2061,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2062,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2063,"matchPairsPairs":2064},[2060],"Who was the philosopher that lived as a beggar?",[1773],[1399,1772,1774],[95],[2065],{"left":1773,"right":2066,"direction":35},"Lived as a beggar",{"id":2068,"data":2069,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":2071,"introPage":2079,"pages":2086},"d60484da-f80f-4514-a202-da44728740e7",{"type":25,"title":2070},"Cynicism and Society",{"id":2072,"data":2073,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"643b8ad7-887e-4ef9-95c3-89e028610b36",{"type":35,"summary":2074},[2075,2076,2077,2078],"Diogenes thought philosophers' focus on abstract ideas distracted from real human suffering","He believed society corrupted the naturally good and virtuous human nature","Social norms and customs turn people into mindless conformists","Diogenes aimed to expose how society forces harmful desires for wealth and status",{"id":2080,"data":2081,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"aa2abd11-da01-4d72-8770-d4a24536e8df",{"type":52,"intro":2082},[2083,2084,2085],"What did Diogenes think about human nature?","How did Diogenes view society's influence on individuals?","What was Diogenes' most famous act of defiance against societal norms?",[2087,2092],{"id":2088,"data":2089,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"a387e740-12b6-4cfd-a7f3-57804a4cdcf0",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2090,"audioMediaId":2091},"Diogenes was concerned about the interest of humanity – predominantly, the interest of philosophers – in the abstract and the metaphysical. He saw these inquiries as being mere distractions from the pitiful state of human existence.\n\nHowever, to avoid contemplating the hopeless state of humanity and the pressing concerns of the here and now, Diogenes’ contemporaries attempted to convince the masses that concerns of the abstract and metaphysical were the most important, and, since most people are blind conformists, they went along with it.\n\nTo attain self-sufficiency and create a system of values for oneself that brings happiness, it was imperative, according to Diogenes, that people focus on the **here and now**. Once people turned their attention to the present, they would understand how dire and hopeless humanity was, and that realization would provide the break from ignorance.","f8c6597e-b164-404b-b880-ec5989392907",{"id":2093,"data":2094,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2097},"8b70ed89-c485-40df-b551-6829ce55e59f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2095,"audioMediaId":2096},"While Diogenes’ outlook doesn’t paint humanity in the best light, he made it clear that human nature is not to blame for the state of human depravity. Instead, he posited that human nature was, in and of itself, good and virtuous. However, this pure and good nature was corrupted by society, which spoiled it and bent this nature to the will and whims of its machine.\n\nThe process of socialization corrupts human nature with artificial norms, customs, and practices, and this leads people to act as a mindless group and corrupt one another even further. It was Diogenes’ life’s mission, and the basis of his philosophy, to point out how ridiculous and arbitrary these social conditions are and how they bend the strong and pure will of man to them. Additionally, he believed the social structures force desires for wealth and status onto people against their own best interests.","de42d7a5-198f-4883-91d6-9ff28f26c87a",[2098,2105],{"id":2099,"data":2100,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"514ae761-56cc-437f-93cd-58969f4d1b42",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2101,"activeRecallAnswers":2103},[2102],"​​What should people focus on, according to Diogenes, in order to attain self-sufficiency, create a system of values for oneself, and bring happiness?",[2104],"According to Diogenes, people should focus on the here and now",{"id":2106,"data":2107,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"6d8be012-82c0-4f59-bf60-04812ec449d6",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2108,"binaryCorrect":2110,"binaryIncorrect":2111},[2109],"Diogenes believed social structures force desires for wealth and status onto people against their own best interests",[529],[527],{"id":2113,"data":2114,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":2116,"introPage":2124,"pages":2131},"971602d4-a286-45ea-a8b0-f894fd1227c8",{"type":25,"title":2115},"Cynicism and the Pursuit of Happiness",{"id":2117,"data":2118,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"bf45688f-3572-421f-86e8-8a240b1cd1fc",{"type":35,"summary":2119},[2120,2121,2122,2123],"Diogenes believed wealth, fame, and status are empty goals forced on us by society","Diogenes lived in extreme poverty to protest societal norms and show true happiness","To appreciate simple pleasures, Diogenes suggested seeking pain and discomfort","Diogenes' paths to happiness: stop caring about society, don't take life too seriously, and recognize happiness is always there",{"id":2125,"data":2126,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"437f798b-edb9-4b01-8f3b-62f053a9084a",{"type":52,"intro":2127},[2128,2129,2130],"What did Diogenes think about societal goals?","How did Diogenes define true happiness?","Why did Diogenes reject material wealth?",[2132,2145,2169,2184],{"id":2133,"data":2134,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2137},"1624e569-cf57-44f7-8df6-8fe828baced3",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2135,"audioMediaId":2136},"The goals for which we strive – namely, those of wealth, fame, and status – are ultimately empty, according to Diogenes. These are not our true goals; they’ve been forced upon us by society without us even being aware. Furthermore, our ignorance continues when we fail to recognize that we’ve been conditioned to these goals, which are meaningless.\n\nThe flurry of our daily activity, filled with tasks and jobs meant to help us achieve these goals, are Sisyphean tasks, Diogenes says. In Greek mythology, Sisyphus escaped death and was cursed by Zeus to roll a boulder up a hill, only to have it roll down each day. Each day, Sisyphus would repeat this task with the same fervor as the day before, unaware that it was futile. \n\n![Graph](image://4c66d99d-5d7f-405d-b4d4-2997a37b8ce1 \"A depiction of Sisyphus. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nTo lend meaning to our existence, we must become aware of the futility of our tasks and reject the pressure to chase them.","e426f5c1-a593-405d-981e-d0301db1bc4b",[2138],{"id":2139,"data":2140,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"f0133233-cc25-4419-83ca-1758f466438e",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2141,"activeRecallAnswers":2143},[2142],"Why did Diogenes describe our daily activities to achieve goals such as wealth, fame and status as ‘Sisyphean tasks’?",[2144],"As they are ultimately futile, and should be rejected in order to find true meaning",{"id":2146,"data":2147,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2150},"68256001-e0e5-4686-aa8c-9d419fe6f43d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2148,"audioMediaId":2149},"To make it known how much he protested societal norms, Diogenes commonly found ways to clearly demonstrate his disagreement with them. It was common to see him walking backward in the streets or entering a theater at the end of a performance. He owned no possessions except for a cup from which to drink, which he threw away after he saw a boy drink from his hands.\n\nDiogenes begged for all of his food and lived in a bathtub on the street. However, he didn’t do this merely to attack society. He wanted to help individuals break free from the chains of social constraint and enable them to live free, happy lives aimed toward goals that best suited them.\n\nDiogenes believed that the masses needed to wake up from their conditioning or forever be doomed to participate in this dark and corrupted version of humanity. This skepticism of society and the belief in its innate corruption lies at the heart of the Cynics’ philosophy. To achieve a happy life, Diogenes believed that one needed to live according to nature. Happiness could not be found while seeking fame, wealth, and reputation, as society has led us to believe. Instead, happiness can be found only by embracing the simple pleasures that the natural world has to offer.","d054379c-7034-41d7-a270-a607933ed5c9",[2151,2160],{"id":2152,"data":2153,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"e0e59605-f06b-4e51-b225-e463b4bdd849",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2154,"binaryCorrect":2156,"binaryIncorrect":2158},[2155],"Which lies at the heart of Cynic philosophy?",[2157],"Skepticism of society and the belief in its innate corruption",[2159],"Belief in society and its innate virtues",{"id":2161,"data":2162,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"6b2c8bf5-8131-4593-afd1-3dfa67fe9fad",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2163,"binaryCorrect":2165,"binaryIncorrect":2167},[2164],"Where did Diogenes live?",[2166],"In a bathtub in the street",[2168],"In a dustbin in the street",{"id":2170,"data":2171,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2174},"7e87943c-b55f-466b-b0d6-4b43b64d7f5f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2172,"audioMediaId":2173},"But how do we learn to appreciate these simple things? If society corrupts, doesn’t it also corrupt our desire? Diogenes proposed that the only way to learn to appreciate these small pleasures was to seek out pain and discomfort whenever possible. Since socialization has been so thorough in corrupting human nature, Diogenes believed it was imperative for people to retrain themselves on how to live happily according to their own nature.\n\nHuman nature is innately good and is tuned into the simple pleasures that nature offers. However, as society corrupts, it teaches us to desire pleasure that is unnatural and damaging. Furthermore, Diogenes believed that the only way for people to re-educate themselves and to foster an appreciation for the simple pleasures in life was to seek out and endure the greatest amount of pain and hardship possible. It was common to see him walking across scorching sand or freezing snow. This pain is what motivates someone to appreciate a simple pleasure such as the warmth of the sun or the quenching of thirst.","81eb54de-9e29-49fb-be38-625f1cd4e96d",[2175],{"id":2176,"data":2177,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"43f7a743-5cd7-4c48-9fc8-16e18837b68a",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2178,"binaryCorrect":2180,"binaryIncorrect":2182},[2179],"According to Diogenes, happiness can be found by",[2181],"Embracing the simple pleasures that the natural world has to offer",[2183],"Seeking fame, wealth, and social status",{"id":2185,"data":2186,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"e817265c-4336-4879-9de0-8a620a2595e3",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2187,"audioMediaId":2188},"According to Diogenes, there were three ways other than pain through which people could attain happiness. The first is to stop caring about how society sees you. As a man who ‘lived like a dog,’ he saw that caring about the opinions of our peers only corrupts us and places us in a perpetual state of seeking approval.\n\nThe second path to happiness is to stop taking life too seriously. Most of our anxiety and pain comes from the fear of disapproval from the masses, Diogenes said. Once we stop caring about this approval, then we must decide not to take life so seriously so we don’t feel pain from the repercussions of not living according to society’s standards.\n\nDiogenes’ third path to happiness is to recognize that it is always there. In other words, since society has corrupted our wants and needs and has led us to believe that wealth, fame, or status provide happiness, we are unable to see the simple pleasure and happiness that exists each and every day.","3082ecfc-0a9e-4c1d-a57e-ec5610d393ca",{"id":2190,"data":2191,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"orbs":2194},"b33c5817-b8eb-41a2-9917-4f84c26cc104",{"type":27,"title":2192,"tagline":2193},"Stoicism","Stoicism and the search for inner strength and peace is as popular today as it was in Ancient Greece. Learn about this eternally relevant philosophy and what it means to be a stoic.",[2195,2256,2305],{"id":2196,"data":2197,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":2199,"introPage":2207,"pages":2214},"ee6f4a0a-a728-4a94-8e90-b3d8c697e0ca",{"type":25,"title":2198},"Understanding Stoicism",{"id":2200,"data":2201,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"9d04e3e8-c29e-435a-854c-f859a9af25aa",{"type":35,"summary":2202},[2203,2204,2205,2206],"Seneca, a Stoic philosopher, mourned the decline of philosophy, not his own death","Zeno of Citium founded Stoicism and taught on the Stoa Poikile","Chrysippus, co-founder of Stoicism, wrote over 750 works focusing on logic","Stoics believed in mastering emotions and living in harmony with the universe's divine reason",{"id":2208,"data":2209,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"c7e7e00d-f8f9-477a-9cfd-f339d9fb2eeb",{"type":52,"intro":2210},[2211,2212,2213],"What is Stoicism?","Who were the key figures in Stoicism?","What is the main principle of Stoicism?",[2215,2227,2232],{"id":2216,"data":2217,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2220},"081837fd-c3d7-486c-aa51-4646be130afc",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2218,"audioMediaId":2219},"In 65 AD, the Roman philosopher Seneca was sentenced to death after being accused of plotting to kill Nero. On his deathbed, Seneca mourned, not for his own death, but for the state of philosophy as he saw it in his lifetime. Seneca stated that *'philosophy, the study of wisdom, has become philology, the study of words.'* Seneca was a member of the **Stoic** school of philosophy.\n\n![Graph](image://a98ca1f5-569a-431e-b143-55ac6dbc7016 \"Seneca. Image: I, Calidius, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe Stoic school of philosophy was co-founded by **Zeno of Citium**, a philosopher who taught on a painted porch, the **Stoa Poikile**, which earned him the stoic moniker. Much of Zeno’s writings remain today after being preserved by Diogenes Laertius (not to be confused with Diogenes the Cynic), who wrote a biography of him centuries later.","f5f447cd-193f-49af-9fd0-338c65d14555",[2221],{"id":2222,"data":2223,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"2fe3667f-b842-4e26-b666-c17865d0247d",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2224,"activeRecallAnswers":2226},[2225],"Which Stoic philosopher was sentenced to death by the emperor Nero?",[1998],{"id":2228,"data":2229,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"89af9780-2079-41b0-a8af-306663e550f0",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2230,"audioMediaId":2231},"**Chrysippus** co-founded the school of Stoicism with his friend and teacher, **Zeno of Citium**. Chrysippus is credited with more than 750 writings, and while Zeno was concerned with the ethics of reason in establishing this new system of philosophy, Chrysippus was focused on the logic of it.\n\n![Graph](image://ca64cb9a-f862-427f-814c-f645e237a24c \"Zeno of Citium. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThe ancient Stoics believed that one should be a master of their own desires and emotions and seek to control their reactions to anything life may throw at them. One famous member of this disciplined school of philosophy was the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius.\n\n![Graph](image://020bb00c-2ebf-4545-8477-000445ac8b4a \"Chrysippus. Image: Louvre Museum, CC BY 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nZeno believed there is an underlying divine reason that governs the universe. This guiding reason is part of a complex and harmonious structure that not only commands the universe but has laid a predetermined path for each of us to follow.","5787c4ca-ebdf-4738-8be8-a353eb497558",{"id":2233,"data":2234,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2237},"19e1572e-8071-41c1-818c-56dd7de7af35",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2235,"audioMediaId":2236},"The path to happiness, according to Zeno, is living in accordance with this nature by conquering emotions and passions that ultimately lead us to chase the wrong things and suffer. Since we cannot change the path that the universe has sculpted for us, we can only control our own passions and reactions.\n\nBuilding on the Stoic teachings of the universality of reason and the predetermined state of the universe, Chrysippus believed that every event has a cause and that this cause necessitated the event.\n\nWhen someone is described as a stoic today, it usually means they live unaffectedly; they do not exhibit great emotion or passion and may even be apathetic to the world and to people around them. However, the ancient Stoics were people who attempted to rid themselves of all negative emotion and cultivate an inner strength and joy that radiated from them.\n\nThis intentional mentality has seen a resurgence in modern times and actually forms the basis for cognitive behavioral therapy.","a5be6e58-bccb-4e66-9a02-24d63bd1291e",[2238,2245],{"id":2239,"data":2240,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"a6a402c5-e297-4ce2-8de6-c39b24d25e4e",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2241,"binaryCorrect":2243,"binaryIncorrect":2244},[2242],"In the Ancient Greek sense of the word, a Stoic is someone known to be unaffected by emotions or pleasure or pain",[527],[529],{"id":2246,"data":2247,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"725b0414-0bb1-42ae-a31b-bcf9ab468f2d",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2248,"multiChoiceCorrect":2250,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2251,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2252,"matchPairsPairs":2253},[2249],"Who was the co-founder of the Stoic school?",[1774],[1399,1772,1773],[95],[2254],{"left":1774,"right":2255,"direction":35},"Co-founded the Stoic school",{"id":2257,"data":2258,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":2260,"introPage":2268,"pages":2275},"1f9dca33-9a3d-4c2e-9041-362479c573f9",{"type":25,"title":2259},"Stoicism and Divinity",{"id":2261,"data":2262,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"d37e7594-4af6-4ae3-ae54-11dafe6d522b",{"type":35,"summary":2263},[2264,2265,2266,2267],"Stoics believed the universe and everything in it is part of one great unified being","The divine reason in Stoicism is called 'mind,' 'universal reason,' 'God,' or 'Zeus'","Zeno of Citium taught that true happiness comes from conforming to divine reason and conquering emotions","Stoics lived their values publicly to show that happiness comes from changing perceptions, not chasing wealth",{"id":2269,"data":2270,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"9fe1f293-a1f4-4b2b-adea-5f09b1c84b73",{"type":52,"intro":2271},[2272,2273,2274],"How did Stoics view the universe?","What did Stoics believe about the interconnectedness of all things?","How did Stoics define divinity?",[2276,2290],{"id":2277,"data":2278,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2281},"02b1581b-2fc3-4a7e-8083-e04fb7929590",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2279,"audioMediaId":2280},"It is important to note that Stoic philosophers refer to the divine, guiding principle of reason that underlies and pervades all reality by many names: the ‘mind,’ ‘universal reason,’ or even ‘God’ or ‘Zeus.’ Despite these various names, the Stoics agreed that this divine principle of reason was embodied in nature, and, in a sense, is nature itself. This principle could be understood through the causes and effects in which it manifests itself.\n\nStoics believed that in many ways the universe, and ourselves in it, are a part of one great unified being or one great nature. This is similar to early philosophical views such as those espoused by Parmenides, who believed that all of reality was a part of a unified ‘Oneness.’ To describe this theory, Seneca wrote, *'All that you see – which comprises both god and man – is one; we are parts of one great body.'* The ultimate divine reason that the Stoics defined as elemental and ubiquitous in the universe was composed of three aspects – logic, natural philosophy, and ethics.","6a9cbc92-0e0e-4747-957e-85b0d8f614ff",[2282],{"id":2283,"data":2284,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"cca482f0-f999-4cdb-b9c3-50475d60985c",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2285,"activeRecallAnswers":2287},[2286],"What are the three aspects that the Stoics defined as elemental and ubiquitous in the universe?",[2288,2289,1753],"Logic","Natural philosophy",{"id":2291,"data":2292,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35,"reviews":2295},"3c293ac7-43e5-4e73-9cab-56e0ae179312",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2293,"audioMediaId":2294},"Zeno of Citium fervently believed that anyone willing to conform to this divine reason and to conquer their emotions would find true happiness. Zeno also believed that philosophy was useful only if it was put into practice. While he expounded on his theories of the fundamental divine reason and the process of unifying oneself with it, he also understood that the world is innately imperfect.\n\nBecause the world is imperfect, and because so many people are unable to understand or even see this divine reason, it was important for anyone calling themselves a Stoic to live according to their values in a very public way. To Zeno, it was vital to show that one does not have to chase after wealth and riches to be happy. All that is necessary for happiness is to change our perceptions of the world.","7fad1d60-cc17-46c8-a3ba-cc8b81ecd86d",[2296],{"id":2297,"data":2298,"type":72,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"6915b401-e125-485c-8d1a-d88f65098cc0",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2299,"binaryCorrect":2301,"binaryIncorrect":2303},[2300],"To Zeno of Citium, all that is necessary for happiness is",[2302],"Changing our perceptions of the world",[2304],"Chasing after wealth and riches",{"id":2306,"data":2307,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":2309,"introPage":2317,"pages":2324},"44aea757-2cac-49be-94fe-d215e7335e21",{"type":25,"title":2308},"Stoicism and Inner Freedom",{"id":2310,"data":2311,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"6e76c925-590a-47c6-91cb-c0286d26d966",{"type":35,"summary":2312},[2313,2314,2315,2316],"The Stoics believed our minds are a direct extension of the divine principle or reason","According to Stoics, we can't change our fate, but we can control our reactions","True happiness comes from rejecting superficial desires and negative emotions","The ultimate freedom is finding happiness within, regardless of external circumstances",{"id":2318,"data":2319,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"b99f9d02-6a7c-418e-a717-25112204cf82",{"type":52,"intro":2320},[2321,2322,2323],"What is 'the god within' in Stoicism?","How does inner freedom lead to happiness in Stoic philosophy?","Why is inner freedom crucial for a Stoic's well-being?",[2325,2330,2354,2369,2391],{"id":2326,"data":2327,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"461271db-09ea-4d96-b7f3-e6b4d55b94fc",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2328,"audioMediaId":2329},"According to the Stoics, our minds are a direct extension of the divine principle or reason that dictates the fate of the universe through cause and effect. The unifying reason that pervades all things is also what penetrates our minds; however, our bodies are merely physical and mortal.\n\nThe Stoics called the mind ‘the god within’ and believed that most people are misled by the lower material body into chasing desires and appetites that are only momentarily fulfilling. By cultivating this god within, who is untouched by predetermined events, we will be able to react to events freely and consciously and appreciate the effect that events or circumstances have on our happiness.","6c86b5e3-9c59-4cc6-851c-835b88a9df9a",{"id":2331,"data":2332,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2335},"61ebe290-30a9-4fd6-8a7d-62c08cb8eb07",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2333,"audioMediaId":2334},"According to Stoics, the universe is predetermined, meaning that we cannot change our fate. Our life’s course has already been established, and the only thing we do have control over is ourselves. While this view of the universe may seem futile, the Stoics believed that we actually do have free will. However, this free will cannot alter the universe or the path of our lives, it can change only our reactions.\n\nFor example, consider a traffic jam, which can trigger fury that may even surprise us. According to the Stoics, there is nothing we can do to resolve that traffic jam; we were meant to be stuck in it. The only thing we can change is our attitude. We can choose peace and serenity and understand that no amount of anger will make the traffic move. We hurt only ourselves by wallowing in our anger.","ae47ebf7-f69a-4ac3-b8bb-0afdb88a5fbf",[2336,2343],{"id":2337,"data":2338,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"c6c6d284-9096-4a12-b97a-8972bc66f7ef",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2339,"activeRecallAnswers":2341},[2340],"What do we need to do to be able to react to events freely and consciously according to the Stoics?",[2342],"We need to cultivate ‘the god within’ which is our mind as it is untouched by predetermined events",{"id":2344,"data":2345,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"c9e16bd0-b6ab-48c6-a2dd-cf1e9facbd40",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2346,"multiChoiceCorrect":2348,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2350,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2347],"According to Stoics, the universe is",[2349],"Predetermined",[2351,2352,2353],"Unpredictable","ever-changing","what we make of it",{"id":2355,"data":2356,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2359},"60f648b8-9ba2-4609-96f3-6d7557c50832",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2357,"audioMediaId":2358},"Since the Stoics believed that we cannot change the world around us and can affect only our desires, emotions, and reactions, the Stoics believed that, too often, people choose desires that provide fleeting and superficial happiness. The fulfillment of these desires – such as for money, relationships, or success – may make us momentarily happy, but this only locks us into a cycle of constantly seeking more. Fulfilling these desires cannot make us happy.\n\nIn fact, it is only by learning to rid ourselves of these superficial desires that we can find true happiness. Once we have conquered the hold that these desires have over us, we will no longer be influenced by base negative emotions such as greed, jealousy, or even anxiety or fear. Through discipline and the exertion of our own free will over ourselves, we will find peace and serenity in our own minds, no matter the situation or occasion.","4e34b227-9ec6-42a8-b986-af0c8daf55f8",[2360],{"id":2361,"data":2362,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"6f4e509d-7bf4-4ad3-bef9-39aabe43092f",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2363,"binaryCorrect":2365,"binaryIncorrect":2367},[2364],"According to the Stoics, we can only find true happiness if we",[2366],"Rid ourselves of our superficial desires",[2368],"Achieve all our desires",{"id":2370,"data":2371,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2374},"e01c02c4-46f1-4f88-bbf2-eb3b4ce24df2",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2372,"audioMediaId":2373},"The stark contrast between a life predetermined by the universe and the inner freedom that comes from accepting this state and finding peace with fate is the very essence of Stoicism. As Epictetus, a Roman Stoic who was born a slave, writes, 'Some things are up to us and some things are not up to us.' The opinions and values of others, as well as our health or reputation, are not up to us. These can be influenced by our actions, but ultimately they are out of our control. What is up to us is our opinions, morals, beliefs, desires, and goals.\n\n![Graph](image://c7e3bf32-0f8a-403d-a0cf-f95797722296 \"Epictetus. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThe ultimate cause of misery, according to the Stoics, is the fact that people base their happiness on factors beyond their control. This creates a self-imposed slavery in which we are bound to external forces to provide happiness that could be taken away from us at any moment. To free ourselves from this slavery, we must reject the mistake of basing our happiness on factors beyond our control; instead, we must turn inward to what we can control. This is the mark of the truly free man, the one who does not rely on people, status, or material possessions for happiness but who can be happy no matter his state or circumstance.","e751b89a-5251-48a2-aae9-ead7909d9541",[2375,2384],{"id":2376,"data":2377,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"329acdc5-c3d9-4c27-a7f9-37aede3993a2",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2378,"binaryCorrect":2380,"binaryIncorrect":2382},[2379],"Epictetus was a",[2381],"Stoic",[2383],"Cynic",{"id":2385,"data":2386,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"621790f1-34d2-4597-8331-5f28c06f3f52",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2387,"activeRecallAnswers":2389},[2388],"What is the ultimate cause of misery, according to the Stoics?",[2390],"The fact that people base their happiness on things beyond their control",{"id":2392,"data":2393,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2396},"5bbc90e4-607c-4f50-91d6-62866daae242",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2394,"audioMediaId":2395},"Inward happiness may seem simple on paper, but to break free from the desire for happiness attributed to external and temporary sources, Epictetus provides a set of practical ways of adjusting our thinking. Society is, in fact, mistaken as it leads people to chase after desires and appetites that are fleeting and, ultimately, empty.\n\nBut the Stoics also believe there is nothing we can do to change our world or the trajectory of our lives, and the simple rejection of societal norms is not enough for happiness. For true happiness, we must reject negative emotions and find within us the discipline to seek contentment and joy no matter what situation we may find ourselves in.\n\nProfound happiness is the freedom from the chains of happiness that is bound to fleeting material possessions or states. It allows us to be content with very little and to find the good in a bad situation. More importantly, when material wealth and success come our way, it helps us to enjoy them without fear of losing them.","cb02fa71-4771-4689-94e3-063e62768af0",[2397,2406],{"id":2398,"data":2399,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"c95ae1f6-ca60-4f68-b931-b28ea24c70ed",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2400,"binaryCorrect":2402,"binaryIncorrect":2404},[2401],"Following the Stoics' approach means that when material wealth or success comes our way",[2403],"We can enjoy them without fear of losing them",[2405],"We need to reject them",{"id":2407,"data":2408,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"7847ced9-d9a8-4eb3-b5c9-219b52624603",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2409,"binaryCorrect":2411,"binaryIncorrect":2412},[2410],"The Stoics believed that rejecting societal norms was enough for happiness",[527],[529],{"id":2414,"data":2415,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"orbs":2418},"141e0c75-bda0-4c17-9479-6c336f3a5eef",{"type":27,"title":2416,"tagline":2417},"Skepticism","What are the limits of human knowledge? How can we know we really know something? What is truth? Learn how the Skeptics attempted to answer these tough questions.",[2419,2468,2513,2593],{"id":2420,"data":2421,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":2423,"introPage":2431,"pages":2438},"2da1cbf9-14ef-4082-bcab-a2b22e5058fa",{"type":25,"title":2422},"Introduction to Skepticism",{"id":2424,"data":2425,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"b08d3275-b8f1-4afd-a8e0-18a656deea13",{"type":35,"summary":2426},[2427,2428,2429,2430],"Modern skeptics need evidence before believing anything","Ancient skeptics doubted everything, even logic and observations","Academic skeptics believed nothing could be known","Pyrrhonian skeptics questioned if claiming nothing can be known is knowledge",{"id":2432,"data":2433,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"2d139ffc-0ef4-4861-ba5c-2803ef0a8953",{"type":52,"intro":2434},[2435,2436,2437],"What is the core idea behind skepticism?","Who is considered the father of modern skepticism?","How did skepticism influence the Enlightenment?",[2439,2453],{"id":2440,"data":2441,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2444},"9d7cae3a-6732-4bc7-be15-26cba6fb9135",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2442,"audioMediaId":2443},"Are you a skeptic? When we call someone a skeptic today, it may mean they doubt things or are reticent to believe in anything without first conducting research of their own. Basically, they have reservations and require further proof before being convinced.\n\nHowever, to ancient Greeks, skepticism was a school of philosophy known for doubting *everything*, including, in some cases, even logic, observations, or empirical deductions. While a modern skeptic refuses to believe until they see the evidence, an ancient skeptic refused to believe at all.\n\nThe ancient skeptics believed that real knowledge about this world is impossible. The world is too complex to understand, and our minds are too feeble to comprehend. The philosophy of skepticism can be divided into two schools, the Academic school and the Pyrrhonian school. To summarize the difference, the Academics believed nothing could be known while the Pyrrhonians then argued, isn’t *that* knowledge?","2702d33a-c146-48b8-acc1-43540394bc9a",[2445],{"id":2446,"data":2447,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"46e84bf3-bf8d-468d-adf6-d57ec4a663a5",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2448,"activeRecallAnswers":2450},[2449],"What are the two schools of the philosophy of skepticism?",[2451,2452],"The Academic school","The Pyrrhonian school",{"id":2454,"data":2455,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2458},"f1275a32-0224-42dc-8e34-739386ed26d1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2456,"audioMediaId":2457},"At its core, skepticism is a school of thought that all beliefs can, and probably will, be proved false. Not only are all beliefs false, they are merely comforts that we hold on to so as to fulfill a human need for reassurance in the form of understanding. Anyone who claims sure knowledge is invariably wrong. Skeptics believed that to avoid the frustration of being proved wrong, because that’s inevitable, it is best to believe in nothing and to suspend the desire to believe in anything that comes.\n\nThis school is obviously very critical of other schools of philosophy, and it has taken a fair share of criticism as well through the centuries. However, it’s important to note that Skeptics do not deny the existence of truth; they say only that we do not have the means to identify or comprehend it.","4f2e7980-a2a7-4102-b2cd-357a157c87d7",[2459],{"id":2460,"data":2461,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"0cf5e815-8d1a-4d70-817b-e4b45ef70030",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2462,"binaryCorrect":2464,"binaryIncorrect":2466},[2463],"The ancient skeptics believed that real knowledge about this world is",[2465],"Impossible",[2467],"Achievable",{"id":2469,"data":2470,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":2472,"introPage":2480,"pages":2487},"4e1a064a-69c4-4365-93f5-4320a3b46ebd",{"type":25,"title":2471},"Academic Skepticism",{"id":2473,"data":2474,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"a7d96986-6c4d-4aab-9df4-65bbff257ecb",{"type":35,"summary":2475},[2476,2477,2478,2479],"The Greek word for skeptic, *skeptikos*, means 'inquirer' or 'asking questions'","Pyrrho of Elis believed the wise man suspends judgment and avoids certainty","Arcesilaus turned Plato's Academy into a hub of academic skepticism","Arcesilaus used a dialectical method to challenge and disprove beliefs",{"id":2481,"data":2482,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"ee9f947e-1af7-4c50-bbc4-622e44523a4e",{"type":52,"intro":2483},[2484,2485,2486],"What is the main idea behind Academic Skepticism?","Who was a key figure in the Academic school of skepticism?","How does Academic Skepticism differ from other forms of skepticism?",[2488,2493],{"id":2489,"data":2490,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"4fd11473-244c-43f5-b636-143c8a6b0dd8",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2491,"audioMediaId":2492},"The ancient Greek word for skeptic is *skeptikos*, which translates literally to ‘inquirer’ or ‘asking questions.’ This unquenchable inquiry is at the heart of skepticism, both ancient and modern. This philosophy seeks to know and understand while also proposing that there is no system to verify that knowledge. Since knowledge cannot be verified, it cannot truly be known; therefore, one should be skeptical or removed from the temptation to state belief with any certainty.\n\nAccording to Pyrrho of Elis, credited as the founder of *Pyrrhonism*, the wise man is the one who suspends judgment and takes no certainty in any knowledge.\n\n![Graph](image://aea1fe6f-b708-4930-a338-1ac60b85935b \"Pyrrho of Elis. Image: Girolamo Olgiati, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","52b0176c-a81a-4064-bb9e-7ef307ebba9f",{"id":2494,"data":2495,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2498},"257218d1-2470-41d6-985b-c28399417bba",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2496,"audioMediaId":2497},"After Plato’s reign as the founder and teacher of The Academy, Arcesilaus became the leader of The Academy and turned it skeptical. This change came after Arcesilaus became refocused on the teachings of Socrates and his commitment to investigation and methods of determining knowledge and weeding out falsities, which he established as the basis for academic skepticism. Along with other philosophers of the time, Arcesilaus attempted to make philosophy practical by living out his beliefs, or, as he came to conclude, his lack of belief.\n\nArcesilaus’ philosophy involved three major components: a dialectical method, an attempt to find a way to verify the truth, and the defense of a skeptic’s actions without belief. Arcesilaus was the founder of academic skepticism and created the dialectical method. Based heavily on the argumentative forms given by Socrates, this method involved a series of inquiries with an imaginary interlocutor who attempts to prove and disprove various propositions.\n\nArcesilaus was also concerned with identifying a system of criteria or ways to verify what is true. Since our senses and emotions are at fault, often leading us to perceive only a sliver of information that can cloud our judgment, we must rely on logic and reasoning alone for knowledge. This option is not practical either, according to Arcesilaus. He saw logic and reasoning as easily disproved over the course of a dialogue and, therefore, he also found knowledge obtained from logic or reasoning to be false. Belief itself, he proposed, was wrong.","93a5e349-680d-4403-b069-8773bbb84db2",[2499,2506],{"id":2500,"data":2501,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"15030548-e9ed-4943-84dd-d6781db24c75",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2502,"activeRecallAnswers":2504},[2503],"What is the definition of a wise man according to Pyrrho?",[2505],"One who suspends judgment and takes no certainty in any knowledge",{"id":2507,"data":2508,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"e3f1c9e8-38d9-4c55-bb1f-5c692490940e",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2509,"activeRecallAnswers":2511},[2510],"Who became the leader of the Academy after Plato?",[2512],"Arcesilaus",{"id":2514,"data":2515,"type":25,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":2517,"introPage":2525,"pages":2532},"7cdd56de-c271-4eee-8be8-1ad68fa8f7d2",{"type":25,"title":2516},"Pyrrhonian Skepticism",{"id":2518,"data":2519,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"009c6836-d496-4bd7-a682-2f4afa84d5cf",{"type":35,"summary":2520},[2521,2522,2523,2524],"Arcesilaus argued that action starts with assent, which can come from perception, not belief","Carneades showed that irrational people act without belief, suggesting action doesn't need rational thought","Pyrrhonian skeptics seek tranquility by accepting that true knowledge is impossible","Academic skeptics aimed for happiness through proving truth, unlike Pyrrhonian skeptics who embraced uncertainty",{"id":2526,"data":2527,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"f5dd91ad-aacc-47dc-8a2c-e84782f1264b",{"type":52,"intro":2528},[2529,2530,2531],"What is the main goal of Pyrrhonian skepticism?","Who founded the Pyrrhonian school of skepticism?","How does Pyrrhonian skepticism differ from other forms of skepticism?",[2533,2538,2562],{"id":2534,"data":2535,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"9cbbc0ca-e585-4a00-9c55-55d87a9d6712",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2536,"audioMediaId":2537},"A criticism that arises against the skeptics through the centuries is that, without belief, how does one know how to act in this world? Without making judgments of right or wrong or believing in reason and rationality to guide one’s actions, how does one even decide to act?\n\nArcesilaus addressed the criticism after receiving it from his own contemporaries such as Zeno of Citium and Epicurus, both of whom asked how one can live if one doubts everything and believes in nothing. To answer, Arcesilaus proposed that all action begins with assent, and most assent comes in the form of belief that informs actions. However, Arcesilaus proposed that assent could come in the form of perception, a perception that does not lead to belief. For example, a skeptic chooses to enter and exit through a door, not because he believes he is one with it or because he is predetermined to do so, but because he can perceive there is a door.\n","8ff58d7f-d603-416b-bc4d-d13e5fd86ed5",{"id":2539,"data":2540,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24,"reviews":2543},"bacf9b64-a667-40e2-b096-148c67dc8380",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2541,"audioMediaId":2542},"\nCarneades was a student of Arcesilaus who continued to expand on the fundamental question of how to act without the presence of belief. His argument revolved around the irrational. People in states of madness, Carneades said, act just as easily as people without madness. What this reveals, Carneades added, is that it is not rational thought or belief that necessarily initiates action.\n\nIf those are not necessary for action, then one can train oneself to act for action’s sake alone. This assent to perceptions that lead the Skeptic to enter and exit through the door or to choose selflessness instead of selfishness does not indicate a belief system or a claim of knowledge. Instead, Carneades believed the Skeptic could *approve* of values or the consequences of actions without accepting a belief.\n","7a1fdf49-bc16-4b03-ac1c-aaadb225cf72",[2544,2555],{"id":2545,"data":2546,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"8c9298ce-1345-44f6-a399-5687daf01119",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2547,"multiChoiceCorrect":2549,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2551,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2548],"When a Skeptic chooses to enter and exit through a door, it is because",[2550],"He can perceive there is a door",[2552,2553,2554],"He believes it was predetermined he would do so","he believes he is one with the door","he satisfies a desire to do so",{"id":2556,"data":2557,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"ed73c918-0e9d-4a87-aa8b-1d97939d50c4",{"type":72,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2558,"binaryCorrect":2560,"binaryIncorrect":2561},[2559],"Carneades believed the skeptic could approve of values or consequences of actions without accepting a belief",[529],[527],{"id":2563,"data":2564,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24,"reviews":2567},"55f16f67-5550-423c-bd73-b298d3f7cae4",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2565,"audioMediaId":2566},"\nWhile academic Skepticism flourished in the legacy of Plato and Socrates and their unquenchable thirst for true knowledge, Pyrrhonian skepticism aims at tranquility. According to Pyrrhonian skeptics, one hopes to achieve tranquility and a peaceful state of mind from the acceptance that no knowledge can be obtained. This tranquility is not a part of the academic skeptics’ values.\n\nWhile the academics focused on determining criteria for verifying the truth and believed that if something could undoubtedly be proved true, that would provide happiness, the Pyrrhonian skeptics saw reality in a dourer light. Since true knowledge was impossible, **tranquility comes in the acceptance of that fact.**\n","09db3bbe-c822-49b4-9a04-af6581e8e74f",[2568,2582],{"id":2569,"data":2570,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"c0d95ea6-5107-4115-b2bd-9ac41465c57f",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2571,"multiChoiceCorrect":2573,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2575,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2578,"matchPairsPairs":2579},[2572],"Who were the philosophers that criticized skeptics?",[2574],"Zeno of Citium and Epicurus",[2512,2576,2577],"Carneades","Pyrrho of Elis",[95],[2580],{"left":2512,"right":2581,"direction":35},"Influenced the Academy to be skeptical",{"id":2583,"data":2584,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"29d1ffe6-0593-441c-b789-155ceceeb36d",{"type":72,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2585,"multiChoiceCorrect":2587,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2588,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2589,"matchPairsPairs":2590},[2586],"Who believed skeptics could approve of values without accepting a belief?",[2576],[2574,2512,2577],[95],[2591],{"left":2574,"right":2592,"direction":35},"Criticized skeptics",{"id":2594,"data":2595,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"summaryPage":2597,"introPage":2605,"pages":2612},"081ea053-ea60-4eaf-b21d-aa72336ecc0d",{"type":25,"title":2596},"Pyrrhonian Perceptions",{"id":2598,"data":2599,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"8b607162-116f-454e-82cd-85112bad52c5",{"type":35,"summary":2600},[2601,2602,2603,2604],"Pyrrho of Elis founded the Pyrrhonian school of skepticism","Pyrrho believed reality is undifferentiated and unstable","Our senses only give impressions, not facts","Pyrrho's extreme skepticism made him indifferent to his own safety",{"id":2606,"data":2607,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"2f91480d-5fc8-430f-9ca5-1a9cbf6e79b1",{"type":52,"intro":2608},[2609,2610,2611],"What is the core principle of Pyrrhonian skepticism?","How do Pyrrhonian skeptics view perceptions?","Why do Pyrrhonian skeptics doubt the reliability of perceptions?",[2613,2626],{"id":2614,"data":2615,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":2618},"2c20d630-c831-4222-b2f1-e5cf87b49d8b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2616,"audioMediaId":2617},"Pyrrho of Elis was a Greek philosopher credited with founding the Pyrrhonian school of skepticism. With the exception of a stray poem or two, Pyrrho wrote nothing, but works and ideas have been preserved by his student, Timon.\n\nAccording to Timon, Pyrrho was concerned with three major questions to help find happiness: *What is the nature of things? What attitude do we have toward things? What is the outcome of this attitude?*\n\nPyrrho’s legacy endures in his answer to the first question. He believed that things were ultimately undifferentiated and unstable and, therefore, our sensations and observations cannot tell us what is true or false. The undifferentiated state of reality is a metaphysical claim that rebukes any notion of understanding the nature of the world or cosmos.","f969858c-02a2-40a0-a074-35251bbd4db4",[2619],{"id":2620,"data":2621,"type":72,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":35},"30a95c9e-333f-4f34-9341-f6d7af009dbb",{"type":72,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2622,"activeRecallAnswers":2624},[2623],"Pyrrho wrote nothing, but his ideas were preserved by...",[2625],"Timon, his student",{"id":2627,"data":2628,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"78123923-6f97-418f-bbb5-a7c9098a47c5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2629,"audioMediaId":2630},"Because of the undifferentiated state of reality, Pyrrho proposed that our perceptions and observations cannot be proved true or false. He even went so far as to say that there is no truth to verify within these observations because our perceptions and observations do not capture any facts, only impressions.\n\nThe true nature of the impression is unknowable and, therefore, our senses are unverifiable and cannot be used to justify belief. Pyrrho was known as an odd character, so indifferent to his own senses that he often had to be pulled out of a cart’s path by his friends because he was unable to determine whether the cart coming toward him was true or not.","73046f6a-ded9-4709-82cd-f2709d6cf5c5",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":2632,"height":2632,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":2633},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":2632,"height":2632,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":2635},"\u003Cg fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\">\u003Cpath d=\"M12.586 2.586A2 2 0 0 0 11.172 2H4a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v7.172a2 2 0 0 0 .586 1.414l8.704 8.704a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 3.42 0l6.58-6.58a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 0-3.42z\"/>\u003Ccircle cx=\"7.5\" cy=\"7.5\" r=\".5\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",1778228392285]