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flavor",7,3,[37,106,195],{"id":38,"data":39,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":41,"introPage":47,"pages":54},"339baf45-122f-4a19-929d-c15e482cb6f4",{"type":25,"title":40},"Why humans love food",{"id":42,"data":43,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"63e4ef32-b19a-483d-92cd-8fc9a573c199",{"type":35,"summary":44},[45,46],"Food makes us feel good by triggering the brain's reward system","Our ancestors literally evolved to seek high quality food",{"id":48,"data":49,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"ebc9f56f-0da2-4063-bd7a-e8c8da30b47c",{"type":50,"intro":51},10,[52,53],"Why did humans evolve to love food?","How does food affect the brain?",[55,71,84,89],{"id":56,"data":57,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":60},"d321a712-51ec-4c13-822b-3b0ca0f15927",{"type":24,"markdownContent":58,"audioMediaId":59},"Food is essential. We couldn't live without it. But it's also an absolute joy. There are few better feelings than the burst of flavor when you bite into your favorite dish.\n\nThere's some science behind that feeling. Essentially, whenever you taste something good, it triggers your brain's reward system. In response, your brain releases **dopamine**, also known as the 'feel-good' hormone.\n\nYou don't only feel that hit of dopamine when you taste something extra delicious. You also feel it when the food arrives in your gut. That's a double dose of 'feel-good'. First, when you put the food in your mouth. Second, when you swallow it down.\n\n![Graph](image://4e118599-8920-41cd-939c-3aada6de4ebc \" \")","5d363267-d60e-45c3-949a-ce079a5bd47a",[61],{"id":62,"data":63,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"21b93ed2-54fa-47f2-8ba6-fa73715373b3",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":65,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":66,"activeRecallAnswers":68,"activeRecallPlusPromptType":24,"activeRecallPlusMarkScheme":70,"activeRecallPlusTopic":16},11,12,[67],"When you eat good food, what hormone does your brain release?",[69],"Dopamine","Accept exact wording only",{"id":72,"data":73,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":76},"4d1dc565-c04e-4ccc-b41f-584641306252",{"type":24,"markdownContent":74,"audioMediaId":75},"The link between food, and your brain's reward system, isn't there by accident. Instead, it has an important **evolutionary function**.\n\nThink of it like this: a prehistoric human who ate high quality food (like a sweet piece of fruit, or a hunk of meat) was more likely to survive than a prehistoric human who ate low quality food (like some twigs).\n\nWhy? Good food is a source of energy, nutrients, and vitamins. In general, that kept our ancestors healthy, and in turn, this helped them stay alive.\n\nSo our brains evolved to reward us. The bump of dopamine was a message: \"Yes, this food is good for you. Find more and we'll live for longer!”\n\n![Graph](image://60daf097-74a6-4b1a-87bd-ed22e49e0a0d \" \")","76929ad9-00b1-4b30-93b0-afaf55fde636",[77],{"id":78,"data":79,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"b20d021d-d44c-47f7-b0ae-65fd7c5524ab",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":80,"activeRecallAnswers":82},[81],"Why did our brains evolve to release dopamine in response to good food?",[83],"It motivated early humans to find good food",{"id":85,"data":86,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"5af5d1e7-0710-4037-a079-2825a813a974",{"type":24,"markdownContent":87,"audioMediaId":88},"In the modern day, the evolutionary benefits of quality food aren't quite as strong as they used to be. Your long-term survival isn't at stake if you can't get your hands on something tasty.\n\nBut our brains don't seem to have realized that yet. And while they're still rewarding us for great tasting food, why don't we make the most of it? Perfectly cooked steaks... well-seasoned salads... incredible bowls of pasta.\n\n![Graph](image://e7631a3c-c326-4cfe-8a74-f03427de7693 \" \")\n\nThat's where the **Science of Cooking** comes in. By the end of this pathway, you'll know how to make such delicious dishes that your brain will reward you every time.","7dd7c90b-46ed-42dd-a72e-4db44e9e838d",{"id":90,"data":91,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":94},"afbb05ee-9daf-421c-9f1f-5527e53d44d8",{"type":24,"markdownContent":92,"audioMediaId":93},"When we say that this pathway will teach you how to make delicious dishes, we're not talking about learning recipes. Instead, we're talking about the fundamental principles of food.\n\nThe chemistry of heat, and salts, and acids. The science of herbs and spices. The art of making sauces, and preparing proteins, and cooking perfect carbs.\n\nAll these principles (and many more) are at the heart of amazing cooking. If you master them all, your experience with food will never be the same again.","fb6d68db-a478-4905-8df6-f089efdc07c0",[95],{"id":96,"data":97,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"6dbbf71e-9af7-4a9b-8687-f56762ec3181",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":98,"multiChoiceCorrect":100,"multiChoiceIncorrect":102,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[99],"When you eat good food, at what point does your brain release dopamine?",[101],"At both of these points",[103,104,105],"When you taste the food","When the food reaches your gut","At neither of these points",{"id":107,"data":108,"type":25,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":110,"introPage":116,"pages":122},"e2b7a0ba-e9ed-4fb8-af66-3903e8565eb7",{"type":25,"title":109},"The science of taste",{"id":111,"data":112,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"6462ce51-6f9e-475b-a3c8-bf987ae29126",{"type":35,"summary":113},[114,115],"Our tongues detect five main tastes, which help our brains to judge food","The idea of taste zones on the tongue is a myth, although bitterness is strongest at the back",{"id":117,"data":118,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"5edf4640-9ba6-4dd7-b202-1003cac446f8",{"type":50,"intro":119},[120,121],"How do our tongues taste food?","Do our tongue have different taste zones?",[123,142,147,165],{"id":124,"data":125,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":128},"d53bd7ec-3e42-4e81-a2ef-79c66a09350e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":126,"audioMediaId":127},"Before learning to cook great tasting food, it's useful to know how 'tasting' actually works. It all begins with that thing between your teeth. That's right – let's talk about the tongue.\n\nOur tongues are covered by tiny little bumps called **papillae**. Each of these bumps contains **taste buds**. These are clusters of special receptor cells, which are designed to detect different molecules, and share this info with the brain.\n\n![Graph](image://9acff1b1-fda6-44fd-82ec-e9bda33bc603 \"Image: Jonas Töle, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nOur brains associate different molecules with different fundamental tastes. For example, a sugar molecule (glucose) is associated with sweetness, whereas a salt molecule (sodium chloride) is associated with saltiness.","c9e60d8c-a080-473a-97b3-68efcda66e14",[129],{"id":130,"data":131,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"79e9e080-bf44-4330-bd95-d686c1f0ca6f",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":133,"matchPairsPairs":135,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},6,[134],"Match the pairs below:",[136,139],{"left":137,"right":138,"direction":35},"Papillae","Little bumps on the tongue",{"left":140,"right":141,"direction":35},"Taste buds","Clusters of receptor cells",{"id":143,"data":144,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"5eb53fcd-434d-4e9c-a9f9-b7ae376ddb49",{"type":24,"markdownContent":145,"audioMediaId":146},"There are five main flavors which our tongues are able to detect. We've already mentioned **sweet** and **salty** – the other three flavors are **sour**, **bitter**, and **umami**.\n\nSo, when our taste buds detect molecules of sugar, our brain interprets that as sweetness. When they detect molecules of salt, our brain interprets that as saltiness. As for sourness, that's our brain interpreting the presence of acid.\n\nBitterness is a bit more complicated. That taste is set off by a wide range of chemicals, most of which are found in plants. And last but not least, we have umami. This is what we call that savory taste that you get from a piece of meat. This taste is activated by amino acids, a type of molecule found in proteins.\n\n![Graph](image://aac0955e-93c8-451a-aeaf-0ad007e6f7fd \"Image: C5perez, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons\")","76c36452-2249-4f03-b15d-1f6e1f1bce4a",{"id":148,"data":149,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":152},"6b38f26b-2906-47b4-b742-b9d740a63ec9",{"type":24,"markdownContent":150,"audioMediaId":151},"It's no coincidence that our tongues have evolved to detect all these different molecules, and our brains have evolved to interpret them as different tastes.\n\nAs we talked about last time, this is basically a way to make sure we're getting the right food. Sugar molecules are a good source of energy – so when our tongue detects them, our brain makes sure they taste great. The same goes for salty and umami foods. Our bodies need plenty of salt and protein to survive.\n\nOn the other hand, bitter and sour tastes are often a sign of *bad* food. Most of the chemicals which activate bitterness are toxic to humans, while sourness might indicate spoiled fruit or meat. It isn't always that simple – a bitter piece of chocolate, or some sour lemonade, can actually taste amazing. But only in moderation. Our bodies shouldn't have too much.\n","07ddb1bc-4ee5-48b9-9150-869e241d931b",[153],{"id":154,"data":155,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"9e70c9e0-8011-43ea-8722-4b20d36bdbae",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":156,"multiChoiceCorrect":158,"multiChoiceIncorrect":161,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[157],"Which of these tastes probably evolved as a way to identify bad food?",[159,160],"Sour","Bitter",[162,163,164],"Sweet","Umami","Salty",{"id":166,"data":167,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":170},"5524858c-9b10-4478-ac33-e6b1dc23f732",{"type":24,"markdownContent":168,"audioMediaId":169},"Before we finish, let's bust a quick myth.\n\nThe tongue is often mistakenly thought to have specific zones for each different type of taste. But actually, every single part of your tongue is equally good at detecting the different tastes.\n\nThe one exception is the **back of the tongue**, which is definitely able to detect all the tastes, but is slightly more sensitive to **bitterness**.\n\nThis probably evolved as a final resort to protect us from harmful chemicals. If the back of our tongue gets a big hit of bitterness, just before we swallow, maybe we need to think twice about eating that food.\n","a53ea949-3597-4527-a036-ca3a4e885b1a",[171,179],{"id":172,"data":173,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"0d1e3bdd-5a67-445c-83f7-e3f60e4c0487",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":65,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":174,"activeRecallAnswers":176,"activeRecallPlusPromptType":24,"activeRecallPlusMarkScheme":178,"activeRecallPlusTopic":16},[175],"Different parts of the tongue are equally good at detecting different tastes. What is the one exception?",[177],"The back of the tongue is extra sensitive to bitterness","Accept close variations (but must include 'back' and either 'bitter' or 'bitterness')",{"id":180,"data":181,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"a62ab93e-3466-43ea-a2b2-dbe8e3f5c881",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":182,"matchPairsPairs":184,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[183],"When each of these substances enters your mouth, how does it taste to your brain?",[185,187,189,191,193],{"left":186,"right":162,"direction":35},"Glucose",{"left":188,"right":164,"direction":35},"Sodium chloride",{"left":190,"right":159,"direction":35},"Acid",{"left":192,"right":163,"direction":35},"Amino acids",{"left":194,"right":160,"direction":35},"Toxic chemicals",{"id":196,"data":197,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":199,"introPage":205,"pages":211},"b7d584dc-69f0-4103-a902-a89646061ab1",{"type":25,"title":198},"The science of flavor",{"id":200,"data":201,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"8afea883-8f88-4a0c-b103-ab6d3adbbeeb",{"type":35,"summary":202},[203,204],"Taste and smell work together to create flavor, with aroma playing a major role","Texture, sight and sound also influence how we experience food",{"id":206,"data":207,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"ae1707fc-5a2b-4e70-b1d7-d6dab1323bc9",{"type":50,"intro":208},[209,210],"How do taste and smell create flavor?","What other senses affect how we experience food?",[212,228,259,272],{"id":213,"data":214,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":217},"3f4f70ff-b35c-4a2e-8983-2936a46a04fe",{"type":24,"markdownContent":215,"audioMediaId":216},"When we think about the sensory experience of food, we generally think about the tongue. But our other senses can also play a massive role in our experience. Imagine biting into a fresh apple; its smell is also part of the experience, as well as the texture, and even the sound.\n\nLet's start by talking about smell. We can actually experience the smell of food via a couple of different channels. First, whenever you lift a piece of food to your lips, the aroma particles rising off it will naturally waft into your nostrils. Second, when you chew that food in your mouth, more aroma particles will flow up your throat, and reach your nose that way instead.\n\nWe call these two routes **orthonasal olfaction** (smells reaching your nose via your nostrils) and **retronasal olfaction** (smells reaching your nose via your throat). Together, they provide a comprehensive experience of aroma.\n\n![Graph](image://aee35fdf-9afc-4533-bed4-156a11324b34 \"Image: Wugapodes, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons\")","dbb5b2d4-f2a5-48a3-844c-5d1a1325f7f5",[218],{"id":219,"data":220,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"5df13bc4-e254-4699-b6e0-6776222d5a31",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":221,"spacingBehaviour":24,"imageRecallQuestion":222,"imageRecallMediaId":224,"imageRecallAnswers":225},5,[223],"What type of olfaction are A and B?","ffb7264a-2600-4f9d-9a3c-d62bf228dafb",[226,227],"A = orthonasal","B = retronasal",{"id":229,"data":230,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":233},"8cad4d6c-b28b-4c33-a730-22dafde1bf52",{"type":24,"markdownContent":231,"audioMediaId":232},"Last time, we saw how our tongue evolved to detect five main tastes. But our nose is a lot more sensitive; some studies have found that our aroma receptors are able to detect and differentiate between more than a trillion different scents.\n\nIn other words, while the tongue is great at detecting broad strokes, the nose is able to add to the experience by picking up tiny subtleties. This combined experience of broad strokes (taste) and subtleties (aroma) is what we often refer to as **flavor**.\n\nSome experts think that aroma is actually the most important part of this pairing. Studies suggest that aroma can account for up to 80% of the flavor experience. It's why, whenever you're suffering from a cold, and your nose gets blocked up, you find that a lot of the food you eat is a lot less flavorsome than it should be.","309a09db-b244-4a42-ac69-fea0da0f1322",[234,248],{"id":235,"data":236,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"1844111b-d146-4db0-9aa0-06759b4ef7ae",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":237,"matchPairsPairs":238,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[239,242,245],{"left":240,"right":241,"direction":35},"Taste","Five main areas",{"left":243,"right":244,"direction":35},"Smell","Millions of subtleties",{"left":246,"right":247,"direction":35},"Flavor","Combination of other two",{"id":249,"data":250,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"0fbe3eee-fea6-4f82-931d-378b103cae32",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":251,"multiChoiceCorrect":253,"multiChoiceIncorrect":255,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[252],"Studies suggest that aroma can account for what percentage of flavor experience?",[254],"80%",[256,257,258],"40%","60%","20%",{"id":260,"data":261,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":264},"126e6e03-7a84-4b2a-a204-0a1ffbd3228d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":262,"audioMediaId":263},"So, we know that the taste of food, and the smell of food, combine to generate flavor. But what about other factors? For example, how does texture play a role?\n\nAs well as taste receptors, our mouth is also home to **somatosensory receptors** – in other words, receptors for detecting things like pressure and temperature. Together, these receptors play a role in something called **mouthfeel**, which is basically just the physical sensation of a piece of food in your mouth.\n\nAs a simple example, imagine the difference between a cold piece of raw carrot sitting in your mouth, compared to a hot piece of cooked carrot. Your experience of flavor (taste and aroma) might be relatively similar for both pieces of carrot, but the mouthfeel (texture and temperature) will be totally different for each one.\n\n![Graph](image://717b0991-9309-430e-b19f-2a9beb0726d6 \" \")","b872f85d-8ca9-4734-a7a5-c0efff5cb406",[265],{"id":266,"data":267,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"a8512e9a-ec31-46e1-99d5-8eae123875d8",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":65,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":268,"activeRecallAnswers":270,"activeRecallPlusPromptType":24,"activeRecallPlusMarkScheme":70,"activeRecallPlusTopic":16},[269],"What do we call the physical sensation of a piece of food in the mouth?",[271],"Mouthfeel",{"id":273,"data":274,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":277},"d7954d75-3cd3-4de4-bf5c-a358313b854d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":275,"audioMediaId":276},"As well as taste, smell, and mouthfeel, sound and sight are also worth mentioning in the context of food experience. While there's not as much scientific backing for these two, it's hard to deny that the crunch of a vegetable, or the sizzle of a steak, can improve our experience of a dish.\n\nAs for the sight of food... can you honestly say that your experience of a salad would still be the same if all the leaves were dyed an ugly brown?\n\n![Graph](image://da3172e9-e5eb-4bb0-b280-c46f1529f961 \" \")\n\nThe color of food sets an expectation for your eating experience as a whole. Again, this is linked to evolution. When food *looked* bad, our ancestors could avoid it, without needing to put it in their mouths.\n\nTo sum things up: good food will always be a **multisensory experience**. By extension, if you want to become a good cook, you'll need to learn how to harness all these senses effectively.","5cf159b7-9f00-4e83-b01e-d3edea8548d0",[278],{"id":279,"data":280,"type":64,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"8858a340-85c8-4461-b536-e4046d49f1a0",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":281,"matchPairsPairs":282,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[283,286,289,292],{"left":284,"right":285,"direction":35},"Eyes","Detects external discoloration",{"left":287,"right":288,"direction":35},"Nose","Detects aroma molecules",{"left":290,"right":291,"direction":35},"Somatosensory receptors","Detects temperature and texture",{"left":293,"right":294,"direction":35},"Tongue","Detects five main tastes",{"id":296,"data":297,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":300,"orbs":301},"7609c84c-bf4d-44df-8af3-12bfa720680a",{"type":27,"title":298,"tagline":299},"Essential Tools","What does every kitchen need?",4,[302,404,485,578],{"id":303,"data":304,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":306,"introPage":312,"pages":318},"9aedd544-92a2-496d-b49e-86706b08b0a9",{"type":25,"title":305},"Knives",{"id":307,"data":308,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"36641e32-aa53-4f62-a8a2-535d1a9d5735",{"type":35,"summary":309},[310,311],"The three main knives that every kitchen needs are chef's, paring and serrated","As well as type, you should also pay attention to material and manufacturing",{"id":313,"data":314,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"2b4bd443-b105-4f7f-959c-507bcfc2024d",{"type":50,"intro":315},[316,317],"What are the three essential kitchen knives?","What else should you consider when choosing a knife?",[319,324,347,380],{"id":320,"data":321,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"fe6ad327-e643-488a-940a-f0478c3d9e39",{"type":24,"markdownContent":322,"audioMediaId":323},"A chef is only as good as their tools. Imagine trying to chop an onion with a wooden spoon. It's a recipe for disaster, not dinner.\n\nHonestly, the most important tools are those sensory organs we talked about last time. It's important to remember: evolution gifted you with a set of organs that are designed to detect good food. Whenever you're cooking, you should use them. Keep tasting things, smelling them, and so on.\n\nBut on top of that... **knives** are also indispensable. Unfortunately, evolution never gave us a body part for slicing and dicing. You could tear your ingredients by hand, or rip them up with your teeth, but as a general rule, a knife is a better option.\n\n![Graph](image://78d9ccd9-8b86-4129-a51e-b66b8d8a3dcc \" \")","49c636a7-91fb-45e5-9a5a-fe841e5033a1",{"id":325,"data":326,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":329},"85eeb86b-a799-42f9-b13d-4714ccf39d30",{"type":24,"markdownContent":327,"audioMediaId":328},"When it comes to knives, there are three main types that every kitchen needs: chef's, paring, and serrated. Each of these knives has a different function, so you really want one of each.\n\nA **chef's knife** is large and reliable, with a nice, broad blade. This design makes it ideal for a wide range of tasks, from chopping vegetables to slicing meats. **Paring knives**, on the other hand, are much smaller. Their short, sharp blades are easy to control, which makes them great for tasks that need precision and finesse, like peeling fruits or trimming vegetables.\n\nThe **serrated knife** is best for cutting through foods with a hard exterior and soft interior, such as bread and tomatoes. Its saw-like edge grips and slices without crushing.\n\n![Graph](image://507595bb-80a5-4383-9bc1-8418f4bd140c \"Chef's knife, paring knife, serrated knife. Image: Ɱ, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","44e7f7a4-8dbe-4b01-90cb-3508435fc2e4",[330],{"id":331,"data":332,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"15cd2df1-c7ba-42f2-b0dc-3a69f50dd6fa",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":333,"matchPairsPairs":334,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[335,338,341,344],{"left":336,"right":337,"direction":35},"Chef's knife","Used to roughly chop meat and vegetables",{"left":339,"right":340,"direction":35},"Paring knife","Used for precision cutting",{"left":342,"right":343,"direction":35},"Serrated knife","Used on food with hard exterior, soft interior",{"left":345,"right":346,"direction":35},"Carving knife","Not one of the three essential kitchen knives",{"id":348,"data":349,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":352},"95685ce6-0675-4687-8963-b8e3190d7a7c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":350,"audioMediaId":351},"As well as the type of knife, you should also be aware of the different materials they're made of.\n\n**Stainless steel knives** are a kitchen favorite because they're resistant to rust and stains. They aren't as sharp as the other options here, but they're solid and reliable, and perfect for everyday tasks.\n\n**Carbon steel knives** are sharper, with better edge retention, which makes them great for precision tasks. The only problem is that they need more care. Without regular oiling, these knives will start to rust.\n\nLast but not least, we have **ceramic knives**. These ones are lightweight and incredibly sharp, but they're also brittle and liable to chip. They're best for tasks like cutting soft produce or boneless meats, where nothing hard can damage the edge.\n\n![Graph](image://90c87000-3a53-43b1-8374-6a4cbda6689a \"Ceramic knife. Image: Ceraphil, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","ad0d8fa9-2f5c-48ab-8e10-fc648b4ba26d",[353,368],{"id":354,"data":355,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c2f2430e-5529-4aa6-bacf-73c4adebb106",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":356,"matchPairsPairs":358,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[357],"In the context of knives, what are the pros of each material?",[359,362,365],{"left":360,"right":361,"direction":35},"Stainless steel","Not as sharp, but resistant to rust",{"left":363,"right":364,"direction":35},"Carbon steel","Better edge retention, but rust without oil",{"left":366,"right":367,"direction":35},"Ceramic","Lightweight and sharp, but brittle",{"id":369,"data":370,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"031c21e2-b1d3-4a03-a34d-3baf28cf7e0d",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":371,"matchPairsPairs":373,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[372],"When might you use each of these knives?",[374,376,378],{"left":360,"right":375,"direction":35},"Everyday tasks",{"left":363,"right":377,"direction":35},"Precision tasks",{"left":366,"right":379,"direction":35},"Soft produce or boneless meat",{"id":381,"data":382,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":385},"fd01d8b5-4e63-49c7-95ce-cf4bbed9144d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":383,"audioMediaId":384},"When choosing a knife, there's one more thing to be aware of: how was it manufactured?\n\n**Stamped knives** are made by taking a massive steel sheet, then stamping out the blade like a cookie cutter. They're light, and cheap, and easy to handle – but in general, these knives are lower quality.\n\n**Forged knives**, on the other hand, are pieces of metal which have been heated and hammered into shape. They're more expensive, but they're also sharper and more durable. You can spot them by looking for a bolster – that's a thick bit of metal that separates the blade from the handle.\n\n![Graph](image://c8b667a3-9e1b-4f8e-b9a1-21d12758c281 \"See the bolster on the middle knife?\")\n\nAnd there we have it. You're now an expert on knives. Just one more tip (and this should go without saying): knives are sharp. Handle with care.","7e1976f3-4b69-4613-b71e-edfbc4bb46da",[386,395],{"id":387,"data":388,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"55363ef3-c51b-4587-a03a-f86b61176790",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":389,"binaryCorrect":391,"binaryIncorrect":393},[390],"Which type of knife is generally higher quality?",[392],"Forged knives",[394],"Stamped knives",{"id":396,"data":397,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"9b874d27-49bf-4cbe-8464-7f8662c42f6a",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":221,"spacingBehaviour":24,"imageRecallQuestion":398,"imageRecallMediaId":400,"imageRecallAnswers":401},[399],"Is this kitchen knife forged or stamped (and why)?","4749a2fc-7fde-4f7e-ab02-29ab71e730a6",[402,403],"Forged","Because it has a bolster",{"id":405,"data":406,"type":25,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":408,"introPage":414,"pages":420},"37dab2f0-3c9d-4ccb-b08f-4ba8d3a8680c",{"type":25,"title":407},"Utensils",{"id":409,"data":410,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"a84793b5-6cd5-47df-b3b8-37cb24456bb5",{"type":35,"summary":411},[412,413],"Different types of spoon serve different purposes in the kitchen","Spatulas and chopping boards come in different materials, each with different benefits",{"id":415,"data":416,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"b05d93bb-bd3d-46be-9ef4-4b4a5412c19d",{"type":50,"intro":417},[418,419],"Why do you need different types of spoons?","What other utensils do you need?",[421,441,461],{"id":422,"data":423,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":426},"0e6b0d39-55a6-4164-b5d1-4349a90392c9",{"type":24,"markdownContent":424,"audioMediaId":425},"Last time, we learned about knives. Now, we'll be looking at some of the other essential tools that every kitchen needs. We'll start with spoons, then move onto spatulas, and finish by looking at chopping boards.\n\nYou can use a spoon to stir, mix, or even serve a dish. In fact, there aren't many recipes that don't use a spoon at some point. For all of these uses, you can't go far wrong with a solid **wooden spoon**. It doesn't absorb heat, which makes it easy to handle, and its soft edges go easy on pots and pans – you don't have to worry about scratching any metal surfaces.\n\n![Graph](image://a21505e5-9b33-4a3c-867a-8e6b70a2d57e \" \")\n\nHaving said that, it's worth owning a big **metal spoon** as well. These are perfect for tasks that require more strength, like stirring thick stews or serving hefty portions (just be careful not to scratch the bottom of the pan). A **metal ladle** is also a great addition to any kitchen. Use this one to serve up wetter dishes, like soups, sauces and stews.","fd8a3479-45d1-4d5a-aac9-599af04008aa",[427],{"id":428,"data":429,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"7d29c2a4-692c-4aed-a1f7-4487220c8824",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":430,"matchPairsPairs":431,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[432,435,438],{"left":433,"right":434,"direction":35},"Wooden spoon","General mixing and serving",{"left":436,"right":437,"direction":35},"Metal spoon","Heavy duty mixing and serving",{"left":439,"right":440,"direction":35},"Ladle","Serving wetter dishes",{"id":442,"data":443,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":446},"990b6e32-ced1-4c87-84fe-55015404faf7",{"type":24,"markdownContent":444,"audioMediaId":445},"Spatulas are another essential kitchen tool. And just like spoons, they can be made from different materials.\n\n**Rubber spatulas** are flexible and gentle, making them perfect for tasks like folding delicate ingredients. They're especially good for baking; think stirring batter or whipping up some eggs. However, they're not suitable for high-heat cooking, as certain temperatures can cause them to melt or warp.\n\n**Metal spatulas**, meanwhile, can handle higher temperatures, making them great for handling hot foods. They're also solid and strong; you can use them to flip things like burgers or steaks, which a rubber spatula wouldn't have the strength to do.\n\n![Graph](image://f8ee41a1-8e97-46d3-a014-b026eef1cb89 \"Metal spatula\")\n\nLike metal spoons, however, a metal spatula can damage pots and pans. Another solid option is a **silicone spatula**, which functions a lot like a metal spatula, but is kinder to the bottom of a pan. It isn't as durable as a metal spatula, but it's another useful utensil to have around.\n\n![Graph](image://7f2e007a-6478-4072-bd85-d31d13405b92 \"Silicone spatula\")","23db748b-cf6a-4e59-aaa4-3b4c19e84fcb",[447],{"id":448,"data":449,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"61414a87-e1e3-4bd3-aa36-f21d4e156471",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":450,"matchPairsPairs":451,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[452,455,458],{"left":453,"right":454,"direction":35},"Rubber spatula","Gentle on pans, but can't handle high heat",{"left":456,"right":457,"direction":35},"Metal spatula","May scratch pans, but can handle high heat",{"left":459,"right":460,"direction":35},"Silicone spatula","Gentle on pans, and can handle high heat",{"id":462,"data":463,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":466},"29777a39-0ba0-4471-893f-d9ce4fc3331b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":464,"audioMediaId":465},"The last utensils we need to look at today are chopping boards. Just like spoons and spatulas, the main thing you need to think about here is material.\n\nAs with spoons, **wood** is a solid and reliable option. Wooden chopping boards are gentle on knives, and also have antibacterial properties, making them a great hygienic choice. However, they can be prone to absorbing odors and stains, so they require some upkeep. Ideally, you need to oil a wooden chopping board every couple of weeks.\n\n![Graph](image://8e58783e-5123-4823-b05e-dd7447ea9378 \" \")\n\n**Plastic** chopping boards are easier to maintain, and often slightly cheaper to buy. They can be prone to collecting bacteria in the grooves left behind by knives – but as long as you wash them after every use, that shouldn't be too much of a problem.\n\nWhichever material you go for, we suggest getting two: one for raw meats, and another for fruit and vegetables. This minimizes the risk of bacterial cross-contamination. If you take the plastic option, try a red one for meat and a green one for everything else. That way, you'll never forget which chopping board is which.","7b4475c6-ed4e-45ce-80ff-bd19d52ca487",[467,478],{"id":468,"data":469,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"5a80b51b-7c3d-4cc3-b220-f70bf79a3224",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":470,"multiChoiceCorrect":472,"multiChoiceIncorrect":474,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[471],"Which chopping board material has antibacterial properties?",[473],"Wood",[475,476,477],"Plastic","Glass","Stone",{"id":479,"data":480,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"33dd16b8-5176-4b0f-98e7-b38fbdb1b44c",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":481,"activeRecallAnswers":483},[482],"How many chopping boards do you need?",[484],"One for raw meat, one for fruit and vegetables",{"id":486,"data":487,"type":25,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":489,"introPage":495,"pages":501},"69606904-f317-4940-b26c-c1c0cdea2aa3",{"type":25,"title":488},"Pans",{"id":490,"data":491,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"c3fe05e3-c7da-4c45-a9e4-e0e5f0c34f78",{"type":35,"summary":492},[493,494],"Saucepans are deep, while frying pans are shallow","You can get pans in a variety of materials, each with different benefits",{"id":496,"data":497,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"ecd5c3b0-ac1e-4cec-8ef4-7534fd158aca",{"type":50,"intro":498},[499,500],"What’s the difference between a saucepan and a frying pan?","How does the material of a pan affect cooking?",[502,519,524,545,550],{"id":503,"data":504,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":507},"f5e77357-57db-492a-89da-95802148a4bb",{"type":24,"markdownContent":505,"audioMediaId":506},"Another vital part of every kitchen toolbox is a good set of pots and pans. First thing's first, let's take a look at the difference between a saucepan and a frying pan.\n\nA **saucepan** is a pan with nice, deep sides. It's perfect when you're cooking with lots of liquid – think soups and sauces, pasta and rice, boiling vegetables, and so on. The deep sides prevent major spatters and spills, and the best saucepans also come with a lid to help contain any heat.\n\n![Graph](image://7d81a8e3-2d39-486e-92ca-e9e36a978c66 \"Saucepan. Image: www.cooksandkitchens.co.uk, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nA **frying pan**, on the other hand, is wide and shallow. You use it to cook foods that need quick, even heat across a wider surface area. Think frying a steak, or a piece of fish, or an egg, or some veg, or a pancake. The shallow sides also make it easier to flip and stir the food.\n\n![Graph](image://6af82cb9-9af1-4694-b2ca-cccf0fbe0b2a \"Frying pan. Image: www.cooksandkitchens.co.uk, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","dca6473b-30be-433e-b1aa-39c991ab589a",[508],{"id":509,"data":510,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"fc7581d9-1bae-4ce5-82c6-8e94f623df12",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":511,"matchPairsPairs":512,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[513,516],{"left":514,"right":515,"direction":35},"Saucepan","Deep sides, good for cooking with liquid",{"left":517,"right":518,"direction":35},"Frying pan","Shallow sides, good for cooking things fast",{"id":520,"data":521,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"f341c82d-c34b-4612-8aee-b6a876f76bb0",{"type":24,"markdownContent":522,"audioMediaId":523},"As always, you also need to think about the material your pans are made of. The four main options are stainless steel, aluminium, carbon steel, and cast iron.\n\nWhen we looked at knives, we talked about **stainless steel** as a solid, durable option. And that's also true with stainless steel pans. But they aren't as good at conducting heat as the other three options here. As a general rule, it's good enough for a saucepan, but not for the relatively higher heats of a frying pan.\n\n**Aluminium** is another solid option. Compared to stainless steel, it's slightly better at conducting heat, which makes it a good option for a frying pan.","8704b967-bf3e-4044-8f4d-8021492c317a",{"id":525,"data":526,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":529},"b6fbf799-c633-46d6-8aeb-524f801adfc2",{"type":24,"markdownContent":527,"audioMediaId":528},"While aluminium is a decent option for a frying pan, the higher end options are carbon steel and cast iron.\n\n**Carbon steel** is incredible for heat conduction. If you want to fry something at a very high temperature, quickly and evenly, this is probably the way to go.\n\n**Cast iron**, meanwhile, is much heavier than carbon steel, and takes a lot longer to warm up. But once it does warm up, it holds its heat well, and provides a reliably even cook.\n\n![Graph](image://aaed6fa3-8097-4828-8f0d-bac06df9f1a7 \"Cast iron frying pan\")\n\nYou really don't need both of these. But if you're serious about cooking, it might be worth getting hold of one or the other.","97c073ce-a399-44a9-9a17-615fe9524925",[530],{"id":531,"data":532,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"bb4efcfd-4a9e-485f-94fd-934cac501a7d",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":533,"matchPairsPairs":534,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[535,537,540,542],{"left":360,"right":536,"direction":35},"Good for saucepan, not frying pan",{"left":538,"right":539,"direction":35},"Aluminium","Solid option for frying pan",{"left":363,"right":541,"direction":35},"Reaches high temperatures, for quick cooking",{"left":543,"right":544,"direction":35},"Cast iron","Holds heat well, for even cooking",{"id":546,"data":547,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"c25721fa-9c22-4300-972b-7f5086852030",{"type":24,"markdownContent":548,"audioMediaId":549},"There's a drawback to cast iron and carbon steel: these materials are pretty high maintenance. They're prone to rust, and general corrosion, if you don't follow a process called **seasoning**.\n\nSeasoning a pan involves applying some oil (like olive or avocado), then baking it at a very high temperature. This turns the oil from a wet, slick liquid, into a hardened layer called a patina.\n\nThis patina protects the metal. But it also has another benefit. Without it, these pans are sticky. But the patina is smooth and non-stick. It's essential when you're cooking delicate foods like eggs or fish, and don't want them sticking to the pan.\n\n![Graph](image://b27ca298-4cd3-451e-ba2a-8d543e74cc21 \"Seasoned pan (left) and unseasoned pan (right)\")","b70497ba-782a-4265-9eea-1d6f3ea25ae2",{"id":551,"data":552,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":555},"fb05f54a-e146-437b-b2b0-50b67249a4b4",{"type":24,"markdownContent":553,"audioMediaId":554},"If seasoning sounds like too much work, you can always use a non-stick frying pan instead.\n\nYou might already own one: a frying pan that comes with a ready made synthetic patina. These synthetic patinas are generally found on aluminium or stainless steel pans.\n\nThe problem is, these patinas degrade if you subject them to too much heat. They can handle most daily frying tasks (anything lower than 260°C) but for high temperature cooking, they aren't a viable option.\n\nAs a general rule, it's a good idea to own one or two reliable non-stick frying pans, and use them for daily cooking. On top of that, you can get yourself a pan that requires seasoning, and use it on those rare occasions when you're cooking with a bit more heat.","6b9b9925-5ed3-438b-aa60-93db548ce99b",[556,567],{"id":557,"data":558,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"955d7d9a-297a-44ce-8b1a-098d0e9ed07d",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":559,"multiChoiceCorrect":561,"multiChoiceIncorrect":563,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[560],"To season a pan, you apply some [A], then bake it to form a [B].",[562],"[A] vegetable oil [B] patina",[564,565,566],"[A] butter [B] patella","[A] vegetable oil [B] patella","[A] butter [B] patina",{"id":568,"data":569,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"b74ece8f-306d-4554-bc14-3a3dc41830c5",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":570,"multiChoiceCorrect":572,"multiChoiceIncorrect":574,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[571],"Synthetic patinas start to degrade at what heat?",[573],"260°C",[575,576,577],"220°C","160°C","320°C",{"id":579,"data":580,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":582,"introPage":588,"pages":594},"fb55e7ab-6aa2-47ed-b831-12723801ddb3",{"type":25,"title":581},"Gadgets",{"id":583,"data":584,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"f95d82ae-893c-4544-af5d-dc9f1927d156",{"type":35,"summary":585},[586,587],"Digital thermometers and scales provide extra precision while cooking","A food processor saves time, but basic tools like a mortar and pestle can also do a good job",{"id":589,"data":590,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"103c2b44-5479-4e5f-91ae-66124412ef59",{"type":50,"intro":591},[592,593],"What gadgets do you need in your kitchen?","How do digital thermometers compare to analogue ones?",[595,600,616,629],{"id":596,"data":597,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"7fb36db2-b61f-4623-801a-e69df20ca99e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":598,"audioMediaId":599},"People have been using knives and pans for hundreds, if not thousands, of years. But it's also worth having some kitchen gadgets – a splash of modern tech.\n\nFirst, an incredible modern tool is a **digital thermometer**. Later in this pathway, we'll see how tiny temperature differences can make a massive difference to your cooking. And how can you keep track of those temperature differences if you don't have an accurate tool?\n\n![Graph](image://65908d1d-c845-4158-b260-dbbc8c317a2c \" \")\n\nAn old-school analogue thermometer is also a decent option. It uses a liquid-filled tube to indicate changes in temperature. But this liquid-filled tube is slower and less precise than a digital version. If you're really serious about quality cooking, digital is the way to go.","1384f7ec-647a-4789-ac58-ea9d43e0ee22",{"id":601,"data":602,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":605},"eb4038c8-701c-4288-96f8-c65304089a46",{"type":24,"markdownContent":603,"audioMediaId":604},"On the subject of precision cooking: it's also worth buying a set of **digital scales**. Again, you can also use analogue scales, but they're nowhere near as precise as digital. With a set of digital scales, you'll have a greater sense of consistency, quality, and control.\n\n![Graph](image://b8448c39-f477-47e9-a8ea-40833ef21fdb \"Digital scales. Image: Veganbaking.net from USA, CC BY-SA 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nSo, digital options are recommended when you're measuring weights and temperatures. But it has to be said, you don't need to go digital when you're measuring different volumes.\n\nA good measuring jug can handle the task. Plus a solid set of measuring cups, and a set of measuring spoons as well. Together, these tools should be more than enough to keep track of volumes while cooking.\n\n![Graph](image://94a47369-c839-4d96-a173-65f28cd5250e \"Measuring cups\")","6efb0133-dc79-495a-99c3-7e39945274cc",[606],{"id":607,"data":608,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"eb326219-9f35-424d-8ad1-f148613c93b9",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":609,"multiChoiceCorrect":611,"multiChoiceIncorrect":614,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[610],"Which of these tools is it worth going digital on?",[612,613],"Thermometer","Scales",[615,433],"Measuring jug",{"id":617,"data":618,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":621},"312ca094-69a4-45bf-b70b-9861b72288cb",{"type":24,"markdownContent":619,"audioMediaId":620},"One more gadget that makes a world of difference is a versatile **food processor**. This tool can slice, dice, and puree. It can blend and whip up a sauce. Some of them can even knead dough for you, grate cheese, and so much more.\n\nAs a tool, it isn't strictly essential. With a bit of elbow grease, you can also process ingredients by hand. But an automated processor saves you time. If you want to streamline your cooking (and you're happy to spend), it's a useful tool to have.\n\nIf you don't get a processor, grab a few other tools instead: a grater, a whisk, and a mortar and pestle. In case you were wondering, the mortar is the bowl, and the pestle is the grinding club.\n\n![Graph](image://cc15d4c9-f905-4904-b89a-21fd61ab4ae0 \" \")","67f2a444-4a02-40a9-b1b5-905524b4ccee",[622],{"id":623,"data":624,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"7f470c63-fb7c-42d1-974a-4dbb198f359a",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":625,"activeRecallAnswers":627},[626],"If you don't get a food processor, what three tools should you get instead?",[628],"Grater, whisk, mortar and pestle",{"id":630,"data":631,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":634},"a97acb79-4e56-4fea-bba7-f695406ab33b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":632,"audioMediaId":633},"There are hundreds of other kitchen gadgets out there. You've probably seen them advertised: miraculous tools that promise to change your cooking experience forever.\n\nBut honestly, you don't really need them. As long as you have a digital thermometer, digital scales, and *maybe* a food processor, all those other gadgets will just be taking up space in the kitchen.\n\nYou also need those knives we've talked about, plus some utensils, pots and pans. Put them all together, and you'll have a set of tools which can rival any chef.","f0f3fc93-303d-4939-87a8-ba7244619dcd",[635],{"id":636,"data":637,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"d0b05c11-422f-4f12-8fe2-311507557ec3",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":638,"matchPairsPairs":640,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[639],"Which is which?",[641,644],{"left":642,"right":643,"direction":35},"Mortar","Small bowl",{"left":645,"right":646,"direction":35},"Pestle","Grinding club",{"id":648,"data":649,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"orbs":652},"06f69285-0548-40ba-915c-5663bc5e2c0d",{"type":27,"title":650,"tagline":651},"Heat Chemistry","Cooking with different mediums",[653,750,838,944],{"id":654,"data":655,"type":25,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":657,"introPage":663,"pages":669},"c652d487-d767-4a70-8ede-bfc974203019",{"type":25,"title":656},"The Maillard Reaction",{"id":658,"data":659,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"94dbd0c4-8690-47b9-9bbc-6ee03ad56fa0",{"type":35,"summary":660},[661,662],"The Maillard Reaction enhances flavor and texture ","Cooking food beyond 180°C will cause the food to burn",{"id":664,"data":665,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"c1a8e4a1-e490-4fc0-bd73-43b16cecc081",{"type":50,"intro":666},[667,668],"Why does cooked food taste better than uncooked food?","At what temperature does food start to burn?",[670,687,692,709],{"id":671,"data":672,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":675},"178588a0-29fe-452c-ae66-03bdef84fa43",{"type":24,"markdownContent":673,"audioMediaId":674},"Have you ever wondered why cooked food tastes better than raw ingredients? It all comes down to chemical reactions that happen when you apply some heat.\n\n![Graph](image://14e379cb-ed27-46d6-8814-e3814f9bc0c9 \" \")\n\nPeople didn't really know about this until Louis Camille Maillard came along. Maillard was a French chemist, who studied the interaction between heat and food at the start of the 20th century. More specifically, he looked at the effect of heat on **amino acids** and **sugars**.\n\nAmino acids are found in proteins. They're an important source of nutrients. Sugars, meanwhile, are a source of energy. Maillard discovered that heat brings both of them to life.","4b579e62-dda7-437b-976d-4629661ea2eb",[676],{"id":677,"data":678,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"1d0f0fa2-b97b-4258-82b1-e5dfa0893ffc",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":679,"multiChoiceCorrect":681,"multiChoiceIncorrect":683,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[680],"At the start of the 20th century, Maillard looked at the effect of heat on what?",[682],"Amino acids and sugars",[684,685,686],"Amino acids and salt","Fatty acids and sugars","Fatty acids and salts",{"id":688,"data":689,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"a24913fd-86d2-4472-ae86-00e4ccf24626",{"type":24,"markdownContent":690,"audioMediaId":691},"Maillard discovered a chemical process which became known as the **Maillard Reaction**.\n\nThe process starts at about 140°C (284°F). At this temperature, the sugars and amino acids start to clash and fuse with one another. This creates hundreds of new molecules, with different flavors and aromas to the original sugars and amino acids.\n\nThese reactions get more and more intense as the temperature keeps going up. At about 160°C (320°F), so many molecules are fusing together that it creates a kind of flavor crescendo – foods start tasting meatier, or nuttier, or maltier, or sweeter, than they ever would have tasted raw.\n\nWhile all this is going on, food is also browning and crisping up. As we've already learned, these changes to a food's appearance and texture also contribute to better taste.\n\n![Graph](image://859cd837-2868-4411-b170-1108921a88ef \" \")","f5e73d18-2a25-45fe-9a28-727e55dd8e8c",{"id":693,"data":694,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":697},"66b1e409-c780-42de-be32-899a1bf16152",{"type":24,"markdownContent":695,"audioMediaId":696},"The Maillard Reaction can go too far. When we hit 180°C (356°F), another reaction kicks in.\n\nWe call this reaction **pyrolysis**, which is just a fancier word for 'burning'. This reaction breaks down other molecules in food, like fats and carbohydrates, which produce bitter flavors and acrid aromas which drown out everything else.\n\n![Graph](image://2645eb5d-1fed-4632-a09d-a668b0cf490e \" \")\n\nIn some cases, a little bit of burning is fine. For example, some people love a bit of char on a burger or steak, which has a nice, smoky flavor.\n\nBut too much char will always ruin a dish.","a530a7e6-5958-40a8-8509-a9a44bfe1d1e",[698],{"id":699,"data":700,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"ed39a1c1-d84a-48b7-a703-f902dd9df98b",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":701,"multiChoiceCorrect":703,"multiChoiceIncorrect":705,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[702],"Which of these is a fancy word for burning?",[704],"Pyrolysis",[706,707,708],"Cryolysis","Pyrogenesis","Cyrogenesis",{"id":710,"data":711,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":714},"95696a44-375f-47cb-a4a0-fc4512d2ee80",{"type":24,"markdownContent":712,"audioMediaId":713},"So how can you harness the Maillard Reaction to improve your cooking skills?\n\nThis is where a digital thermometer can help. You know that food cooks best between 140°C (284°F) and 160°C (320°F). You also know that it starts to burn at 180°C (356°F). Now, you can use your thermometer to keep track, and stay in the ideal range.\n\nAnother thing to be aware of: if we want a more intense reaction, we can add more amino acids and sugars. For example, you might add honey (sugar) to a piece of frying meat (amino acids). Or you might brush egg (amino acids) onto a baking pastry (sugar).\n\nWe'll see plenty more examples of this later in the pathway.","b06c1eb8-0414-4df8-bef9-6738df7d85c1",[715,733,742],{"id":716,"data":717,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"3bf56b33-3124-41a7-9e99-79061d23af01",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":718,"matchPairsPairs":720,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[719],"During the Maillard Reaction, what happens at each temperature?",[721,724,727,730],{"left":722,"right":723,"direction":35},"100°C (212°F)","Too low for Maillard Reaction",{"left":725,"right":726,"direction":35},"140°C (284°F)","Amino acids and sugars clash and fuse",{"left":728,"right":729,"direction":35},"160°C (320°F)","Molecules reach a flavor crescendo",{"left":731,"right":732,"direction":35},"180°C (356°F)","Food starts to burn",{"id":734,"data":735,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"21305dc2-4b9c-4449-9287-e30134cf82bd",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":736,"binaryCorrect":738,"binaryIncorrect":740},[737],"Meat contains amino acids. What might you add to get a better Maillard Reaction?",[739],"Sugar (for example, honey)",[741],"Salt (for example, soy sauce)",{"id":743,"data":744,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"357f516c-22e1-4b2a-8172-189dca7ce176",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":745,"binaryCorrect":747,"binaryIncorrect":749},[746],"Pastry contains sugar. What might you add to get a better Maillard Reaction?",[748],"Amino acids (for example, egg)",[741],{"id":751,"data":752,"type":25,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":754,"introPage":760,"pages":766},"9a064a12-ef96-4642-bfbe-70b519c413f8",{"type":25,"title":753},"Cooking with oil",{"id":755,"data":756,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"8d8c622e-274a-4471-98e3-fb6d665b8c38",{"type":35,"summary":757},[758,759],"Water can't get hot enough for the Maillard Reaction, but oil can","Pan frying is a safer and healthier option than deep frying",{"id":761,"data":762,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"e4731627-dab5-4cd9-be6a-5d42abccb1cd",{"type":50,"intro":763},[764,765],"Why can oil trigger the Maillard Reaction, but not water?","Is pan frying better than deep frying?",[767,780,797,814],{"id":768,"data":769,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":772},"ae53e343-9661-4a67-869d-ab777e8fafef",{"type":24,"markdownContent":770,"audioMediaId":771},"Last time, we learned about the Maillard Reaction – a chemical process which generally starts at 140°C (284°F).\n\nAnd here's a bit of extra information that you may or may not have noticed. That Maillard temperature is actually higher than the boiling point of water: 100°C (212°F).\n\nIn the context of cooking, this fact is extremely important. Why? Because you can't get a Maillard Reaction if you cook a piece of food in water. The water just can't get hot enough – it will turn into steam, and evaporate away, before it even gets close.\n\nThat's why vegetables don't go brown and tasty when you boil them in a saucepan.\n\n![Graph](image://6f1adf15-f6cc-48c5-89bd-df8e2e5e2318 \" \")","b97d9f83-f026-48ca-b079-1392a1f09cd1",[773],{"id":774,"data":775,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"e2038359-177d-499b-8bf8-9fe0a48a0713",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":776,"activeRecallAnswers":778},[777],"Why don't vegetables go brown when you boil them?",[779],"Water can't get hot enough for the Maillard Reaction",{"id":781,"data":782,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":785},"a6b97fe6-9564-4841-b384-052b8c7d9c9b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":783,"audioMediaId":784},"So, if water can't get hot enough for the Maillard Reaction, what can we use instead? There are a couple of options, but the most obvious one is oil.\n\nOil heats up much faster than water. It can also reach higher temperatures. Some olive oils, for example, can reach temperatures of as high as 210°C (410°F). That's more than hot enough for the Maillard Reaction to occur.\n\nAbove that temperature (we call it the **smoke point**) an oil will burn and break down. It will start to release trails of acrid smoke, and even harmful chemicals.\n\nBut you shouldn't be letting it get that hot. Remember: at 180°C (356°F), food will start to burn. If you find yourself reaching an oil's smoke point, your food will already be black.","eed19dea-fc4a-4495-9a5d-cf2767902367",[786],{"id":787,"data":788,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"f1a581be-6e92-477d-b9d7-ae3827939e7a",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":789,"multiChoiceCorrect":791,"multiChoiceIncorrect":793,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[790],"What do we call the temperature at which an oil starts to break down?",[792],"Smoke point",[794,795,796],"Break point","Steam point","Burn point",{"id":798,"data":799,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":802},"ce9946aa-2bb7-46d4-8832-065eb980b8a5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":800,"audioMediaId":801},"There are a few ways to cook food in oil, but the most common one is **pan frying**. Just take a frying pan, heat a layer of oil, then throw in a piece of food.\n\n![Graph](image://dec2265c-4fd4-4d6f-a925-351dc5e3400c \" \")\n\nIf your oil is hot enough, it'll make the moisture evaporate from the surface of food. That's the sizzling sound you hear when food is frying. Once the water is gone, the Maillard Reaction will make the surface turn tasty and crisp.\n\nMeanwhile, heat will travel from the surface, up into the center of the food. This is a slower process, which won't dehydrate the food, or activate the Maillard Reaction. This is why the center of a fried piece of food will often be tender and moist.","666acb66-6350-47f7-8847-38a89e92170a",[803],{"id":804,"data":805,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"ab82465e-0c7a-4d26-b070-911f522f0d8a",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":806,"multiChoiceCorrect":808,"multiChoiceIncorrect":810,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[807],"What causes the sizzling sound when food is frying?",[809],"Water evaporating from surface of food",[811,812,813],"Water evaporating from center of food","Oil evaporating from surface of food","Oil evaporating from center of food",{"id":815,"data":816,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":819},"c74bbef4-08db-4ed8-8b58-f2e631fe8150",{"type":24,"markdownContent":817,"audioMediaId":818},"Another way to cook a piece of food using oil is **deep frying**.  This method involves immersing food in a saucepan of oil.\n\n![Graph](image://6b9687f8-c96d-42e5-a47b-fba6f04a50f3 \" \")\n\nThere is one advantage to deep frying: the transfer of heat occurs evenly to food, from all directions at once. This is different to pan frying, which heats food from below, and can potentially lead to uneven cooking if you're not regularly flipping the food.\n\nBut a piece of deep fried food will absorb much more oil than pan fried. This makes it a lot less healthy, and can also lead to a greasy, oily texture. It's also dangerous: if you spill all that boiling oil, you could suffer some severe burns.\n\nBecause of all this, as a general rule, pan frying is a better option.","925c4a89-9cf8-4226-ad3b-dfa7d7f553de",[820,827],{"id":821,"data":822,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c0b02a2d-1394-4dcb-ab11-1618f4ab6010",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":823,"activeRecallAnswers":825},[824],"Why does the center of a pan fried ingredient remain tender and moist?",[826],"It doesn't get hot enough to activate the Maillard Reaction",{"id":828,"data":829,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"104a25c5-83f3-45d1-b87f-fcc96d9d7d70",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":830,"multiChoiceCorrect":832,"multiChoiceIncorrect":834,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[831],"What is a disadvantage of deep frying?",[833],"All of these things are true",[835,836,837],"Food absorbs lots of unhealthy oil","Food has a greasy texture","Spillage can lead to severe burns",{"id":839,"data":840,"type":25,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":842,"introPage":848,"pages":854},"3f4dcdf0-cb44-4e35-ac57-a6d3099b7c47",{"type":25,"title":841},"Cooking with water",{"id":843,"data":844,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"ef870668-ca05-42c5-a55f-aa6102949481",{"type":35,"summary":845},[846,847],"Cooking in water helps to soften a piece of food","Poaching or simmering should be used for more delicate foods",{"id":849,"data":850,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"43287833-37b3-4223-beb4-c4ac1aa9174c",{"type":50,"intro":851},[852,853],"When should you cook food in water?","What's the difference between boiling, poaching and simmering?",[855,868,884,902],{"id":856,"data":857,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":860},"dc331eab-1021-496e-a80c-634a16b10df4",{"type":24,"markdownContent":858,"audioMediaId":859},"Last time, we discussed how water will never get hot enough for a Maillard Reaction. But that doesn't mean it's not a useful medium for cooking.\n\nSee, while the Maillard Reaction only happens at temperatures over 140°C (284°F), lower heats can still lead to different chemical processes.\n\nFor example, if you throw a vegetable into a saucepan full of boiling water, the temperature of the water (100°C) is enough to **break down the walls** of that vegetable's cells. This won't brown the vegetable, or crisp it up – but it will make it soft and tender.\n\n![Graph](image://a17a022c-4f35-4a79-9ff8-5f5e320f5708 \" \")\n\nSometimes, that's just what we need. A dish would be boring if the ingredients were all crispy. It's good to include some softer components too.","a51148c4-0680-4bce-93d2-66e51079100f",[861],{"id":862,"data":863,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"d70168e7-cb9a-4eb7-af6c-70b5b33e8c97",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":864,"activeRecallAnswers":866},[865],"When you boil a vegetable in water, what happens to it?",[867],"The cell walls break down, and become tender",{"id":869,"data":870,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":873},"35d076c7-2f6a-449c-b442-f7f24434583b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":871,"audioMediaId":872},"As a general rule, cooking in water is also healthier than cooking in oil. But actually, it isn't always quite so simple.\n\nWhen you boil vegetables in a saucepan of water, some of the vegetables' healthy nutrients will actually leach into the water. For example, in one study, a boiled carrot lost **55% of its total vitamin C**.\n\nOne easy way to deal with this is to re-use that water in your dish. For example, if you were boiling some veg for a curry, you could use that water in the sauce. After all, it's now full of those minerals the nutrients that escaped the vegetable in the first place.\n\nThere's another little trick you can try with this: when you're boiling something, throw in a pinch of salt. If the water is saturated by salt molecules, the nutrients in the vegetable are less likely to leach out.","30006ee9-f998-452c-be68-8d8393ccb506",[874],{"id":875,"data":876,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"068709d5-2db1-49ab-a8db-694af268aa3f",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":877,"multiChoiceCorrect":879,"multiChoiceIncorrect":881,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[878],"What can you add to boiling water, as a way to reduce the nutrients lost from a vegetable?",[880],"Salt",[882,190,883],"Oil","Any of these will work",{"id":885,"data":886,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":889},"f94ea04c-7f41-4705-ae28-368d4c60e68f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":887,"audioMediaId":888},"Another way to preserve more nutrients, when cooking with water, is to forget about boiling entirely. Studies have found that **steaming** is much healthier. A carrot, for example, will only lose about 15% of its vitamin C.\n\nThere are a few different ways to steam something. You can buy a specialist steamer, you can do it on the stove, or you can even do it in a microwave. To do it on the stove:\n\n- \\- Put a couple of inches of water into a saucepan\n- \\- Take three small balls of aluminium foil, and make a triangle at the bottom of the pot\n- \\- Put your ingredients on a plate, then balance the plate on the balls of foil\n- \\- Cover the saucepan, and bring the water to a boil\n\nAs the water boils, the saucepan will soon fill up with steam, and the ingredients on the plate will cook. It's a little bit fiddlier than boiling, but once you get the hang of it, it can be worth the extra work.","f11304ee-539b-4b86-bf6d-f51cbe029317",[890],{"id":891,"data":892,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"eb4c30ee-2236-4fde-8414-bd7efff1f52d",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":893,"matchPairsPairs":895,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[894],"How much vitamin C is lost from a carrot for each cooking method?",[896,899],{"left":897,"right":898,"direction":35},"Boiling","55%",{"left":900,"right":901,"direction":35},"Steaming","15%",{"id":903,"data":904,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":907},"ef14426b-1445-4db5-8e6e-b4cf72bfc2b5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":905,"audioMediaId":906},"Two more water-based cooking options are **poaching** and **simmering**. These are basically the same as boiling, but you keep the water at a lower temperature, rather than the full 100°C (212°F).\n\nPoaching uses water between 70°C (160°F) and 80°C (180°F). Simmering is slightly hotter, from 85°C (185°C) to 95°C (205°F). Just like steaming, these are better for nutrient retention. At lower temperatures, nutrients leach out a lot less.\n\nThese methods are also good for delicate foods, like eggs or fish. When water boils, the bubbles can bump against a piece of food, and potentially tear it apart. But that doesn't happen at these lower temperatures.\n\nIn fact, if you're poaching or simmering something, the appearance of large, violent bubbles means your water is getting too hot.\n\n![Graph](image://70d9bd27-1f1b-4595-9b10-5fe372c23e0f \"Small bubbles, like this, are fine\")","98f42f4d-7a96-4b9c-83f0-36732a9ca0e7",[908,921,928],{"id":909,"data":910,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"fcead717-e9a8-47f7-a53f-e38eededd573",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":911,"matchPairsPairs":912,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[913,916,919],{"left":914,"right":915,"direction":35},"Poaching","Water between 70°C (160°F) and 80°C (180°F)",{"left":917,"right":918,"direction":35},"Simmering","Water between 85°C (185°C) to 95°C (205°F)",{"left":897,"right":920,"direction":35},"Water at 100°C (212°F)",{"id":922,"data":923,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"5402462a-ade6-4f14-ab6c-bafea9e20391",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":300,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":924,"clozeWords":926},[925],"Poaching and simmering should be used for delicate foods, because there are fewer bubbles than boiling.",[927],"bubbles",{"id":929,"data":930,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"8a9241ef-eb94-46cd-90a5-c38f9098cd74",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":132,"orderQuestion":931,"orderItems":933},[932],"How might you steam something on the stove?",[934,936,938,940,942],{"label":935,"sortOrder":4},"Put a couple of inches of water into a saucepan",{"label":937,"sortOrder":24},"Take three small balls of aluminium foil",{"label":939,"sortOrder":25},"Arrange balls in triangle at bottom of saucepan",{"label":941,"sortOrder":35},"Balance plate of ingredients on triangle",{"label":943,"sortOrder":300},"Cover saucepan and bring to a boil",{"id":945,"data":946,"type":25,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":948,"introPage":954,"pages":960},"3ab7b322-000a-426e-a4ae-da6655a76ca6",{"type":25,"title":947},"Cooking with air",{"id":949,"data":950,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"ddda4cc7-27ab-432a-b4c6-87168b57e47b",{"type":35,"summary":951},[952,953],"Baking turns soft foods solid, while roasting cooks solid foods","Barbecuing, grilling and air frying use hot air to create unique textures and tastes",{"id":955,"data":956,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"75883da2-96f8-49fc-afb3-4da5812ea6e3",{"type":50,"intro":957},[958,959],"What’s the difference between baking and roasting?"," -How do barbecuing, grilling, and air frying affect food?",[961,974,987,1007],{"id":962,"data":963,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":966},"aec0c2a1-6363-40c9-b6cd-08451ab7b26f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":964,"audioMediaId":965},"So, we've been learning about different mediums that can transfer heat into food. So far, we've looked at oil and water. Today, we'll be looking at **air**.\n\nWhenever you bake or roast something in the oven, you're essentially creating a pocket of hot air, then allowing that air to transfer heat into food. The air itself is heated by some kind of heating element; a fan might also circulate the air, to keep the temperature in the oven even.\n\nWhen you open the door, the hot air will quickly flow out. It's almost like boiling some food in hot water, then opening a hatch on the side of the saucepan. The water would flow out, exactly the same as the air.\n\n![Graph](image://a43006ac-3d8a-436a-ad68-c01d8e2578b4 \" \")\n\nRemember: hot air rises, so the top shelf of your oven will usually get hotter than the bottom shelf.","93ebcf1e-233e-48fe-96fb-68a935b68243",[967],{"id":968,"data":969,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c192ad0d-ef8d-4a60-bc1c-66e15b5ff34e",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":300,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":970,"clozeWords":972},[971],"Hot air rises, so the top shelf of your oven will usually get hotter.",[973],"rise",{"id":975,"data":976,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":979},"85419ed8-e7fc-420d-94f1-d6e5d537fe74",{"type":24,"markdownContent":977,"audioMediaId":978},"As a general rule, **baking** involves some non-solid foods, which you heat until they turn into solids. Bread is a good example. It starts as a non-solid ball of dough, then turns into a solid loaf.\n\n**Roasting**, on the other hand, involves cooking a food which is already solid. For example, some vegetables, or a big piece of meat.\n\nRoasting meat and vegetables is slower than frying or boiling. But this slower process will often result in softer, richer tasting food. You'll even get a bit of Maillard Reaction, which helps to crisp up the surface.\n\nThe heat is also able to penetrate deeper, which is important with a large piece of meat. If you tried to fry a roast chicken, the surface would burn before the heat ever reached the center.","a20ae0e3-4352-4dbe-8dd3-4c3fd286450d",[980],{"id":981,"data":982,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c4ddaae0-1d5c-4a6c-9120-37a0fa9e2306",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":983,"activeRecallAnswers":985},[984],"Roasting is slower than frying or boiling, but what is an important benefit?",[986],"Heat can penetrate deeply into larger foods",{"id":988,"data":989,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":992},"d9ae3835-7a6b-448c-9e71-9c5863d87b71",{"type":24,"markdownContent":990,"audioMediaId":991},"Along with baking and roasting, another way to use air as a medium is to throw some food on a **barbecue**.\n\nOn a barbecue, the air is heated by coal or gas. This hot air rises up past the food, cooking the food and infusing it with a distinctive smokey taste. As the food drips oils and fats onto the coals, these actually evaporate then rise as well, adding more flavor to the food.\n\n![Graph](image://4849f460-2998-4f60-b558-10e277438353 \" \")\n\nA variation on this is **broiling**, or grilling, which involves placing a powerful heating element above your food instead. You won't get the smokey flavor of a barbecue, but apart from that, the results will be mostly the same.","39e36fd5-033e-49a6-97ba-a2ef9e1483b9",[993],{"id":994,"data":995,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"f6b67653-e435-467c-99f1-02e68aef7c58",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":132,"orderQuestion":996,"orderItems":998},[997],"How does barbecue cooking work?",[999,1001,1003,1005],{"label":1000,"sortOrder":4},"Air is heated by coal",{"label":1002,"sortOrder":24},"Air rises past food and cooks it",{"label":1004,"sortOrder":25},"Food drips oil and fat onto coals",{"label":1006,"sortOrder":35},"Oil and fat evaporates and flavors food",{"id":1008,"data":1009,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1012},"6d4b98c9-04ae-4f9f-91a7-56057e1443e4",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1010,"audioMediaId":1011},"We couldn't really talk about cooking with air, without talking about **air fryers**. They've been around for a while, but in the last few years, they've started to become more popular.\n\nThey work by blowing hot air around a piece of food, effectively mimicking hot oil: the surface of the food dehydrates, and crisps up, while the middle of the food becomes tender.\n\nSome people swear by air fryers. They cook food quickly, and with less oil involved, they're theoretically more healthy than pan frying.\n\nThey're certainly not a kitchen essential, but if you're interested, you should try one out.","916acc22-4302-4e6b-97eb-6188a44c5a17",[1013,1030],{"id":1014,"data":1015,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"1f53642d-3b04-401e-9f46-184401ab4bf3",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1016,"matchPairsPairs":1017,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[1018,1021,1024,1027],{"left":1019,"right":1020,"direction":35},"Baking","Using air to cook non-solids into solids",{"left":1022,"right":1023,"direction":35},"Roasting","Using air to cook solids",{"left":1025,"right":1026,"direction":35},"Broiling","Placing a heating element above food",{"left":1028,"right":1029,"direction":35},"Barbecuing","Placing hot coal or gas below food",{"id":1031,"data":1032,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"e0946408-779d-4fbc-8737-e62f4b32e6cf",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1033,"binaryCorrect":1035,"binaryIncorrect":1037},[1034],"Air fryers work by blowing hot air around a piece of food, effectively mimicking what?",[1036],"Hot oil",[1038],"Hot water",{"id":1040,"data":1041,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":35,"orbs":1044},"bf8168f2-16d2-4ae3-957b-e25646ce5b98",{"type":27,"title":1042,"tagline":1043},"Ingredient Chemistry","Salts, acids, fats and oils",[1045,1140,1221],{"id":1046,"data":1047,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1048,"introPage":1054,"pages":1060},"38d611d3-1d38-46b3-8fe3-4c9e4fef55d8",{"type":25,"title":880},{"id":1049,"data":1050,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"037fe223-0367-4790-9384-25a459f8a044",{"type":35,"summary":1051},[1052,1053],"Salt enhances flavors, balances flavors, and improves texture in food","However, it should always be used in moderation",{"id":1055,"data":1056,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"d17f4b64-bc73-43ac-894d-190fba3cb169",{"type":50,"intro":1057},[1058,1059],"What is salt so important to cooking?","How and when should you be using it?",[1061,1074,1079,1106],{"id":1062,"data":1063,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1066},"42c68f0e-761f-4771-88bd-6e1c00484524",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1064,"audioMediaId":1065},"When we talk about salt, we're really talking about tiny crystals of a mineral called **sodium chloride**. Our bodies naturally crave it – and more often than not, it's the key to amazing food.\n\n![Graph](image://d85e8af6-66e2-4d68-bc01-09eaad531f8a \" \")\n\nSalt has its own distinct taste – 'salty' is one of the five main tastes that we talked about earlier in the pathway. But it also enhances other tastes, such as sweetness and umami, as well as suppressing less desirable flavors, like bitterness.\n\nSalt also has other uses in cooking. It can dry out surfaces to make them crispier, it can be used as a preservative, and so on. As we said, salt is so often the key to an amazing piece of food.","12b4a2f8-616b-43f6-9100-ae43cdc50451",[1067],{"id":1068,"data":1069,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"34cdb9cf-55c7-4a6d-ae66-88ff66558484",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":300,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1070,"clozeWords":1072},[1071],"When we talk about salt, we're really talking about tiny crystals of sodium chloride.",[1073],"sodium chloride",{"id":1075,"data":1076,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"cb765ccf-3b7e-417c-8a3f-801db682df2f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1077,"audioMediaId":1078},"So, salt has a taste of its own, but it's also a **flavor enhancer**.\n\nWhen you add it to something rich in umami, like a beefy stew, it unlocks more complex flavors. Too much, and the stew will just taste like seawater. But if you can find the sweetspot, some salt will literally elevate a meal's taste.\n\nHere's an experiment you can try. Take something meaty, like a chicken soup. Add a pinch of salt, and taste it. Add another pinch of salt, and taste it again. You'll notice how the flavors become deeper and more complex – then suddenly, you'll go one step too far, and the saltiness will ruin the soup.\n\n![Graph](image://fc357847-178c-459f-8992-7370d3219d5b \" \")","8e0d92b5-ae9b-4985-be2c-974fd64d959a",{"id":1080,"data":1081,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1084},"6d775492-e006-49f4-a3ce-fb61fb861992",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1082,"audioMediaId":1083},"If you're salting meat, you'll want to do it nice and early. Salt moves through food by **diffusion**, and diffusion takes a bit of time. Some chefs recommend rubbing salt on to the surface of a leg of meat a full 24 hours before cooking. That way, the salt can diffuse all the way through.\n\n![Graph](image://d9dbe78a-b6e2-48d5-a366-2179f774f20a \"Diffusion of salt through meat\")\n\nInterestingly, as salt diffuses through food, it actually pushes out water. Because of this, salt can also be used to dry out food. If you add it to a steak just an hour before frying, this 'drying' process will give that steak a crispier outer layer.\n\n![Graph](image://d5c94cd7-a9af-4726-a5fd-b35fc82bad4d \"Water pushed out by salt\")\n\nOf course, you don't always want to dry out food, so it’s important to get the balance right. With vegetables in particular, salting too early can make them dry and chewy. For best results, you should salt your vegetables about 15 minutes before cooking.","2a166e9d-c207-41aa-87da-9231dc114bca",[1085,1095],{"id":1086,"data":1087,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"f2f627dc-66fa-4ef9-b4a4-665da1961e2a",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1088,"multiChoiceCorrect":1090,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1092,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1089],"What process allows salt to move through a piece of food?",[1091],"Diffusion",[1093,1094,704],"Osmosis","Transfusion",{"id":1096,"data":1097,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"88d583a2-7d39-43d6-9993-2a0d93ee5ec1",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1098,"multiChoiceCorrect":1100,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1102,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1099],"As salt diffuses through food, what does it push out?",[1101],"Water",[1103,1104,1105],"Fats","Acids","All of these",{"id":1107,"data":1108,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":35,"reviews":1111},"56c69ed9-859d-482c-b9f9-2f744bca2a7c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1109,"audioMediaId":1110},"When you're cooking, the primary source of salt is those crystals of sodium chloride. This is what you find in a salt shaker; they're officially known as table salt.\n\nHowever, salt can also be sourced from other ingredients, such as soy sauce. Certain fish, like anchovies, are salty too. Other options include seaweed, salted butter, and capers.\n\n![Graph](image://ccf55508-4901-4929-a7e5-5874b652a2bf \"Anchovies on pizza\")\n\nIt’s important to remember, that while salt is totally amazing for cooking, it has been linked to health issues including high blood pressure. In other words, you should use it in moderation. Just a couple of pinches, here and there, should be enough to elevate a dish.","8097ab55-3e6d-43c8-af6d-4b301c0375b6",[1112,1125],{"id":1113,"data":1114,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"8cd6df90-ad65-4ed0-831a-083bef6b60e7",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1115,"multiChoiceCorrect":1117,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1122,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1116],"Which of these ingredients are good sources of salt?",[1118,1119,1120,1121],"Soy sauce","Anchovies","Seaweed","Capers",[1123,1124],"Thyme","Horseradish",{"id":1126,"data":1127,"type":64,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":34},"e6ba8e66-3762-4cc5-a370-0a71cddaee25",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1128,"matchPairsPairs":1130,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1129],"When should you salt each of these?",[1131,1134,1137],{"left":1132,"right":1133,"direction":35},"Leg of meat","Up to 24 hours before cooking",{"left":1135,"right":1136,"direction":35},"Steak","Up to 1 hour before cooking",{"left":1138,"right":1139,"direction":35},"Vegetables","Up to 15 minutes before cooking",{"id":1141,"data":1142,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1143,"introPage":1149,"pages":1154},"36f32fd6-5e14-4597-9cad-3f5e2e3238eb",{"type":25,"title":1104},{"id":1144,"data":1145,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"bed129da-78f6-48ce-a79d-afeda9154dd3",{"type":35,"summary":1146},[1147,1148],"Acids enhance flavors, balance flavors, and improve mouthfeel in food","They also affect color and texture when used on vegetables and meat",{"id":1150,"data":1151,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"12db3f18-bf82-43d2-8d82-8870c2d60b72",{"type":50,"intro":1152},[1153,1059],"What is acid so important to cooking?",[1155,1168,1173,1190],{"id":1156,"data":1157,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1160},"42269af0-5927-4ba5-a04d-e0107e1670fe",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1158,"audioMediaId":1159},"When we talk about **acid**, it refers to anything with a pH level under 7. That might sound like something from a chemistry class, but acid is actually super important in cooking.\n\n![Graph](image://3ec8b159-1f76-4b77-b83a-de968579e9bb \"pH scale. Image: Christinelmiller, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAcids taste sour. For example, lemons are acidic. On its own, this sourness doesn't always taste great, but (just like salt) it enhances other flavors. The sour zing adds brightness, contrast, and complexity to dishes.\n\nAcids also trigger your mouth to produce more saliva. This dilutes the acid, and is there to protect your teeth. But the added lubrication also improves the mouthfeel of food, improving the eating experience.","b604eff6-ed4a-4818-98d4-71c186b8cb0a",[1161],{"id":1162,"data":1163,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"6908eed1-b5df-4e63-a4a1-7d3bfc73cd38",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1164,"activeRecallAnswers":1166},[1165],"How do acids improve the mouthfeel of food?",[1167],"They trigger your mouth to produce saliva",{"id":1169,"data":1170,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"285fe507-d1ea-420b-819d-43805dd8f241",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1171,"audioMediaId":1172},"As a **flavor enhancer**, acids can be a massive help when flavors are overly sweet. For example, roasted carrots have a naturally sweet flavor, but a splash of vinegar will make them more complex and delicious. Acids also balance foods that are too umami, salty, or bitter.\n\n![Graph](image://59575a6b-8d31-4055-9de9-09d2be6e056e \" \")\n\nEven if it’s not added directly to the food, an acid can work great on the side. For example, try pairing an umami-heavy meal with a side salad dressed in vinaigrette. The salad will provide a refreshing zing, which gives diners a change of pace.\n\nJust like salt, acid should never be overused, but a splash here and there can work wonders. As with so much in cooking, it’s a balancing game that takes practice and experimentation.","c28103c4-eb3b-4c5d-ab66-21f9afbd311e",{"id":1174,"data":1175,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1178},"70da5215-57fc-428c-ad91-9eed5b29b6c0",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1176,"audioMediaId":1177},"Interestingly, fruit and vegetables will **cook more slowly** in the presence of acid. For example, if you boil them in red wine or tomato juice, they will soften much slower than they would if you boiled them in water.\n\nBecause of this, if you're cooking fruit or vegetables, it’s best to add acidic components towards the end of the cooking process. For instance, you might roast vegetables in the oven, then throw in a splash of balsamic vinegar with 5 minutes of cooking time left.\n\nAcid also affects the **color** of vegetables, particularly greens, which can become duller or browner over time. This is another reason to add acids late on, even for something as simple as a dressing on a salad.\n\n![Graph](image://7c375284-fa47-4266-9afb-b3f745c71582 \"Before and after acid\")","237351b2-9ef5-40eb-b72b-e7b00f43dc35",[1179],{"id":1180,"data":1181,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"7ce44319-874b-49d3-9ca2-7a4a6553ee92",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1182,"multiChoiceCorrect":1184,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1187,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1183],"What effect do acids have on vegetables?",[1185,1186],"Vegetables cook more slowly","Vegetables become duller or browner",[1188,1189],"Vegetables cook more quickly","Vegetables become brighter or greener",{"id":1191,"data":1192,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1195},"d56dc71c-fe2c-4d9a-b212-101a46ce5887",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1193,"audioMediaId":1194},"Acid also affects the texture of meat. It causes bundles of proteins to unwind, in a process known as **denaturing**. Cooking meat in red wine, or tomato sauce, will actually result in softer, more tender results.\n\nThere’s actually a technique called **ceviche**, which uses acid to \"cook\" fish. It’s surprising, but if you leave some pink chunks of salmon in lemon or lime juice, for about 20 minutes, they will come out looking (and tasting) cooked.\n\n![Graph](image://bc2660ad-4fce-4e5c-b7af-1919a4be0b77 \"Ceviche\")\n\nHowever, if you leave meat in acid for too long, the proteins will tighten up again. In many ways, the effect of acid on meat is similar to the effect of heat. Meat becomes more tender as you cook (or acid) it, but overcooking (or overaciding) makes it tough.","2d46b544-0bfd-404e-a233-da371aa03f3b",[1196,1203,1214],{"id":1197,"data":1198,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"b74eba0b-3ec5-442e-8fd6-050b1b018693",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1199,"activeRecallAnswers":1201},[1200],"How does acid make meat more tender?",[1202],"It causes bundles of proteins to unwind (denaturing)",{"id":1204,"data":1205,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"07822d8f-3ccf-491e-9da5-4907f2a1fe82",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1206,"multiChoiceCorrect":1208,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1210,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1207],"What do we call the method which uses acid to 'cook' fish?",[1209],"Ceviche",[1211,1212,1213],"Sashimi","Sashumi","Cevache",{"id":1215,"data":1216,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"11de668a-49bd-4997-8ee6-f339e116e63c",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":300,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1217,"clozeWords":1219},[1218],"To take the edge off an umami-heavy meal, add a side salad with an acidic dressing.",[1220],"acidic",{"id":1222,"data":1223,"type":25,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1225,"introPage":1231,"pages":1237},"d3f742e9-030c-4635-93b6-fdfc55e95925",{"type":25,"title":1224},"Fats & oils",{"id":1226,"data":1227,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"7e798d72-3fb8-4fa7-a318-b8a23ef92354",{"type":35,"summary":1228},[1229,1230],"Fats and oils add texture and flavor to food","Emulsifiers like egg yolk and mustard allow fats and acids to mix",{"id":1232,"data":1233,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"0881042c-5dc3-4861-9d0a-ec0e0a096b3b",{"type":50,"intro":1234},[1235,1236],"What are fats and oils so important to cooking?","How and when should you be using them?",[1238,1261,1277,1292],{"id":1239,"data":1240,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1243},"03c52398-c239-449b-a0e7-7709cc8b4412",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1241,"audioMediaId":1242},"As a general rule, **fats** are animal-based and solid at room temperature, while **oils** are plant-based and liquid at room temperature.\n\nExamples of fats include butter (derived from dairy), lard (derived from pork fat), and suet (derived from beef fat). Example of oils include olive oil, rapeseed oil, avocado oil, and coconut oil (you can guess what each of thoses is derived from).\n\nSo what can all these be used for? As we've already seen, oil is often used as a **cooking medium**, because it can reach higher temperatures than water. This is also the case for fats – their smoke point isn't usually as high as an oil, but something like butter can still get much hotter than water, which makes it an excellent choice for pan frying.\n\n![Graph](image://b191b734-e5c0-4f5d-8cc2-80d261b657b6 \"Cooking in butter\")","fbdd3486-246c-46ab-adc4-0cd74be92453",[1244],{"id":1245,"data":1246,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"1590c4bc-5a05-4a80-afc7-1474dd30a746",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1247,"matchPairsPairs":1248,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[1249,1252,1255,1258],{"left":1250,"right":1251,"direction":35},"Fats at room temperature","Solid",{"left":1253,"right":1254,"direction":35},"Origin of fats","Animal-based",{"left":1256,"right":1257,"direction":35},"Oils at room temperature","Liquid",{"left":1259,"right":1260,"direction":35},"Origin of oils","Plant-based",{"id":1262,"data":1263,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1266},"a7f6a425-2d9d-4011-9fdb-807848eac601",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1264,"audioMediaId":1265},"So, the first use of fats and oils is as a cooking medium. But these ingredients can be used in other ways too, to really bring a dish to life.\n\nIn particular, fats and oils make a massive difference to the **texture** of food. A simple example is a slice of toast – on its own, it’s relatively dry and bland, but add some melted butter, and suddenly it becomes moist and delicious.\n\n![Graph](image://99982dc1-4be9-4e66-91b9-00e163a2e738 \" \")\n\nFolding fat into pastry makes it flakier. Adding fat to a burger patty makes it juicier. If a dish ever feels like it’s lacking in texture, fats and oils will often be the solution.\n\nFats and oils also enhance taste. Each one has a distinctive flavor. Try taking that same slice of toast and drizzling one half with olive oil instead of butter. Does it taste different? Which one do you prefer?","18641bb4-4c3a-49dc-8391-c4a680a40067",[1267],{"id":1268,"data":1269,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"798dbdaa-1bb9-45eb-b050-b06d78979f26",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":64,"orderQuestion":1270,"orderItems":1272},[1271],"Arrange these cooking mediums according to their maximum temperatures:",[1273,1274,1275],{"label":1101,"sortOrder":4},{"label":1103,"sortOrder":24},{"label":1276,"sortOrder":25},"Oils",{"id":1278,"data":1279,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1282},"a5d2021a-9e76-44b2-b888-1ecd132aef88",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1280,"audioMediaId":1281},"Interestingly, many flavor molecules are repelled by water, but absorbed by fat. Because of this, beef fat, for example, actually contains more flavor molecules than the meat does.\n\n![Graph](image://0a506149-8a26-4cd2-964a-c184414f8077 \" \")\n\nTo take advantage of this, a great skill to learn is **rendering**. Just take some solid animal fat, cut it into small pieces, and place it in a pot with some water. Cook it over a low heat until the water evaporates (this can take a few hours), leaving behind a clear liquid as the solid fat melts down.\n\nStrain it through a sieve, then let it cool... and you'll end up with a liquid full of flavor. This liquid can be used as a cooking medium, just like oil. If you're frying vegetables or even a piece of meat, rendered fat will result in a stronger, meatier taste than you'd get with a plant-based oil.\n\nOf course, you won't always want a meatier taste. Sometimes, the fruitiness of oil-fried food is preferable. It depends on the dish, and the experience you want to go for.","ae95a867-4169-421c-ba5d-7f34caafdf43",[1283],{"id":1284,"data":1285,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"081e5d3a-3679-48a5-bad1-d1a49cc9335f",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1286,"binaryCorrect":1288,"binaryIncorrect":1290},[1287],"Which contain more flavor molecules: fat or meat?",[1289],"Fat – many molecules are better absorbed by fat",[1291],"Meat – many molecules are better absorbed by water",{"id":1293,"data":1294,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1297},"641fa188-2b50-4431-9ff4-8e73496ab564",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1295,"audioMediaId":1296},"We've now learned the importance of fats and oils, as well as acid and salt. You can combine all of these to create some incredible dishes. For example, mixing red wine (acid), butter (fat), and a pinch of salt results in a delicious steak sauce. Combining balsamic vinegar (acid), olive oil (fat), and a pinch of salt makes an amazing salad dressing.\n\nMixing acids and fats/oils can be tricky, because they don't always readily combine. This is due to the molecular structure. Acids are polar, while fats are non-polar, meaning they repel each other instead of forming a stable mixture.\n\n![Graph](image://5dc9742b-5982-47a7-b317-5afd1f2f8097 \" \")\n\nBut this problem can be solved by adding an **emulsifier** – that's a third ingredient whose molecules act as a connective bridge between molecules of acid and molecules of fat/oil.\n\nPopular emulsifiers include lecithin (found in egg yolk) and mucilage (found in mustard). If you're mixing vinegar and olive oil to make a vinaigrette, try adding a spoonful of mustard. Suddenly, you'll find that the acid and oil stop splitting.\n\n![Graph](image://2cecf0a5-3ca1-4f4c-8400-69a8bc8ed933 \" \")","78a02704-0712-4104-8104-a3f1619c9ff7",[1298,1315,1323],{"id":1299,"data":1300,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"fabfae05-3d6a-4a0d-a14b-076bfb718d16",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1301,"matchPairsPairs":1302,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[1303,1306,1309,1312],{"left":1304,"right":1305,"direction":35},"Acid molecules","Polar",{"left":1307,"right":1308,"direction":35},"Fat and oil molecules","Non-polar",{"left":1310,"right":1311,"direction":35},"Emulsifier in egg yolks","Lecithin",{"left":1313,"right":1314,"direction":35},"Emulsifier in mustard","Mucilage",{"id":1316,"data":1317,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"089fad57-7c3b-4500-bd10-00e3864520f4",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1318,"multiChoiceCorrect":1320,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1322,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1319],"If a dish ever feels dry, what might improve the texture?",[1321],"Fats and oils",[880,190,1105],{"id":1324,"data":1325,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"117e053d-e49a-4fac-89bc-1b4fdf7e36fc",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1326,"multiChoiceCorrect":1328,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1330,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1327],"What process allows you to turn solid fat into a tasty, oil-like liquid?",[1329],"Rendering",[1209,1331,1332],"Denaturing","Blending",{"id":1334,"data":1335,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":35,"orbs":1338},"920d53e0-874c-478b-8d61-01f561d3679d",{"type":27,"title":1336,"tagline":1337},"Flavor Chemistry","The science of pairing",[1339,1426,1519],{"id":1340,"data":1341,"type":25,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1342,"introPage":1348,"pages":1354},"b36c8b06-acb6-4a26-807b-b2e865cfff78",{"type":25,"title":1337},{"id":1343,"data":1344,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"b471b127-49ff-4939-b64c-94d0472a23e8",{"type":35,"summary":1345},[1346,1347],"Food pairing works by matching ingredients with similar flavor molecules","Opposite tastes, like sweet and salty, can also go together well",{"id":1349,"data":1350,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"21ab7ac6-0a6f-4cc0-96cf-2429cdc4caca",{"type":50,"intro":1351},[1352,1353],"Why do some foods taste so great together?","How can flavor pairing enhance your food?",[1355,1372,1385,1390],{"id":1356,"data":1357,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1360},"59b11a74-17e3-4f91-bddc-05ed6bd76f05",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1358,"audioMediaId":1359},"Have you ever wondered why some ingredients taste so good together? There are so many classic examples. Honey and mustard, tomatoes and basil, even peanut butter and jelly.\n\nThere's some interesting science going on here. As we've already learned, different foods contain different molecules, which our brains interpret as flavor. And as a general rule, when two ingredients contain similar molecules, they'll taste great when you put them together.\n\nTomatoes and basil are a good example. They both contain a flavor molecule called **linalool**, which has a sweet, floral taste. Tomatoes and basil taste good together, because linalool unites them.\n\n![Graph](image://1a11daf4-8b11-48d9-b009-c0927e2ecb3c \" \")","fdb67f70-3c61-4287-b903-783b39bb962d",[1361],{"id":1362,"data":1363,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"78836c17-f833-42f5-b999-f966506a1b16",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1364,"multiChoiceCorrect":1366,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1368,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1365],"Tomatoes and basil pair great together, because they both contain what flavor molecule?",[1367],"Linalool",[1369,1370,1371],"Amines","Limonene","Capsaicin",{"id":1373,"data":1374,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1377},"942ae6a5-b606-4996-843f-c01531b75ace",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1375,"audioMediaId":1376},"In the last few years, scientists have actually started to catalogue the molecules in different ingredients.\n\nThey do this using a specific technique called gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. We won't get into the details, but it's a great way to study the molecular composition of a substance.\n\nUsing this catalogue of different molecules, scientists are able to understand why certain ingredients go well together. They can also discover new combinations that no one has ever tried. For example, they discovered that white chocolate and caviar go well together. Why? Because they both contain molecules called **amines**.\n\n![Graph](image://a9e811cf-4315-42c7-93ad-47f974872035 \"Caviar (black) and white chocolate (white). Image: Haydn Blackey, CC BY-SA 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nOther examples of foods with similar components include bread and cheese, pear and honey, beef and garlic... the list goes on and on.","089673a3-87bb-45d3-9632-97981e5ca574",[1378],{"id":1379,"data":1380,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"868d9040-e53d-485a-a8c1-b8ce83034317",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1381,"multiChoiceCorrect":1383,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1384,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1382],"Caviar and white chocolate pair great together, because they both contain what flavor molecule?",[1369],[1367,1370,1371],{"id":1386,"data":1387,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"39a59b07-5c5a-4312-af99-42dbe2fb516a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1388,"audioMediaId":1389},"That scientific approach to flavor molecules if often referred to as **food pairing**. It's an exciting field, but it has to be said: when you're cooking at home, you can't get out a chemistry set every time you want to pair ingredients.\n\nLuckily, there's another easy way to test for flavor molecules. Remember, you have a tongue and a nose for a reason: they're designed for exactly this purpose. Just take some ingredients, and taste them. On their own, or in combination. Do they go well together, or do they not?\n\nIf you want, you can get creative. Take a piece of beef, and add chocolate. Take another piece of beef, and add jelly. Take a third piece of beef, and add coffee. Which one tastes the best?","cb4d42be-3e3c-4b4d-ab0f-db087cf78af7",{"id":1391,"data":1392,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1395},"9db73539-2557-47f3-b515-c9fdba6ad8b3",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1393,"audioMediaId":1394},"It's worth pointing out that similar ingredients aren't the only ones that go well together. Actually, combining **opposite tastes** can also work really well.\n\nFor example, a strong umami taste (pulled pork, for example) might go well with a sour taste (BBQ sauce) or a sweet taste (apple sauce). A sweet taste (meringue) might go well with a sour taste (lemon). A salty taste (peanut butter) might go well with a sweet taste (jelly).\n\n![Graph](image://9a357ca2-0dce-427e-8306-de2e9abaf45a \" \")\n\nAgain, you'll need to experiment with this. But as a general rule: if a dish tastes too strongly of one flavor (sweet, sour, salty, umami, bitter), throw in an ingredient which brings something different to the pot.","11d8ffa2-1249-47e2-a864-f486b6303293",[1396,1411],{"id":1397,"data":1398,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"669d050f-0da8-4b4c-93b7-89fced36bc34",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1399,"matchPairsPairs":1401,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1400],"Which of these foods go well together, due to having opposite tastes?",[1402,1405,1408],{"left":1403,"right":1404,"direction":35},"Pulled pork (umami)","BBQ sauce (sour)",{"left":1406,"right":1407,"direction":35},"Meringue (sweet)","Lemon (sour)",{"left":1409,"right":1410,"direction":35},"Peanut butter (salty)","Jelly (sweet)",{"id":1412,"data":1413,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"85011229-931d-47c7-bb10-2954f471a672",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1414,"matchPairsPairs":1416,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1415],"Which of these foods go well together, due to having similar molecules?",[1417,1420,1423],{"left":1418,"right":1419,"direction":35},"Bread","Cheese",{"left":1421,"right":1422,"direction":35},"Pear","Honey",{"left":1424,"right":1425,"direction":35},"Beef","Garlic",{"id":1427,"data":1428,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1430,"introPage":1436,"pages":1442},"3dff403f-b1e5-43ce-8d38-6ec9a43d58ea",{"type":25,"title":1429},"Herbs",{"id":1431,"data":1432,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"144f119e-38d1-4961-8640-c3a2f73f9f48",{"type":35,"summary":1433},[1434,1435],"The leaves of many plants have essential oils, which contain flavor molecules","We call these leaves herbs, and they can be used to bring flavor to food",{"id":1437,"data":1438,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"18408038-4538-4571-b5b7-c97017c7de5c",{"type":50,"intro":1439},[1440,1441],"What's the difference between herbs and spices?","How can you use herbs to enhance your food?",[1443,1459,1472,1477],{"id":1444,"data":1445,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1448},"0d4cbf13-cc59-49ef-9f8d-383d17d4a60d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1446,"audioMediaId":1447},"Last time, we learned about two approaches to flavor combination: pairing similar flavors (e.g. beef and garlic) and pairing opposite tastes (e.g. honey and mustard).\n\nThis time, we're going to be learning about **herbs** and **spices**. These are right at the heart of good dishes. They allow for rich, complex flavor combinations that otherwise wouldn't be possible.\n\nAs a general rule, herbs are the leafy parts of a plant, while spices are made from other parts like roots, seeds, or bark.\n\n![Graph](image://d8539047-442a-4d21-8bd6-8bde8a80cd2f \" \")","58890cc0-ead7-4400-a9fd-242f542d20dc",[1449],{"id":1450,"data":1451,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"bf54e57a-1a6f-4129-930b-68830f5e6344",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1452,"matchPairsPairs":1453,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[1454,1456],{"left":1429,"right":1455,"direction":35},"Leafy parts of a plant",{"left":1457,"right":1458,"direction":35},"Spices","Other parts, like roots and seeds",{"id":1460,"data":1461,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1464},"af4ca64f-6b97-4b40-afd9-757ad5ca4c89",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1462,"audioMediaId":1463},"Many plants produce **essential oils** in their leaves. These oils evolved as a chemical defense against animals and bacteria. But luckily for us, they also contain flavor molecules.\n\nThese molecules differ from herb to herb. For example, thyme has umami notes, basil is sweet, lemongrass is sour, bay leaves taste bitter, and so on.\n\n![Graph](image://0db015e1-67a5-4edd-b1ae-322ad2ca8103 \"Thyme, basil, lemongrass, bay leaves\")\n\nAs well as those main fundamental tastes, every herb also has more complex flavors, which are often unique to each particular herb.\n\nFor example, even though basil is sweet, it also has a peppery note to it. Sage, meanwhile, is sweet as well, but also distinctly earthy. Then we have mint – sweet again, but with a cool and refreshing finish.","bba4fef4-1e4f-46cc-ab88-2cf01e96e6dd",[1465],{"id":1466,"data":1467,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"1eefa7d2-c3f2-448b-9e43-d37c5d7ebde6",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1468,"activeRecallAnswers":1470},[1469],"What do plants use as a chemical defense, which also happen to contain flavor molecules?",[1471],"Essential oils",{"id":1473,"data":1474,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"29fdc5ac-1506-4c1c-b2a2-2c86f750d18a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1475,"audioMediaId":1476},"There are so many different herbs out there, from regions all around the world. This vast selection can make it hard to know which ones to use.\n\nUnfortunately, there's no set answer. It depends what type of food you cook, as well as your personal tastes. In other words, you'll need to work it out yourself.\n\nOnline resources can definitely help – look up flavor profiles for different herbs to discover how each one tastes. You also just need to start buying and trying. Which herbs taste best to you?\n\nSlowly but surely, you'll build up knowledge of different herbs. And before you know it, your kitchen will be full of them: an arsenal of dried herbs in the pantry, and maybe even some fresh herbs growing on the windowsill.","e86bbc11-774a-4679-ac1c-fdad42b8029c",{"id":1478,"data":1479,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1482},"18439992-f005-4f98-a6a4-5ddbd673fb61",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1480,"audioMediaId":1481},"One extra little fact, to remember about herbs, is that they diffuse their flavors much better in **oil** than water.\n\nAs we said, most of the flavor in a herb comes from the plant's essential oils. And oil and water don't mix.\n\nThat's why recipes rarely suggest that you add herbs to boiling water. If you cook them in oil, you'll usually get some stronger, punchier flavors.\n\n![Graph](image://0457a40d-bda2-4b20-bd1e-109dd0f21281 \" \")\n\nThere are some exceptions, like bay leaves, which can be thrown into a pot of boiling water when making a meaty stew. But as a general rule, most of the flavors you find in herbs (and spices too) are soluble in oil, not water.","bc15c6d0-2ff6-41b1-96d0-cc7e00ed114c",[1483,1492,1505],{"id":1484,"data":1485,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c9754afa-1f91-4115-b528-a51f41bee5c9",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1486,"binaryCorrect":1488,"binaryIncorrect":1490},[1487],"Do herbs diffuse their flavors better in oil or water?",[1489],"Oil – essential oils don't mix with water",[1491],"Water – essential oils don't mix with other oils",{"id":1493,"data":1494,"type":64,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"a2710173-f640-4e7f-8959-74460a5ece07",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1495,"matchPairsPairs":1497,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1496],"Match these herbs to their core tastes:",[1498,1499,1501,1503],{"left":1123,"right":163,"direction":35},{"left":1500,"right":162,"direction":35},"Basil",{"left":1502,"right":159,"direction":35},"Lemongrass",{"left":1504,"right":160,"direction":35},"Bay leaves",{"id":1506,"data":1507,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"2e57b8fa-2bb5-4e34-96e0-c7d240967fc2",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1508,"matchPairsPairs":1510,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1509],"Match these herbs to their subtler flavors:",[1511,1513,1516],{"left":1500,"right":1512,"direction":35},"Sweet and peppery",{"left":1514,"right":1515,"direction":35},"Sage","Sweet and earthy",{"left":1517,"right":1518,"direction":35},"Mint","Sweet and cool",{"id":1520,"data":1521,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1522,"introPage":1528,"pages":1534},"2aea5554-602d-48ca-b098-18408fa8c60e",{"type":25,"title":1457},{"id":1523,"data":1524,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"f1b8dfb1-08d5-4128-a1b0-497106c1bd01",{"type":35,"summary":1525},[1526,1527],"Spices are more potent than herbs, and add extra complexity to food","Spiciness is a burning sensation caused by compounds in certain foods",{"id":1529,"data":1530,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"7bf74de3-d7bb-40f3-bf36-6373e36dcfd0",{"type":50,"intro":1531},[1532,1533],"How can you use spices to enhance your food?","Why does spicy food make your mouth burn?",[1535,1548,1562],{"id":1536,"data":1537,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1540},"f2296f46-532d-4246-a539-0864258e01db",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1538,"audioMediaId":1539},"Last time, we looked at herbs – the leafy parts of plants. This time, we'll be looking at **spices** – that's seeds, roots, and more.\n\nSpices are generally more potent than herbs, and should be used in smaller amounts. But again, they're a kitchen essential, which bring depth and complexity to a dish.\n\nJust like herbs, different spices can be categorized in terms of taste. Paprika tastes sweet, turmeric has subtle umami notes, sumac is sour, and black pepper is bitter (yes, unlike salt, black pepper is actually a spice).\n\n![Graph](image://df0ab93f-b047-4083-835b-fb1326387844 \"Paprika, turmeric, sumac, black pepper\")\n\nAgain, just like herbs, these spices also have more complex flavors, in addition to these fundamental tastes. For example, while paprika is definitely sweet, it's also slightly fruity, with an earthy heat to it. As always, the best way to learn about a spice, is to buy it and try it out.","9000f118-9790-497b-99d4-bbaa2830c765",[1541],{"id":1542,"data":1543,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"fdded961-fbbf-4c44-9b48-5104043c3c15",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1544,"binaryCorrect":1546,"binaryIncorrect":1547},[1545],"Which are generally more potent, and should be used in smaller amounts?",[1457],[1429],{"id":1549,"data":1550,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1553},"9173f0e0-f26c-46d0-91c3-7eedaddb79ff",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1551,"audioMediaId":1552},"We can't talk about spices without talking about **spiciness** – that's the prickling heat that you get from ingredients like chilies.\n\nSpiciness isn't a 'taste'. Chilies contain a substance called capsaicin, which causes a burning pain in your mouth. That's literally all that's happening here: instead of tasting this molecule, you experience it as burning pain. If your mouth was genuinely on fire, it would feel exactly the same.\n\n![Graph](image://4da96c5c-c019-4542-9f0b-ba68453b55ed \" \")\n\nBut this pain isn't actually bad for you. So if you enjoy the feeling, go for it.\n\nAs well as chilies, you can also get similar sensations from other spices, like ginger. This root contains gingerol, which also induces a burning sensation, but a more subtle one than the pain caused by capsaicin.","ee86b00b-cef5-4670-9c40-a85a77c6532c",[1554],{"id":1555,"data":1556,"type":64,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"5cad2f82-388f-4c77-af7c-d332c88a19a0",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1557,"multiChoiceCorrect":1559,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1560,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1558],"What substance in chilies make your mouth literally feel like it's burning?",[1371],[1561,1367,1369],"Gingerol",{"id":1563,"data":1564,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":1567},"d1555385-7355-4008-9127-a99e84305666",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1565,"audioMediaId":1566},"When we looked at the science of flavor pairing, we saw how you could either pair similar flavors or opposite tastes. This also applies when you're working with spices and herbs.\n\nWhen you're crafting a dish, here's a useful rule: choose a pair of similarly tasting herbs or spices to use as a primary flavor. Then layer in two more, from different flavor areas, to add to the dish's complexity.\n\nFor example, paprika and cayenne pepper are both sweet and earthy. This makes them a good option for your primary flavor. Then add some oregano – it also adds to the earthy mood, but brings a hint of bitterness too. Last but not least, add a dash of thyme, for a little kick of umami.\n\n![Graph](image://0d00d630-835f-47e7-acb4-e5872f6c8fc6 \"Paprika, cayenne pepper, oregano, thyme\")\n\nAs always, feel free to experiment. But you'll also find lots of great combinations of herbs and spices online.","d4bc7e31-2c49-4a55-92b6-45eb8312fcac",[1568,1582,1589],{"id":1569,"data":1570,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"30aa5fe4-8d82-433b-af88-3bf133e06052",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1571,"matchPairsPairs":1573,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1572],"Match these spices to their core tastes:",[1574,1576,1578,1580],{"left":1575,"right":162,"direction":35},"Paprika",{"left":1577,"right":163,"direction":35},"Turmeric",{"left":1579,"right":159,"direction":35},"Sumac",{"left":1581,"right":160,"direction":35},"Black pepper",{"id":1583,"data":1584,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"15e2ed34-a5a8-41bb-84ed-49eef78b9a85",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1585,"activeRecallAnswers":1587},[1586],"How would you describe the overall flavor of paprika?",[1588],"Sweet and fruity, with earthy heat",{"id":1590,"data":1591,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"e744a22d-4271-48a3-a892-1ff7a902e9c2",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1592,"multiChoiceCorrect":1594,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1597,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1593],"Which two of these are a good approach for flavoring a dish?",[1595,1596],"Use two herbs / spices with similar taste as primary flavor","Use two herbs / spices with different tastes as secondary flavor",[1598,1599],"Use two herbs / spices with different tastes as primary flavor","Use two herbs / spices with similar tastes as secondary flavor",{"id":1601,"data":1602,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":35,"orbs":1605},"84c3079a-2c9d-40ad-ad0f-0d8e3ac3d6c9",{"type":27,"title":1603,"tagline":1604},"Core Ingredients","Proteins, plants, carbs and sauces",[1606,1724,1834,1947],{"id":1607,"data":1608,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1610,"introPage":1616,"pages":1622},"d7f90fa0-dbf4-42ae-9640-6552057c9740",{"type":25,"title":1609},"Perfect proteins",{"id":1611,"data":1612,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"f6dc9708-ef08-4ecf-a8d5-d5857efedb33",{"type":35,"summary":1613},[1614,1615],"Dark cuts of meat are usually more rich and flavorful than light cuts","Fish cooks at lower temperatures than other meats",{"id":1617,"data":1618,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"8d9dd0bf-f56e-46b2-99fe-2111175166e3",{"type":50,"intro":1619},[1620,1621],"Why are dark cuts of meat more flavorful than light cuts?","Why does fish cook at a lower temperature to other meats?",[1623,1636,1657,1670],{"id":1624,"data":1625,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1628},"b8554b6f-23f9-495a-9e1d-8e508ef7bba1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1626,"audioMediaId":1627},"Most dishes will contain four key components: a protein, some vegetables, a carbohydrate, and a sauce. There are exceptions of course (some meals only have two or three of these) but it's a good general rule.\n\n![Graph](image://95495a93-14ca-4318-924a-c75f8a062594 \" \")\n\nToday, we'll be looking at **protein**. It's essential for many bodily functions, including building and repairing tissues. It's also rich and tasty, and often the star of a meal. Think a juicy steak, or a piece of delicious fish.\n\nHumans traditionally get protein from meat. There are other options available, but that's what we're going to focus on. Apologies to people who don't eat meat – feel free to skip this orb.","ae26c712-a35e-4da0-919a-17461cf48086",[1629],{"id":1630,"data":1631,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"250d6d02-8a8c-4c60-8b76-113ebad85788",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":300,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1632,"clozeWords":1634},[1633],"Proteins are rich and tasty, and often the star of a meal.",[1635],"Proteins",{"id":1637,"data":1638,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1641},"e82b2ef3-521a-4eae-8252-680328f38eb5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1639,"audioMediaId":1640},"Meat has three main parts: **muscle**, **fat**, and **connective tissue**. These are all important for cooking. Muscle is made of moist, protein-rich strands; fat contains drops of oil; connective tissue is bursting with flavor molecules.\n\nThe darkness of meat depends on a protein called myoglobin, which varies based on how much the muscle is used. Higher myoglobin content also results in more fat, and richer flavors.\n\nBecause of this, whiter meat is often less tasty, and also naturally drier. Chicken is good example – its whiter breast meat is less moist and flavorsome than its darker wings and thighs.\n\nTo get great tasting white meat, you'll need to add some fat and flavor yourself. For example, you can cook your chicken breast into a rich stew, or cover it in butter before roasting.\n\nWhichever technique you use, you want the center of your chicken to reach 75°C (165°F).\n\n![Graph](image://e82e7587-894e-4717-9fa7-5fe428cd377a \" \")","158368a6-ef7c-424c-aa54-a988ec83183a",[1642],{"id":1643,"data":1644,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"48d581e4-fd88-4d93-b41b-0c9e9c604fba",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1645,"matchPairsPairs":1647,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1646],"Meat has three main parts:",[1648,1651,1654],{"left":1649,"right":1650,"direction":35},"Muscle","Moist, protein-rich strands",{"left":1652,"right":1653,"direction":35},"Fat","Contains drops of oil",{"left":1655,"right":1656,"direction":35},"Connective tissue","Bursting with flavor molecules",{"id":1658,"data":1659,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1662},"233fd273-caff-4bb3-b1d4-339dacb5c52a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1660,"audioMediaId":1661},"When you're working with **fish**, here's a helpful tip: these animals evolved to live underwater, in much cooler temperatures than land animals. Because of this, their meat will cook and break down at a lower temperature than a land animal.\n\nPan frying is often a good option. It's fast, which makes it easy to avoid overcooking. If you're pan frying a fish with skin on it, that skin will also turn crispy and brown through the Maillard Reaction.\n\nPoaching is another good option. It lets you cook your piece of fish at a slightly lower, more delicate heat.\n\nWhichever technique you use, you want the center of your fish to reach 65°C (145°F).","730cb310-d3ce-435c-bca6-77ec1c7dad39",[1663],{"id":1664,"data":1665,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"7c2d74c7-e222-4b24-9e38-041c23893c12",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1666,"activeRecallAnswers":1668},[1667],"Why does fish cook at a lower temperature than land animals?",[1669],"They evolved underwater, in cooler temperatures",{"id":1671,"data":1672,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1675},"f0f22966-ab4d-4662-abe7-473327193c43",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1673,"audioMediaId":1674},"**Red meats**, like beef and lamb, are versatile. They can be cooked in a number of differents ways, including pan frying, barbecuing, roasting, and stewing.\n\nPerhaps the hardest red meat to cook consistently well is a beef steak. But there's a knack to it, which can definitely be learned.\n\nAlways make sure that your steak is thick, with plenty of marbling. Marbling is just the fat content – it will help to keep your steak moist. Make sure your frying pain is nice and hot (carbon steel works great for this), then fry your steak in oil, flipping it often, and using a meat thermometer to track internal temperature.\n\n![Graph](image://7b3f0352-e92e-41a3-9d63-020161ae8869 \"Raw steak with plenty of marbling\")\n\nDepending how you enjoy your steak, you'll want to wait for a different temperature:\n\n- \\- For rare, you'll want 57°C (135°F)\n- \\- For medium, you'll want 70°C (160°F)\n- \\- For well done, you'll want 75°C (165°F)","49f9be49-cad5-4b17-bd3b-bdb21593e355",[1676,1689,1706],{"id":1677,"data":1678,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"d2d44635-d4f3-44ef-b00b-ba061ec1eded",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1679,"multiChoiceCorrect":1681,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1685,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1680],"Which of these help you to cook a perfect steak?",[1682,1683,1684],"Choose a steak with lots of marbling","Make sure your frying pan is hot","Flip your steak often",[1686,1687,1688],"Choose a steak with not much marbling","Make sure your frying pan is not too hot","Do not flip your steak more than once",{"id":1690,"data":1691,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"dde2acbd-7dca-40dc-8bbe-3490e08ef895",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1692,"matchPairsPairs":1693,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[1694,1697,1700,1703],{"left":1695,"right":1696,"direction":35},"Dark meat","More myoglobin and fat",{"left":1698,"right":1699,"direction":35},"Light meat","Less myoglobin and fat",{"left":1701,"right":1702,"direction":35},"Higher levels of myoglobin","Results in more fat",{"left":1704,"right":1705,"direction":35},"Higher levels of fat","Results in richer flavors",{"id":1707,"data":1708,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"179fef80-69b7-476d-bdf9-b013bc82e7ed",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1709,"matchPairsPairs":1711,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1710],"When cooking different meats, what temperature must the center reach?",[1712,1715,1718,1721],{"left":1713,"right":1714,"direction":35},"Chicken & well done steak","75°C (165°F)",{"left":1716,"right":1717,"direction":35},"Fish","65°C (145°F)",{"left":1719,"right":1720,"direction":35},"Rare steak","57°C (135°F)",{"left":1722,"right":1723,"direction":35},"Medium steak","70°C (160°F)",{"id":1725,"data":1726,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1728,"introPage":1734,"pages":1740},"0bfb3475-7b03-4326-9420-930b3e586a2d",{"type":25,"title":1727},"Perfect plants",{"id":1729,"data":1730,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"6a5b2a3a-3ebe-44be-b98f-2e3b121353be",{"type":35,"summary":1731},[1732,1733],"Vegetables can bring additional flavors and textures to a dish","Cooked fruit goes great in desserts, while seeds and nuts bring a nutritious crunch to dishes",{"id":1735,"data":1736,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"3e4e7622-e01a-4ea4-925f-3d164d91ada7",{"type":50,"intro":1737},[1738,1739],"What do vegetables bring to a plate of food?","How can fruit, seeds, and nuts be used in cooking?",[1741,1758,1771,1795],{"id":1742,"data":1743,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1746},"64ba9200-1523-4363-b099-dc2918238e03",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1744,"audioMediaId":1745},"Along with protein, which we talked about last time, it's also important that our cooking uses **fruit** and **vegetables**. They bring flavors, textures and vibrant colors, which you can't find in a piece of meat.\n\nThey're also extremely good for you. People used to say, \"an apple a day keeps the doctor away\", but now it's generally recommended to eat five different servings of fruits and vegetables per day.\n\nThese servings should be a mixture of cooked and uncooked, because you'll get different benefits from each. For example, raw tomatoes are full of vitamin C. If you cook them, this delicate vitamin breaks down – but you'll unlock another nutrient called lycopene instead.\n\n![Graph](image://1b5c488b-e23c-4a5c-9990-7f2e19365fc8 \" \")","fbd72c7f-7ec4-4e21-b911-49b6b7e5ad6a",[1747],{"id":1748,"data":1749,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"33def301-a406-47d8-a11e-f512f07e4c60",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1750,"matchPairsPairs":1751,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[1752,1755],{"left":1753,"right":1754,"direction":35},"Raw tomatoes","More vitamin C, less lycopene",{"left":1756,"right":1757,"direction":35},"Cooked tomatoes","Less vitamin C, more lycopene",{"id":1759,"data":1760,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":35,"reviews":1763},"a5371d98-38df-4667-9dd1-16c175eb535b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1761,"audioMediaId":1762},"Boiling is a popular method for cooking vegetables. But as we've already learned, a lot of nutrients will leach into the water. Steaming is definitely a better option if you want to retain those nutrients.\n\nIf you're more interested in taste than nutrient retention, frying is another option. Just make sure to keep the vegetables moving in the pan – we call this method **stir frying**.\n\n![Graph](image://3f1d87ec-a788-4cb3-b7ee-08726b25c3d1 \" \")\n\nRoasting is another option, but there's a risk that your veg will dry out. To stop this from happening, try covering the vegetables with foil. This will trap some steam, and keep the vegetables moist. After 15 minutes, remove the foil, and the vegetables will nicely crisp up.","72fbe9fb-52b4-4f71-a24c-26ec6c5fa6c6",[1764],{"id":1765,"data":1766,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"59a63ce5-af77-4114-bae9-863da7e621a2",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":300,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1767,"clozeWords":1769},[1768],"When frying vegetables, make sure to keep them moving in the pan.",[1770],"moving",{"id":1772,"data":1773,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1776},"ec01fbe2-e1ea-4d98-9688-42f3c16a4067",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1774,"audioMediaId":1775},"As a general rule, fruit is best enjoyed raw, but you can definitely cook it if you want to.\n\nHeat will soften a fruit, by breaking down a fiber called **pectin**. Just bake it in the oven, or stew it in a saucepan. Cooked fruit tastes amazing in hearty desserts, especially pies and crumbles.\n\nIf you've bought some fruit, and it isn't ripening fast enough, here's a trick to speed things up. Just put the fruit in a bowl with bananas. Bananas release a gas called **ethylene**, which speeds up the ripening of other fruits.\n\nBut bear in mind: this trick only works for climacteric fruits, a category which includes apples, avocadoes, and peaches. It doesn't work for non-climacteric fruits, like oranges, pineapples and strawberries. If in doubt, just look it up: is this fruit climacteric or not?\n\n![Graph](image://f04e685e-f04d-4eab-b794-2373effc82d8 \" \")","f8ae9727-6762-4fc7-8a96-8ede88892bce",[1777],{"id":1778,"data":1779,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"dd7604d2-06df-43e1-a821-5838d556cfb7",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1780,"matchPairsPairs":1782,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1781],"In the context of fruit, match the pairs below:",[1783,1786,1789,1792],{"left":1784,"right":1785,"direction":35},"Pectin","Fiber broken down by heat",{"left":1787,"right":1788,"direction":35},"Ethylene","Gas released by bananas",{"left":1790,"right":1791,"direction":35},"Climacteric","Fruits which ripen faster with ethylene",{"left":1793,"right":1794,"direction":35},"Non-climacteric","Fruits unaffected by ethylene",{"id":1796,"data":1797,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":35,"reviews":1800},"11b75efc-90a2-4795-a512-bdb9502b7b01",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1798,"audioMediaId":1799},"Along with fruit and vegetables, **nuts** and **seeds** can bring a lot to your cooking. They're full of nutrients and protein – but they're also high in calories, so they should be eaten in moderation.\n\n![Graph](image://c4ee6879-3120-44a1-976e-a57484f082c4 \" \")\n\nMost nuts and seeds can be eaten raw, but you can also toast them in a pan or roast them in the oven. For best results, try doing this at home, instead of buying your nuts pre-roasted.\n\nCooking results in a crispier texture, and more complex flavors, all thanks to the Maillard Reaction. As an added bonus, the nuts will release delicious oils, which make them much more moist and rich.\n\nIf you take your cooked nuts, and sprinkle them on a meal, you'll add a nutritious, buttery crunch. For example, toasted almonds go great on top of a salad.","bafb5019-a0a3-4077-9ad1-a1dfb934823c",[1801,1812,1823],{"id":1802,"data":1803,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"df88cf91-1c37-4418-aa6d-1a425976f887",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1804,"multiChoiceCorrect":1806,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1809,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1805],"Which of these are true of nuts and seeds?",[1807,1808],"High in nutrients and protein","High in calories",[1810,1811],"Low in nutrients and protein","Low in calories",{"id":1813,"data":1814,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c27350e0-861d-47be-a6a7-ff4fbb8b0432",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1815,"multiChoiceCorrect":1817,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1819,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1816],"What technique should you use to cook seeds and nuts?",[1818],"Both of these techniques work well",[1820,1821,1822],"Toast them in a pan","Roast them in an oven","Neither of these techniques work well",{"id":1824,"data":1825,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"f4d505e3-51b0-4bb3-802a-dd4c4a084a8b",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1826,"multiChoiceCorrect":1828,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1830,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1827],"When roasting vegetables, what technique can help retain water?",[1829],"Cover with tinfoil for first 15 minutes",[1831,1832,1833],"Cover with tinfoil for duration of roast","Cover with baking paper for first 15 minutes","Cover with baking paper for duration of roast",{"id":1835,"data":1836,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1838,"introPage":1844,"pages":1850},"f9fb135d-7ab2-47fd-a649-1c7fe15a5cde",{"type":25,"title":1837},"Perfect carbs",{"id":1839,"data":1840,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"49f97a85-5d9f-42f3-b327-2fc3f6068a66",{"type":35,"summary":1841},[1842,1843],"Rice, pasta or potatoes provide a hearty base to any meal","Starchy potatoes are best for mashing, while waxy ones are better for salads",{"id":1845,"data":1846,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"b1737752-587d-4fc5-b9c7-f2c4baac251b",{"type":50,"intro":1847},[1848,1849],"What do carbohydrates bring to a plate of food?","How do you choose what potatoes to use in a meal?",[1851,1856,1878,1895],{"id":1852,"data":1853,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"909a002e-329c-4560-be58-4309421ce29a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1854,"audioMediaId":1855},"We've seen what meat and vegetables bring to a meal. But in most cases, you'll also need a **carbohydrate** – a hearty foundation that ties the whole dish together.\n\nThere are a couple of ways to go about this. You can either integrate the carb into the meal itself (for example, pasta) or you can put it on the side (for example, bread). A carb on the side can actually be used as a tool for eating. You can use it for dipping, and scooping, and wiping up juices.\n\n![Graph](image://5c2c01a5-7396-43ae-a8c7-841a0db7e1c8 \" \")\n\nEither way, whether you include it on the side or in the actual dish, a meal probably won't feel complete unless some kind of carb is present.","cb68f655-3988-401e-ba83-659cbc8d0c40",{"id":1857,"data":1858,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1861},"fb605a11-bd20-4187-993b-49159ac83af2",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1859,"audioMediaId":1860},"**Rice** is the staple carbohydrate for more than half the world's population. It's nutritious, filling, and (if properly cooked) delicious. But what's the best way to cook fluffy rice?\n\nStart by rinsing it in cold water. This gets rids of any excess starch, which will otherwise become sticky when you cook it. Next, put it in a saucepan, and add water up to a level 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) above the rice.\n\nBring the water to a rolling boil, and keep an eye on it. Once most of the water has evaporated off, and the rice is looking soft and plump, cover the pan and leave the rice to absorb some steam. 15 minutes later, uncover the pot. Stir the rice with a fork, then leave it to sit for a few more minutes.\n\nAfter that, your rice should be deliciously fluffy, and ready for you to eat.","5a959129-f434-4854-9c16-5d1fe63e93fc",[1862],{"id":1863,"data":1864,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"76dd3cff-f16b-4b74-abf7-e56149e8ff60",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":132,"orderQuestion":1865,"orderItems":1867},[1866],"How can you cook consistently fluffy rice?",[1868,1870,1872,1874,1876],{"label":1869,"sortOrder":4},"Rinse the rice to remove starch",{"label":1871,"sortOrder":24},"Boil in saucepan (water 2.5 cm above rice)",{"label":1873,"sortOrder":25},"When water boils off, cover the rice",{"label":1875,"sortOrder":35},"15 minutes later, uncover the rice",{"label":1877,"sortOrder":300},"Stir the rice, then serve",{"id":1879,"data":1880,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1883},"8768a736-950b-4fe1-8db1-10bf8fad666e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1881,"audioMediaId":1882},"Another staple carb is **pasta**. It comes in hundreds of different forms, and everyone has a different favorite. Penne, spaghetti, fusilli, macaroni...\n\nAnnoyingly, when you boil pasta in water, the starch in pasta starts to turn into a gel, which makes the pieces stick together. But there's an easy solution to this: add some salt to the water. This raises the temperature at which starch turns to gel, so the pieces won't get as sticky.\n\nSome people also recommend adding olive oil to the water, but actually that's a bit of a myth. Oil and water don't mix with each other, so the oil will just float on the top.\n\nAfter cooking your pasta, and draining the water, you can add a dash of olive oil to stop the pieces from sticking together. But you should only do this if you're not using a sauce. If you *do* use a sauce, and you've oiled your pasta, the sauce will keep slipping off the pieces.\n\n![Graph](image://f576478c-616f-47c9-a1b3-9855710729ff \" \")","f0c116d3-cbb0-41e9-b236-1d132957ae92",[1884],{"id":1885,"data":1886,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"5ecec11a-b79b-43b1-b338-42ae927bd011",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1887,"multiChoiceCorrect":1889,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1891,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1888],"To stop the starch in pasta from turning to sticky gel, what can you add to the water?",[1890],"Salt (this raises the temperature for gelification)",[1892,1893,1894],"Oil (this raises the temperature for gelification)","Salt (this lowers the temperature for gelification)","Oil (this lowers the temperature for gelification)",{"id":1896,"data":1897,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1900},"0b016022-54a2-49c5-8a84-435d1eaa1d57",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1898,"audioMediaId":1899},"Last but not least, we have **potatoes**. These are a type of tuber, which is essentially an underground stockpile of energy, that you find in some species of plant.\n\nPotatoes are super versatile, and can be cooked in so many ways. It's useful to match them to the textures of your other components: rich creamy mash for a rich creamy stew, fried chips with fried fish, roast potatoes with roast chicken, and so on.\n\n![Graph](image://6fc34d87-6bf4-43bb-91c0-9c61a7809e1c \" \")\n\nDepending on how you're using them, you'll want a different type of potato. The two main categories are starchy (e.g. russets) and waxy (e.g. new potatoes). Starchy potatoes are great for mashing and crushing, because they break down easily when cooked. Waxy potatoes keep their shape a lot better, and are best for salads or roasts.","727a25d8-ad43-402d-8698-e4773f9c7b1a",[1901,1912,1930],{"id":1902,"data":1903,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"578013ab-c706-4ede-a427-24f9a64c879b",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1904,"multiChoiceCorrect":1906,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1909,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1905],"When should you add oil to pasta?",[1907,1908],"After cooking","If you're not using a sauce",[1910,1911],"During cooking","If you're using a sauce",{"id":1913,"data":1914,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c6896b13-f02c-4eb5-9124-3a4e9e525e80",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1915,"matchPairsPairs":1917,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1916],"What type of potato would go well in each dish?",[1918,1921,1924,1927],{"left":1919,"right":1920,"direction":35},"Mashed potatoes","Rich, creamy stew",{"left":1922,"right":1923,"direction":35},"Fried potatoes","Fried meat",{"left":1925,"right":1926,"direction":35},"Roast potatoes","Roasted meat",{"left":1928,"right":1929,"direction":35},"Boiled potatoes","Fresh salad",{"id":1931,"data":1932,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"494286f1-3d9d-481b-99e1-e0aebc9a6a9f",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1933,"matchPairsPairs":1934,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[1935,1938,1941,1944],{"left":1936,"right":1937,"direction":35},"Waxy potatoes","Hold their shape",{"left":1939,"right":1940,"direction":35},"Starchy potatoes","Break down easily",{"left":1942,"right":1943,"direction":35},"Example of waxy","Russet potato",{"left":1945,"right":1946,"direction":35},"Example of starchy","New potato",{"id":1948,"data":1949,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1951,"introPage":1957,"pages":1963},"0f4009df-0ed2-4c27-85f4-a290a3b8f0a6",{"type":25,"title":1950},"Perfect sauces",{"id":1952,"data":1953,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"debfbbf2-cf96-44cb-a496-06f667698f2f",{"type":35,"summary":1954},[1955,1956],"Sauces combine a liquid, a thickener, and seasoning","The five mother sauces provide a strong foundation for creating a variety of sauces",{"id":1958,"data":1959,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"95709f46-7d07-462d-9142-cbd8e313d575",{"type":50,"intro":1960},[1961,1962],"What are the basic components of every sauce?","What are mother sauces, and why do they matter?",[1964,1969,2001,2018],{"id":1965,"data":1966,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":35},"fbb5682f-e655-493c-aada-74e45ddcfa0b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1967,"audioMediaId":1968},"We've seen how most meals have a carbohydrate, a protein, and some vegetables. Now, let's talk about **sauces**.\n\nSauces aren't always essential, but a good one can tie all those other components together. If done right, it can also bring so much to a meal's overall taste. Imagine you were serving some beef, for example; a rich meaty sauce might add to that flavor, or an acidic red wine sauce could provide some delicious contrast.\n\nAs well as flavor, consistency is key to a good sauce. It should be thicker than water, so that it coat ingredients effectively, but it shouldn't be so thick that it becomes gloopy.\n\n![Graph](image://e38c4a06-3c9f-4d88-a534-d18c453f8474 \" \")\n\nSo how do you go about making a good sauce? Let's take a closer look.","5cb37c06-2024-4a23-88c0-df4fd38d6f39",{"id":1970,"data":1971,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1974},"808a9c67-66c8-4db7-9d00-73c47d572945",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1972,"audioMediaId":1973},"A sauce will usually need three parts: a **liquid**, a **thickener**, and some **seasoning**.\n\nYou should always start with the liquid, which serves as your sauce's foundation. This can be water, wine, milk, cream, or stock (more on that in a second). Water is the blandest option, so it will usually need more added to it.\n\nNext, you add a thickener to the liquid. On a scientific level, liquids molecules slide around easily, but thickeners slow them down. A roux is a classic thickening agent made by mixing flour into melted fat, like butter. Other good examples include cornflour and cheese.\n\nLast but not least, we have some seasoning. Sometimes, the thickener will bring flavor on its own – for example, a good bit of cheese. But if not, you can add some herbs, spices, or other ingredients to improve the sauce's taste.\n\n![Graph](image://bd375105-80ee-437c-836e-eb92ac08b857 \" \")","5a8d3bb9-6c4f-47e2-92b1-2dd01544746f",[1975,1989],{"id":1976,"data":1977,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"eb1ce3d9-1e8b-43cc-b12f-b3bbcddb0395",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1978,"matchPairsPairs":1980,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1979],"Why does a sauce need these three components?",[1981,1983,1986],{"left":1257,"right":1982,"direction":35},"The sauce's foundation",{"left":1984,"right":1985,"direction":35},"Thickener","Slows down molecules",{"left":1987,"right":1988,"direction":35},"Seasoning","Provides flavor",{"id":1990,"data":1991,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"7f072cf1-9835-4dc3-aa56-148e6aebc196",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1992,"matchPairsPairs":1994,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1993],"What are examples of these three components?",[1995,1997,1999],{"left":1257,"right":1996,"direction":35},"Water, wine, milk, cream, stock",{"left":1984,"right":1998,"direction":35},"Roux, cornflower, cheese",{"left":1987,"right":2000,"direction":35},"Herbs, spices, other ingredients",{"id":2002,"data":2003,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2006},"71aa7c50-9cd1-46fb-baf3-bbd4a7ba0cfe",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2004,"audioMediaId":2005},"A moment ago, we mentioned **stock**. This is essentially hot water infused with flavor and aroma molecules from ingredients like meats and vegetables.\n\nYou can buy pre-made stock cubes, ready to mix with water, or you can make stock yourself at home. To do this, you'll need to cut some pre-cooked ingredients into pieces, then simmer them for a couple of hours: for example, you could use some pieces of cooked meat.\n\nOnce it's finished simmering, allow your stock to cool. Skim off any scum and fat. Then pour it through a sieve, to remove the ingredients, but leave the delicious liquid behind.\n\nThis stock then be used as the liquid base for a sauce – just add some thickeners, and some seasoning (if needed).","3442052a-992a-4f20-a9c1-dd56a58dfd86",[2007],{"id":2008,"data":2009,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"8acc9f42-b406-4932-874c-d8af4c098fed",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2010,"multiChoiceCorrect":2012,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2014,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2011],"What do we call hot water infused with flavor molecules?",[2013],"Stock",[2015,2016,2017],"Starch","Sauce","Roux",{"id":2019,"data":2020,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2023},"301b9823-9e39-4956-9d6f-43d9a3ab8103",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2021,"audioMediaId":2022},"While you can get creative, and come up with hundreds of different sauces, some chefs believe there are five key 'mother sauces' from which all other sauces are derived. If you learn how to make them, you can't go too far wrong.\n\nThe five mother sauces are Béchamel (velvety and buttery), Velouté (white and silky), Hollandaise (buttery and lemony), Espagnole (rich and earthy), and Tomato (acidic and herby).\n\nIt isn't strictly true that all other sauces are derived from these, especially when you take into account non-European cuisines. But they're definitely a good foundation. You can find recipes for all of these sauces online – notice how all of them are made by combining a liquid, a thickener, and some seasoning.\n\n![Graph](image://c29d5e76-fad6-401d-8b3f-700f0ef53e6b \"Hollandaise sauce\")","92a0669d-28c5-4d7b-9b4f-1a17cc81cc00",[2024,2045],{"id":2025,"data":2026,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"51738167-5e92-4f10-93dd-913d512ee167",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":2027,"matchPairsPairs":2029,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[2028],"Match the mother sauces to their descriptions:",[2030,2033,2036,2039,2042],{"left":2031,"right":2032,"direction":35},"Béchamel","Velvety and buttery",{"left":2034,"right":2035,"direction":35},"Velouté","White and silky",{"left":2037,"right":2038,"direction":35},"Hollandaise","Buttery and lemony",{"left":2040,"right":2041,"direction":35},"Espagnole","Rich and earthy",{"left":2043,"right":2044,"direction":35},"Tomato","Acidic and herby",{"id":2046,"data":2047,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"ede95cda-ef04-4b88-bdcd-540537a48849",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":132,"orderQuestion":2048,"orderItems":2050},[2049],"How do you make stock at home?",[2051,2053,2055],{"label":2052,"sortOrder":4},"Cut pre-cooked ingredients into pieces",{"label":2054,"sortOrder":24},"Simmer for a couple of hours",{"label":2056,"sortOrder":25},"Pour through a sieve",{"id":2058,"data":2059,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":35,"orbs":2062},"b2aa0e64-3c87-40a1-ab80-303c465f305b",{"type":27,"title":2060,"tagline":2061},"Plating and Presentation","How to make a dish look great",[2063,2140],{"id":2064,"data":2065,"type":25,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":2067,"introPage":2073,"pages":2079},"da29e34a-7924-4752-9b95-920afc6494fe",{"type":25,"title":2066},"Color theory",{"id":2068,"data":2069,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"7faff410-f7c5-4f13-bd37-10a8bb3b5e1b",{"type":35,"summary":2070},[2071,2072],"Complementary colors create contrast, while analogous colors create balance","Warm tones feel rich and hearty, while cool tones look fresh and healthy",{"id":2074,"data":2075,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"222cbfbe-abc2-4ae4-833c-fc802e5cad32",{"type":50,"intro":2076},[2077,2078],"How can color theory enhance your dishes?","How do different color tones affect food?",[2080,2085,2117],{"id":2081,"data":2082,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"99e270fa-50ec-4276-898e-83b061a92571",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2083,"audioMediaId":2084},"Towards the start of this pathway, we learned how the visual appearance of food can actually play a role in taste.\n\nColor is right at the heart of that. In one famous study, in 2001, a white wine was dyed red, and given to participants. Because it *looked* like red wine, it also *tasted* like red wine. Less than 5% of the participants guessed that the wine was secretly white.\n\n![Graph](image://de832baa-c45c-4c1b-b6e2-434bb71f30eb \" \")\n\nObviously, we don't want to be dying all our meals, just to trick people into tasting the wrong thing. But we can still use color in another way: to take a well-cooked dish, and make it taste even better.\n\nTo understand how to do this, we'll be referring to a **color wheel**. It's a useful tool for art and design, and for cooking great food as well.\n\n![Graph](image://5c8f149b-997f-42db-83a8-ec4ed903fce8 \"Colour wheel\")","c825c8e9-d570-409a-8c21-2079a08952ef",{"id":2086,"data":2087,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":2090},"3bfbec04-7f59-4bc0-a498-a069a9955d4c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2088,"audioMediaId":2089},"**Complementary colors** are colors that sit opposite each other on the color wheel. For example, green and red. When you combine them together, they create a striking contrast, that makes your food look more vibrant and dramatic.\n\n**Analogous colours** are colors that sit next to each other on the color wheel. For example, yellow and red. When you combine them together, they give a sense of balance, that makes your food look more cool and classy.\n\n![Graph](image://36b360f3-cccc-426d-9352-8f30978f729d \" \")\n\nPlay around with these two approaches to color, using complementary colors in some of your dishes, and analogous colors in others. You can even use them both at once: an entire plate of analogous colors, with a tiny dash of complementary color, can really look (and therefore taste) amazing.\n\n![Graph](image://9b3864ba-8bd8-4ba5-83fe-92b50bda512c \" \")","cba39b57-8937-4322-83f7-6589b9f2ba49",[2091,2106],{"id":2092,"data":2093,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"fc2d7b0c-e93a-4b25-89e2-778c0856971e",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":2094,"matchPairsPairs":2096,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[2095],"Match the complementary colors:",[2097,2100,2103],{"left":2098,"right":2099,"direction":35},"Tomato (red)","Basil (green)",{"left":2101,"right":2102,"direction":35},"Tangerine (orange)","Blueberry (blue)",{"left":2104,"right":2105,"direction":35},"Broccoli (green)","Chilli pepper (red)",{"id":2107,"data":2108,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"81716cd8-1cab-45fd-8edc-5459840fb42d",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":2109,"matchPairsPairs":2111,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[2110],"Match the analogous colors:",[2112,2114,2116],{"left":2098,"right":2113,"direction":35},"Carrot (orange)",{"left":2101,"right":2115,"direction":35},"Lemon (yellow)",{"left":2104,"right":2102,"direction":35},{"id":2118,"data":2119,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":35,"reviews":2122},"8795ff92-3ce9-4516-be1a-6c1f432ab276",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2120,"audioMediaId":2121},"As well as thinking about complementary and analogous colors, you should also be thinking about tones.\n\n**Warmer tones**, like reds and yellows, make dishes appear more rich and hearty, and can even stimulate appetite. Meanwhile, **cooler tones**, like blues and greens, make dishes look fresh and healthy.\n\nSo what vibe are you going for? Hearty or healthy? Make sure to select ingredients with warm tones, or cool tones, depending on the aim of your food.\n\n![Graph](image://5e0d9836-e42e-448c-b215-a596d58ce18d \" \")\n\nYou don't want to go overboard with all this – color is just one aspect of all food – but it's worth bearing in mind while you're cooking. If you've served up a meal, and it doesn't look quite right, just pull up a color wheel, and have a think about tones. Could you add a little garnish, or change an ingredient, to make this meal more appetizing?","2543f5bc-0e45-4511-b2f8-c4c3e01ab9d4",[2123],{"id":2124,"data":2125,"type":64,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":34},"b929643e-4e1b-423b-a79e-baf85fa73fea",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":2126,"matchPairsPairs":2127,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[2128,2131,2134,2137],{"left":2129,"right":2130,"direction":35},"Warmer tones are better for...","...hearty meals",{"left":2132,"right":2133,"direction":35},"Cooler tones are better for...","...healthy meals",{"left":2135,"right":2136,"direction":35},"Green and blue are examples of...","...cooler tones",{"left":2138,"right":2139,"direction":35},"Red and yellow are examples of...","...warmer tones",{"id":2141,"data":2142,"type":25,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":2144,"introPage":2150,"pages":2156},"04bf3965-e1cc-4ee5-8ff6-87d19bb7bad1",{"type":25,"title":2143},"Composition",{"id":2145,"data":2146,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"e29d04dd-5272-47c1-9bcc-f3dd62c2c066",{"type":35,"summary":2147},[2148,2149],"The clock face method, symmetry and asymmetry can all be used in presentation","Height and negative space can also make dishes more engaging",{"id":2151,"data":2152,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"23fed7b9-3e83-432d-bfa7-3f49f40f8074",{"type":50,"intro":2153},[2154,2155],"How can composition theory be used to enhance your dishes?","Is negative space a good thing or a bad thing?",[2157,2177,2194,2207],{"id":2158,"data":2159,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":2162},"251a8630-c492-4799-b427-b0bcde8ea518",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2160,"audioMediaId":2161},"As well as using color theory, you can also make use of composition to improve the appearance of food.\n\nThere are lots of ways to go about this, but one classic approach is to view your plate like a **clock face**. If you put different ingredients at different 'times', it creates a nice, balanced-looking dish.\n\nMore specifically, you put the main part of your dish (usually the protein) between 3 o'clock and 9 o'clock. Put the vegetables between 12 o'clock and 3 o'clock, and the carbohydrates (e.g. potatoes) between 9 o'clock and 12 o'clock.\n\n![Graph](image://0a6e625b-682b-4f27-9903-60d98d031adb \" \")\n\nIt's a simple approach, and it won't work for everything. But when a dish has three components, like the ones we just mentioned, it can work really well.","5a15215a-c662-40a2-92f5-34acac62bbb9",[2163],{"id":2164,"data":2165,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"29785335-c5bf-4cae-95fb-9ce793adc95f",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":2166,"matchPairsPairs":2168,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[2167],"If you're using the clock face method, where should each component go?",[2169,2172,2174],{"left":2170,"right":2171,"direction":35},"Meat","Between 3 o'clock and 9 o'clock",{"left":1138,"right":2173,"direction":35},"Between 12 o'clock and 3 o'clock",{"left":2175,"right":2176,"direction":35},"Carbohydrates","Between 9 o'clock and 12 o'clock",{"id":2178,"data":2179,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":2182},"439317b2-6a98-487e-a699-911384ceb4b5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2180,"audioMediaId":2181},"Along with the clock face approach, another compositional element to bear in mind is symmetry.\n\nWhen you're serving food, **symmetry** gives a sense of order and balance. It's great for classic, elegant presentations – it's often used in fine dining. Remember: if you draw a line down the middle of your dish, a symmetrical meal should look the same on both sides.\n\n**Asymmetry**, on the other hand, gives a sense of energy and flair. This is better for more casual or expressive dishes. Modern chefs use asymmetry all the time.\n\n![Graph](image://8bc1850b-a90e-4a17-b049-737decbb0a65 \" \")\n\nYou can play around with symmetry and asymmetry in terms of the position of ingredients, the colour of ingredients, or anything else you can think of.","8d1bf9d2-e8e3-4b7e-9f79-a5316456b8a4",[2183],{"id":2184,"data":2185,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"e48f1c89-c780-48f8-972d-b7ff8f65e731",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":2186,"matchPairsPairs":2187,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[2188,2191],{"left":2189,"right":2190,"direction":35},"Symmetrical plating","Better for classic, elegant dishes",{"left":2192,"right":2193,"direction":35},"Asymmetrical plating","Better for casual, expressive dishes",{"id":2195,"data":2196,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":2199},"10402f84-3952-406f-9fff-475ad87837f6",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2197,"audioMediaId":2198},"Remember, when thinking about composition, we don't need to stick to two dimensions.\n\nAdding some **height** to a plate of food can make it more fun and engaging, and leave people excited to try the food before they've even taken a bite. It's especially effective when the different layers have different textures or colors. For example, a layer of bright green vegetables, with a steaming piece of fish on top.\n\nAs a bonus, if you're serving a sauce with your meal, let people pour it themselves. As the sauce flows down the tower of ingredients, the meal will come to life.\n\n![Graph](image://d2d4af52-0ec8-44e4-97e8-d82afdb37111 \" \")","cf4cf01b-d138-4d59-810c-925655741e17",[2200],{"id":2201,"data":2202,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"4f39d258-faaf-4de7-ac1c-035db0826596",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":300,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2203,"clozeWords":2205},[2204],"Add height to a dish by stacking components with different textures or colors.",[2206],"colors",{"id":2208,"data":2209,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":2212},"d9d730d2-ec0e-4be1-8503-ed889ceea53f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2210,"audioMediaId":2211},"Last but not least, don't be afraid to use some **negative space**.\n\nIt's tempting to fill a whole plate with food, but this often feels distracting and overcrowded. On the other hand, if you leave some empty spaces around key components, they'll have more of a chance to shine.\n\n![Graph](image://4b224dae-b077-4cd2-967a-5bb960be53e7 \" \")\n\nYour choice of plate can help with this. If you use a large one, you'll have more negative space to play around with. But bear in mind: too large a plate, with too much negative space, will actually make a portion look smaller.\n\nAs always, you'll need to experiment with this. Strike a balance: include a little bit of space, but try not to use too much.","911a6401-164a-49f3-abc8-89d7e5af4a01",[2213],{"id":2214,"data":2215,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"95a39de2-0fc1-4b77-977d-29ade70e1b27",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2216,"activeRecallAnswers":2218},[2217],"If your dish looks overcrowded, what should you try to incorporate?",[2219],"Negative space",{"id":2221,"data":2222,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":35,"orbs":2225},"ccf725c6-7d66-47be-af19-b3e920fe13ee",{"type":27,"title":2223,"tagline":2224},"Conversions","Boring but useful",[2226,2291],{"id":2227,"data":2228,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":2230,"introPage":2236,"pages":2242},"eacaca45-97f1-4eba-90f4-a86e7cc74408",{"type":25,"title":2229},"Weights",{"id":2231,"data":2232,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"2f500b36-b918-44d4-a856-299cf446dd8c",{"type":35,"summary":2233},[2234,2235],"The metric system uses grams and kilograms, while the imperial system uses ounces and pounds","Ounces can measure both weight and volume, so it's important to check units carefully",{"id":2237,"data":2238,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"ba5e6e75-71d3-4435-bc0e-55e3d3d92007",{"type":50,"intro":2239},[2240,2241],"What's the difference between metric and imperial weights?","How can you convert between them?",[2243,2248,2268],{"id":2244,"data":2245,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"bcb41f6a-a705-4da5-8c4d-a3f818d8fc31",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2246,"audioMediaId":2247},"We're almost at the end of this pathway now. But there's one more thing we need to learn. It's not an essential part of the science of cooking – but it's definitely a good thing to know.\n\nWhile following recipes, in books or online, you've probably noticed that they often use different units of measurement. One recipe might tell you to use '10 ounces of flour', while another one says '50 grams'.\n\nThis is because different parts of the world use different measuring systems. The most obvious examples are the **imperial system** (ounces) which is mainly used in the US, and the **metric system** (grams) which is used in places like Europe.","e1ef5929-0091-443a-b188-63b022d8faf0",{"id":2249,"data":2250,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2253},"b022308c-87a6-4882-a31c-3c8c30f600a3",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2251,"audioMediaId":2252},"You can obviously convert between different units just by asking the internet for help. But wouldn't it be nice if you could convert them in your head instead?\n\n![Graph](image://7dd2c17a-7607-4718-8aad-69ae59135379 \" \")\n\nToday, we'll be learning some simple conversions between different units of weight.\n\nFirst of all: in a metric weight system, **1000 grams = 1 kilogram**. In an imperial weight system, **16 ounces = 1 pound**. By the way, ounce is often abbreviated to 'oz', while pound is abbreviated to 'lb'.\n\nWhen converting between these two systems, **28 grams = 1 ounce**, and **0.45 kilograms = 1 pound**.","e00cecec-438b-4bf0-8f8f-44bd12598db2",[2254,2261],{"id":2255,"data":2256,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"e27b3094-7a3b-411b-b2bc-2d9b30d51c52",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2257,"activeRecallAnswers":2259},[2258],"How many grams are there in 1 ounce?",[2260],"28 grams",{"id":2262,"data":2263,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"a49eab7a-8001-4bea-8e20-316b760d2349",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2264,"activeRecallAnswers":2266},[2265],"How many kilograms are there in 1 pound?",[2267],"0.45 kilograms",{"id":2269,"data":2270,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":2273},"8395f156-1602-432d-82de-70b38947056b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2271,"audioMediaId":2272},"To confuse things slightly, an ounce isn't always a unit of weight. It can actually be used as a unit of volume too.\n\nOfficially, we call them **weight ounces** (for weight) and **fluid ounces** (for volume). If you're interested, 16 fluid ounces = 1 liquid pint (pt.), just as 16 weight ounces = 1 pound.\n\nA recipe will usually distinguish between the two. If you see '1 oz' it's a weight ounce, while '1 fl oz' is a fluid ounce. But it's something to watch out for, just to make sure you don't end up with the wrong amounts.","848ac790-d1f1-4d25-aaf4-79c466dfd2bc",[2274],{"id":2275,"data":2276,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"83bf71f7-0fc2-442c-8721-013649e04eeb",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":2277,"matchPairsPairs":2278,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[2279,2282,2285,2288],{"left":2280,"right":2281,"direction":35},"1000 g","1 kg",{"left":2283,"right":2284,"direction":35},"16 oz","1 lb",{"left":2286,"right":2287,"direction":35},"16 fl oz","1 pt.",{"left":2289,"right":2290,"direction":35},"1000 fl g","None of these",{"id":2292,"data":2293,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":2295,"introPage":2301,"pages":2307},"6e3f425a-758e-4380-8306-182eeb5e0cf4",{"type":25,"title":2294},"Volumes & temperatures",{"id":2296,"data":2297,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"a2a8f730-2b91-4679-ab1f-4181f5a2f330",{"type":35,"summary":2298},[2299,2300],"Volume can be measured in fluid ounces, milliliters, cups or spoons","Converting Fahrenheit to Celsius is complex, but knowing the boiling point of water helps",{"id":2302,"data":2303,"type":50,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":24},"fb436ddb-d0a4-4b14-be95-86edfffba500",{"type":50,"intro":2304},[2305,2306],"How do you convert between metric and imperial volumes?","How do you convert between metric and imperial temperatures?",[2308,2335,2355],{"id":2309,"data":2310,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":2313},"6e6b710a-5dc1-4246-8979-ea149e4026c6",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2311,"audioMediaId":2312},"Last time, we learned some conversions for different units of weight. This time, we'll be doing the same thing for volume and temperatures.\n\nLet's start with units of volume, which are mainly used to measure liquids. There are three systems to be aware of: imperial (fluid ounces), metric (milliliters) and finally, cups and spoons.\n\nFirst of all, **28 milliliters = 1 fluid ounce** (give or take). Helpfully, as we learned about last time, there are also 28 grams in 1 weight ounce.\n\nAs for cups and spoons, **3 teaspoons = 1 tablespoon**, and **16 tablespoons = 1 cup**. Meanwhile, if you're converting between milliliters and cups, **1 cup = 240 milliliters**.","974cbc2e-a691-453f-b6b4-fd81703c0805",[2314,2321,2328],{"id":2315,"data":2316,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"10b791d2-20ad-4daa-8d92-d4d90cc1e975",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2317,"activeRecallAnswers":2319},[2318],"How many teaspoons are in a tablespoon?",[2320],"3 teaspoons",{"id":2322,"data":2323,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"568e86aa-6f46-4751-9125-19c608ac859b",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2324,"activeRecallAnswers":2326},[2325],"How many tablespoons are in a cup?",[2327],"16 tablespoons",{"id":2329,"data":2330,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"118d7f3a-1c32-4d29-93c8-ae91f4ae35b4",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2331,"activeRecallAnswers":2333},[2332],"How many milliliters are in a cup?",[2334],"240 milliliters",{"id":2336,"data":2337,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24,"reviews":2340},"cc40f8ae-9cd0-4a1e-a3ac-be9d1959e449",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2338,"audioMediaId":2339},"So, we've learned some conversions for weights and volumes. But how about **units of temperature**?\n\nThis is actually a lot more complicated. To convert between fahrenheit (imperial) and celsius (metric) you'll need to take the fahrenheit value, subtract 32, multiply by 5, then divide by 9.\n\nWe won't ask you to memorize all that though. Instead, let's just give you a single conversion to bear in mind: the boiling point of water. In the imperial system, that's 212°F. In the metric system, that's 100°C.\n\n![Graph](image://ed2800d8-4491-4468-9788-3d26980a0174 \" \")","f57d681f-341a-45ba-8c23-2cb85ec86ed5",[2341],{"id":2342,"data":2343,"type":64,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"d99854ce-562d-4977-9a9d-9bff1e426e4d",{"type":64,"evolvingBehavior":132,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":2344,"matchPairsPairs":2345,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[134],[2346,2349,2352],{"left":2347,"right":2348,"direction":35},"Boiling point of water in celsius","100",{"left":2350,"right":2351,"direction":35},"Boiling point of water in fahrenheit","212",{"left":2353,"right":2354,"direction":35},"Neither of these","184",{"id":2356,"data":2357,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"02b9dc5b-db7b-42ae-9dfb-b914408f5a29",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2358,"audioMediaId":2359},"We realise that all these measuring units aren't the most interesting topic. But hopefully the rest of this pathway has been interesting – because guess what? You've reached the end!\n\nAll that's really left for you to do is to put all this theory into practice. Heat chemistry, flavor chemistry, ingredient chemistry, presentation... you have so much fundamental knowledge now, which should help your cooking to reach new heights.\n\nFind some good recipe books, and start trying things out. Or get creative, and design some recipes of your own. It's time to make some great-tasting food.\n\n![Graph](image://9975123e-e432-47d6-87bd-f0527949bc59 \" \")\n\nFor further reading on any of this, we highly recommend Samin Nosrat's *Salt, Fat, Acid, Heat*, or Stuart Farrimond's *The Science of Cooking*.","016d1fe6-7266-4a0c-8d89-31f16bbe2cfa",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":2361,"height":2361,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":2362},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":2361,"height":2361,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":2364},"\u003Cg fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\">\u003Cpath d=\"M12.586 2.586A2 2 0 0 0 11.172 2H4a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v7.172a2 2 0 0 0 .586 1.414l8.704 8.704a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 3.42 0l6.58-6.58a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 0-3.42z\"/>\u003Ccircle cx=\"7.5\" cy=\"7.5\" r=\".5\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",1778179477969]