[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":598},["ShallowReactive",2],{"i-kinnu:logo":3,"i-kinnu:origami-folding":8,"tile-history-world-history-france-from-the-roman-gaul-to-the-age-of-napoleon":12,"i-lucide:chevron-right":593,"i-lucide:menu":596},{"left":4,"top":4,"width":5,"height":5,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":7},0,27,false,"\u003Cg fill=\"none\">\u003Cpath d=\"M0.046875 1.05555C0.046875 1.03541 0.048197 1.01579 0.0507438 0.996728C0.0987149 0.438619 0.586845 0 1.18194 0H25.4398C26.451 0 26.9575 1.171 26.2424 1.85585L15.7301 11.9243L1.31574 0.903476C1.17475 0.79568 1.01137 0.761884 0.859586 0.784111L26.2936 25.1441C27.0086 25.829 26.5022 27 25.4909 27H1.18194C0.555061 27 0.046875 26.5133 0.046875 25.9129V1.05555Z\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":9,"height":10,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":11},1000,236,"\u003Cg fill=\"none\">\u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M193.68 38.2238C195.994 38.2238 197.87 40.0989 197.87 42.412V231.812C197.87 234.125 195.994 236 193.68 236H4.19013C1.87603 236 2.02305e-07 234.125 0 231.812V42.412C-2.02305e-07 40.0989 1.87603 38.2238 4.19013 38.2238H193.68ZM111.76 89.0072C111.685 87.9474 110.572 87.2905 109.608 87.7376L96.8872 93.641C95.7786 94.1554 95.702 95.7016 96.7545 96.3225L101.579 99.167C94.7045 109.365 90.5733 122.892 90.5732 137.642C90.5733 154.323 95.8569 169.439 104.416 179.945C105.301 181.032 106.9 181.196 107.987 180.311C109.075 179.426 109.238 177.828 108.353 176.741C100.621 167.25 95.6522 153.305 95.6521 137.642C95.6522 123.661 99.6138 111.051 105.963 101.754L110.456 104.403C111.508 105.024 112.826 104.21 112.74 102.991L111.76 89.0072ZM9.63194 136.286C9.14864 136.286 8.75684 136.678 8.75684 137.161C8.7569 137.644 9.14868 138.035 9.63194 138.035H17.2161C17.6993 138.035 18.0912 137.644 18.0912 137.161C18.0912 136.678 17.6994 136.286 17.2161 136.286H9.63194ZM22.6813 136.286C22.198 136.286 21.8062 136.678 21.8062 137.161C21.8063 137.644 22.1981 138.035 22.6813 138.035H30.2655C30.7487 138.035 31.1406 137.644 31.1406 137.161C31.1406 136.678 30.7488 136.286 30.2655 136.286H22.6813ZM35.7464 136.286C35.2631 136.286 34.8713 136.678 34.8713 137.161C34.8713 137.644 35.2631 138.035 35.7464 138.035H44.4973C44.9805 138.035 45.3724 137.644 45.3724 137.161C45.3724 136.678 44.9806 136.286 44.4973 136.286H35.7464ZM49.9977 136.286C49.5144 136.286 49.1226 136.678 49.1226 137.161C49.1226 137.644 49.5144 138.035 49.9977 138.035H57.5819C58.0651 138.035 58.4569 137.644 58.457 137.161C58.457 136.678 58.0651 136.286 57.5819 136.286H49.9977ZM63.0783 136.286C62.595 136.286 62.2032 136.678 62.2032 137.161C62.2033 137.644 62.5951 138.035 63.0783 138.035H70.6625C71.1457 138.035 71.5375 137.644 71.5376 137.161C71.5376 136.678 71.1457 136.286 70.6625 136.286H63.0783ZM76.1277 136.286C75.6444 136.286 75.2526 136.678 75.2526 137.161C75.2527 137.644 75.6445 138.035 76.1277 138.035H83.7119C84.1951 138.035 84.5869 137.644 84.587 137.161C84.587 136.678 84.1951 136.286 83.7119 136.286H76.1277ZM102.266 136.286C101.782 136.286 101.39 136.678 101.39 137.161C101.391 137.644 101.782 138.035 102.266 138.035H109.85C110.333 138.035 110.725 137.644 110.725 137.161C110.725 136.678 110.333 136.286 109.85 136.286H102.266ZM115.338 136.286C114.855 136.286 114.463 136.678 114.463 137.161C114.463 137.644 114.855 138.035 115.338 138.035H122.923C123.406 138.035 123.798 137.644 123.798 137.161C123.798 136.678 123.406 136.286 122.923 136.286H115.338ZM128.403 136.286C127.92 136.286 127.528 136.678 127.528 137.161C127.528 137.644 127.92 138.035 128.403 138.035H135.988C136.471 138.035 136.863 137.644 136.863 137.161C136.863 136.678 136.471 136.286 135.988 136.286H128.403ZM141.468 136.286C140.985 136.286 140.593 136.678 140.593 137.161C140.593 137.644 140.985 138.035 141.468 138.035H149.053C149.536 138.035 149.928 137.644 149.928 137.161C149.928 136.678 149.536 136.286 149.053 136.286H141.468ZM154.541 136.286C154.058 136.286 153.666 136.678 153.666 137.161C153.666 137.644 154.058 138.035 154.541 138.035H162.125C162.609 138.035 163 137.644 163.001 137.161C163.001 136.678 162.609 136.286 162.125 136.286H154.541ZM167.614 136.286C167.131 136.286 166.739 136.678 166.739 137.161C166.739 137.644 167.131 138.035 167.614 138.035H175.198C175.681 138.035 176.073 137.644 176.073 137.161C176.073 136.678 175.681 136.286 175.198 136.286H167.614ZM180.671 136.286C180.188 136.286 179.796 136.678 179.796 137.161C179.796 137.644 180.188 138.035 180.671 138.035H188.255C188.739 138.035 189.13 137.644 189.131 137.161C189.131 136.678 188.739 136.286 188.255 136.286H180.671Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M444.85 38.2277C447.164 38.2277 449.04 40.1028 449.04 42.4159V132.928C449.04 135.241 447.164 137.116 444.85 137.116H255.36C253.046 137.116 251.17 135.241 251.17 132.928V42.4159C251.17 40.1028 253.046 38.2277 255.36 38.2277H444.85ZM361.96 125.388C361.618 125.046 361.064 125.046 360.722 125.388L354.534 131.572C354.192 131.914 354.192 132.468 354.534 132.81C354.876 133.151 355.43 133.151 355.772 132.81L361.96 126.624C362.301 126.283 362.301 125.73 361.96 125.388ZM371.047 116.311C370.705 115.969 370.15 115.969 369.809 116.311L364.446 121.671C364.104 122.012 364.104 122.567 364.446 122.908C364.788 123.249 365.342 123.25 365.684 122.908L371.047 117.548C371.388 117.207 371.388 116.652 371.047 116.311ZM380.124 107.246C379.782 106.904 379.227 106.904 378.885 107.246L373.523 112.606C373.181 112.948 373.181 113.502 373.523 113.844C373.864 114.185 374.419 114.185 374.761 113.844L380.124 108.483C380.465 108.142 380.465 107.587 380.124 107.246ZM385.736 65.8841C385.891 64.6727 384.622 63.7845 383.536 64.3434L371.069 70.7636C370.124 71.2504 369.96 72.5334 370.752 73.2424L381.2 82.5938C382.11 83.4081 383.561 82.8672 383.717 81.6557L384.393 76.3725C391.143 77.1933 398.567 80.7709 404.771 86.9711C411.124 93.3213 414.726 100.952 415.43 107.827C415.573 109.221 416.819 110.236 418.214 110.093C419.609 109.95 420.624 108.703 420.481 107.309C419.644 99.1317 415.435 90.4514 408.362 83.3817C401.466 76.489 393.038 72.3185 385.038 71.338L385.736 65.8841ZM389.2 98.1733C388.859 97.8319 388.304 97.8318 387.962 98.1733L382.6 103.534C382.258 103.875 382.258 104.429 382.6 104.771C382.941 105.112 383.496 105.112 383.838 104.771L389.2 99.4108C389.542 99.0693 389.542 98.5149 389.2 98.1733ZM398.262 89.1047C397.92 88.7633 397.365 88.7632 397.024 89.1047L391.661 94.4649C391.319 94.8065 391.319 95.3608 391.661 95.7024C392.002 96.0436 392.557 96.0438 392.899 95.7024L398.262 90.3421C398.603 90.0007 398.603 89.4463 398.262 89.1047ZM416.431 70.9616C416.089 70.6202 415.534 70.6201 415.193 70.9616L409.83 76.3218C409.488 76.6634 409.488 77.2177 409.83 77.5592C410.172 77.9005 410.726 77.9007 411.068 77.5592L416.431 72.199C416.772 71.8575 416.772 71.3032 416.431 70.9616ZM425.508 61.891C425.166 61.5496 424.611 61.5495 424.27 61.891L418.907 67.2512C418.565 67.5928 418.565 68.1471 418.907 68.4887C419.249 68.8299 419.803 68.8301 420.145 68.4887L425.508 63.1284C425.849 62.787 425.849 62.2326 425.508 61.891ZM434.569 52.8146C434.227 52.4731 433.673 52.4731 433.331 52.8146L427.968 58.1748C427.626 58.5163 427.627 59.0706 427.968 59.4122C428.31 59.7534 428.864 59.7537 429.206 59.4122L434.569 54.052C434.91 53.7105 434.91 53.1562 434.569 52.8146ZM443.638 43.7479C443.296 43.4065 442.742 43.4064 442.4 43.7479L437.037 49.1081C436.695 49.4496 436.696 50.004 437.037 50.3455C437.379 50.6868 437.933 50.687 438.275 50.3455L443.638 44.9853C443.98 44.6438 443.979 44.0895 443.638 43.7479Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M684.066 38.2277C687.798 38.2281 689.667 42.7391 687.027 45.3773L596.473 135.889C595.687 136.675 594.621 137.116 593.51 137.116H506.335C504.021 137.116 502.145 135.241 502.145 132.928V42.4159C502.145 40.1028 504.021 38.2277 506.335 38.2277H684.066ZM514.603 124.566C514.261 124.224 513.707 124.224 513.365 124.566L507.178 130.751C506.836 131.093 506.836 131.646 507.178 131.988C507.519 132.329 508.073 132.329 508.415 131.988L514.603 125.803C514.945 125.462 514.945 124.908 514.603 124.566ZM523.689 115.491C523.348 115.15 522.794 115.15 522.452 115.491L517.09 120.852C516.748 121.193 516.748 121.747 517.09 122.088C517.431 122.43 517.985 122.43 518.327 122.088L523.689 116.728C524.031 116.386 524.031 115.833 523.689 115.491ZM532.102 65.8295C530.707 65.6872 529.46 66.7017 529.318 68.0957C529.175 69.4896 530.189 70.7355 531.584 70.8787C538.463 71.5825 546.096 75.1826 552.45 81.5329C558.723 87.8037 562.312 95.3226 563.079 102.13L557.738 102.392C556.518 102.452 555.865 103.855 556.607 104.827L565.115 115.969C565.76 116.814 567.051 116.751 567.611 115.847L574.992 103.928C575.635 102.889 574.848 101.555 573.628 101.615L568.161 101.882C568.161 101.878 568.162 101.874 568.161 101.871C567.324 93.6931 563.114 85.0124 556.041 77.9425C548.968 70.873 540.283 66.6668 532.102 65.8295ZM532.766 106.421C532.425 106.079 531.871 106.079 531.529 106.421L526.166 111.781C525.825 112.123 525.825 112.676 526.166 113.018C526.508 113.359 527.062 113.359 527.403 113.018L532.766 107.657C533.108 107.316 533.108 106.762 532.766 106.421ZM541.843 97.3445C541.501 97.003 540.948 97.003 540.606 97.3445L535.243 102.705C534.901 103.046 534.902 103.6 535.243 103.941C535.585 104.283 536.139 104.283 536.48 103.941L541.843 98.5809C542.185 98.2393 542.185 97.686 541.843 97.3445ZM550.92 88.2778C550.578 87.9363 550.025 87.9363 549.683 88.2778L544.32 93.638C543.978 93.9796 543.978 94.5329 544.32 94.8745C544.662 95.2161 545.215 95.2161 545.557 94.8745L550.92 89.5142C551.262 89.1727 551.262 88.6193 550.92 88.2778ZM569.066 70.1405C568.724 69.799 568.17 69.7991 567.829 70.1405L562.466 75.5008C562.124 75.8423 562.124 76.3956 562.466 76.7372C562.808 77.0788 563.361 77.0788 563.703 76.7372L569.066 71.377C569.407 71.0354 569.407 70.4821 569.066 70.1405ZM578.143 61.0699C577.801 60.7284 577.247 60.7285 576.906 61.0699L571.543 66.4302C571.201 66.7717 571.201 67.3251 571.543 67.6666C571.885 68.0082 572.438 68.0082 572.78 67.6666L578.143 62.3064C578.484 61.9648 578.484 61.4115 578.143 61.0699ZM587.219 51.9896C586.878 51.6481 586.324 51.6481 585.982 51.9896L580.62 57.3498C580.278 57.6914 580.278 58.2447 580.62 58.5863C580.961 58.9279 581.515 58.9279 581.857 58.5863L587.219 53.2261C587.561 52.8845 587.561 52.3312 587.219 51.9896ZM596.288 42.9249C595.947 42.5833 595.392 42.5833 595.05 42.9249L589.689 48.2851C589.347 48.6267 589.347 49.18 589.689 49.5216C590.03 49.863 590.584 49.8631 590.926 49.5216L596.288 44.1613C596.63 43.8198 596.63 43.2664 596.288 42.9249Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M850.814 38.2277C854.547 38.2281 856.416 42.739 853.777 45.3773L763.223 135.889C762.437 136.674 761.371 137.116 760.26 137.116H673.176C669.443 137.116 667.574 132.605 670.213 129.966L760.768 39.4544C761.554 38.6692 762.62 38.2277 763.731 38.2277H850.814ZM761.338 121.8C760.855 121.8 760.463 122.191 760.463 122.674V131.13H762.213V122.674C762.213 122.191 761.821 121.8 761.338 121.8ZM761.338 108.971C760.855 108.971 760.463 109.363 760.463 109.846V118.301H762.213V109.846C762.213 109.363 761.821 108.971 761.338 108.971ZM761.338 96.1402C760.855 96.1406 760.463 96.5321 760.463 97.0149V105.47H762.213V97.0149C762.213 96.532 761.821 96.1404 761.338 96.1402ZM782.263 71.887C781.043 71.951 780.395 73.3571 781.139 74.3257L784.474 78.6631C779.115 82.951 771.242 85.7443 762.35 85.7444C753.366 85.7442 745.421 82.8944 740.059 78.5305C738.972 77.6461 737.373 77.8099 736.488 78.8961C735.602 79.983 735.766 81.582 736.853 82.467C743.231 87.6574 752.348 90.8207 762.35 90.8209C772.209 90.8208 781.205 87.746 787.568 82.6884L790.833 86.9341C791.577 87.9025 793.103 87.6391 793.479 86.4767L797.791 73.138C798.118 72.127 797.33 71.1017 796.268 71.1566L782.263 71.887ZM761.338 70.4847C760.855 70.4851 760.463 70.8767 760.463 71.3594V79.8147H762.213V71.3594C762.213 70.8766 761.821 70.485 761.338 70.4847ZM761.338 57.656C760.855 57.6564 760.463 58.048 760.463 58.5307V66.986H762.213V58.5307C762.213 58.0479 761.821 57.6563 761.338 57.656ZM761.338 44.8293C760.855 44.8297 760.463 45.2212 760.463 45.704V54.1592H762.213V45.704C762.213 45.2211 761.821 44.8295 761.338 44.8293Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath\n    d=\"M995.759 38.2277C999.53 38.228 1001.42 42.5171 998.752 45.0253L959.55 81.9005L905.796 41.5363C905.271 41.1418 904.662 41.0182 904.096 41.0994L997.485 130.319C1000.15 132.828 998.262 137.116 994.491 137.116H905.298C902.96 137.116 901.065 135.333 901.065 133.134V42.0941C901.065 42.0204 901.07 41.9483 901.079 41.8786C901.258 39.8345 903.079 38.2277 905.298 38.2277H995.759Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath\n    d=\"M505.873 0C506.657 4.57042e-05 507.307 0.195499 507.823 0.587023C508.338 0.969046 508.596 1.53802 508.596 2.29251C508.596 2.76034 508.467 3.19015 508.209 3.58162C507.951 3.96344 507.497 4.26401 506.848 4.48361V4.54114C507.65 4.67487 508.205 4.96191 508.51 5.4012C508.816 5.83087 508.969 6.31772 508.969 6.86193C508.969 7.74056 508.672 8.41851 508.08 8.89604C507.497 9.38304 506.733 9.62731 505.787 9.62738C504.861 9.62738 504.158 9.42172 503.68 9.0111C503.212 8.60054 502.935 8.08005 502.849 7.44993L503.881 7.10571L503.924 7.24028C504.035 7.54934 504.211 7.82925 504.454 8.07986C504.731 8.36635 505.166 8.50986 505.758 8.50989C506.465 8.50989 506.943 8.32772 507.191 7.9648C507.449 7.6019 507.579 7.20078 507.579 6.7615C507.579 6.2173 507.378 5.80683 506.977 5.52992C506.585 5.25295 505.93 5.10026 505.013 5.07161V4.15402C505.901 4.12537 506.489 3.92484 506.776 3.55237C507.062 3.18009 507.206 2.82242 507.206 2.47876C507.206 1.62801 506.752 1.17539 505.845 1.12237L505.658 1.11749C505.467 1.11752 505.242 1.14605 504.985 1.2033C504.736 1.25105 504.511 1.3274 504.31 1.43245L504.081 2.56457L503.05 2.44951L503.322 0.687461C503.666 0.49653 504.068 0.33454 504.526 0.200875C504.985 0.0671945 505.434 0 505.873 0Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath\n    d=\"M905.727 2.30616L904.638 2.4066L904.466 1.26083H901.428V3.72497C901.533 3.71544 901.643 3.71034 901.757 3.71034H902.086C902.755 3.71034 903.386 3.78668 903.979 3.93949C904.58 4.09229 905.068 4.38363 905.44 4.8132C905.822 5.23335 906.014 5.84949 906.014 6.66106C906.014 7.64468 905.722 8.38068 905.14 8.86776C904.557 9.36434 903.783 9.6127 902.818 9.61275C901.91 9.61275 901.213 9.40711 900.725 8.99648C900.248 8.59544 899.96 8.08007 899.865 7.44993L900.911 7.10571C901.007 7.49723 901.203 7.8271 901.499 8.09449C901.795 8.37131 902.211 8.50985 902.746 8.50989C903.395 8.50989 903.869 8.33787 904.165 7.99405C904.461 7.65981 904.609 7.22507 904.609 6.69031C904.609 5.87861 904.337 5.3625 903.792 5.14279C903.248 4.91361 902.612 4.79958 901.886 4.79955C901.695 4.79955 901.489 4.80365 901.27 4.8132C901.059 4.82275 900.854 4.83701 900.653 4.85611L900.224 4.44071V0.143343H905.569L905.727 2.30616Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M765.49 6.04576H766.966L766.837 7.14862H765.49V9.48404H764.185V7.14862H759.857L759.713 6.04576L762.909 0.143343H765.49V6.04576ZM760.96 6.04576H764.185V1.26083H763.541L760.96 6.04576Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath d=\"M4.80573 6.47481H6.41154V7.60693H1.81068V6.47481H3.50235V1.27546H1.81068V0.143343H4.80573V6.47481Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath\n    d=\"M254.359 0C255.353 0 256.055 0.239186 256.466 0.716715C256.877 1.18447 257.083 1.68072 257.083 2.20573C257.083 2.85516 256.849 3.44346 256.38 3.96875C255.912 4.49397 255.348 4.96638 254.689 5.38657C254.039 5.79717 253.437 6.15968 252.883 6.47481H256.423L256.538 5.42948L257.599 5.51529L257.426 7.60693H251.407L251.292 6.58987C252.582 5.73032 253.638 4.98523 254.46 4.35489C255.281 3.71509 255.693 3.05632 255.693 2.37832C255.693 1.53787 255.166 1.11749 254.115 1.12237L254.115 1.11749C253.924 1.11754 253.695 1.14604 253.427 1.2033C253.16 1.25104 252.916 1.32238 252.697 1.41783L252.467 2.47876L251.45 2.3637L251.707 0.60165C252.118 0.401088 252.563 0.253475 253.041 0.15797C253.519 0.0529708 253.958 1.99446e-05 254.359 0Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\u003C/g>",{"tile":13,"orbsWithOnlyMarkdownPages":248},{"id":14,"data":15,"type":16,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"orbs":21},"0b95497d-ad25-411a-b95d-2dbaece8c0ae",{"type":16,"title":17,"tagline":18},9,"France: From the Roman Gaul to the Age of Napoleon","Gain an understanding of the major figures, events, and periods of French History.",3,1,[22,75,131,193],{"id":23,"data":24,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"pages":27},"f941e299-1349-49e1-8232-ee1c71eed3cf",{"type":25,"title":26},2,"Ancient Gaul and Roman Influence",[28,45,59],{"id":29,"data":30,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":34},"1cd667df-01d1-4212-952f-853597642b2e",{"type":20,"title":31,"markdownContent":32,"audioMediaId":33},"Gaul: Pre-Roman History (Before 50 BCE)","\nAncient France was populated by a Celtic people called the Gauls. These fierce warriors had an empire that stretched from modern Portugal to the Mediterranean coast around 300 BCE. They were known for their strength, bravery, and light hair. Today, the French word gaillard means a ‘strong, strapping person,' in their honor.\n\nThey constructed the first French towns as hill forts and worked iron, bronze, and gold as well as created ornate musical instruments such as the ‘carnyx,’ a giant horn. They lived mostly in tribal groups. It’s estimated that, when Julius Caesar arrived to subjugate them, they were splintered into as many as 60 distinct groups, making them much easier to conquer.\n\n ![Graph](image://c867d4e7-dcd5-4d78-bfba-79ff20466e01 \"A depiction of pre-Roman Gaul\")\n\nResistance against the Romans was led by Gaulish hero, Vercingetorix, whose name translates to 'Victor of a 100 Battles,' and who was later immortalized by a pristine statue built by Napoleon. After 8 years of brutal fighting, the Romans were victorious and Vercingetorix was sent to Rome as a prized prisoner, revered even by his enemies.\n\n","973d9e9d-9c06-4dbd-96ec-5d9bf051a3cb",[35],{"id":36,"data":37,"type":38,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19},"fdfcc7c8-9181-49cc-b18a-6b1ae676dde5",{"type":38,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":20,"binaryQuestion":39,"binaryCorrect":41,"binaryIncorrect":43},11,[40],"How many distinct groups did the Gauls splinter into when Julius Caesar arrived to subjugate them?",[42],"60",[44],"40",{"id":46,"data":47,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":51},"e0b35061-dbd7-46db-a2e2-2af0fafdffee",{"type":20,"title":48,"markdownContent":49,"audioMediaId":50},"Roman Gaul (50 BCE - 486 CE)","\nRoman rule was a transformative period for France. The first 2 centuries occurred during the ‘Pax Romana,’ a time of peace and tremendous prosperity for the empire. The Gaulish language was slowly replaced by Latin, and Christianity was introduced during the 2nd century CE. Although early Christians were persecuted in Gaul, Gauls were allowed to be full Roman citizens - multiple Roman Senators, and even Emperors Claudius and Caracalla, were born in Gaul. \n\n ![Graph](image://5d468e13-12ec-41ca-8cfd-fb5ecca4f81d \"King Clovis of the Franks\")\n\nThe 3rd century CE saw the strength of the Roman empire start to crumble as Gaul began suffering a series of invasions from ‘barbarians' like the Franks, the Vandals, and the Visigoths. Initially, some of these Germanic peoples chose to settle and accept Roman rule. During this period, commoners began seeking out local lords for protection from the invaders, a process that would see the feudal system emerge. King Clovis of the Franks ended the period of chaos and united Gaul under his reign, naming the new kingdom as France.\n\n","9327a651-ed34-4876-be11-fa2f6240ce48",[52],{"id":53,"data":54,"type":38,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19},"d7818e16-1275-43ed-a0fe-f9d83460be82",{"type":38,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":20,"activeRecallQuestion":55,"activeRecallAnswers":57},[56],"When did the Feudal system emerge in Gaul?",[58],"During the 3rd century CE",{"id":60,"data":61,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":65},"54f818b2-6190-40a7-9cbe-e8da24f6d377",{"type":20,"title":62,"markdownContent":63,"audioMediaId":64},"The Merovingians and Carolingians (486 - 987)","\nClovis I founded the Merovingian dynasty of Frankish kings when he united all of Gaul with Paris as his capital. They were often called the ‘Long-Haired Kings,’ because their leaders kept their hair long as a symbol of power, while their soldiers were forced to keep theirs short. \n\n ![Graph](image://060fceb8-6aa0-4130-9428-4f6695c1327d \"Charles Martel\")\n\nCharles Martel, ‘The Mayor of the Palace,' served as the de facto ruler of France and initiated the Carolingian dynasty, putting an end to a line of weak Merovingian rulers. He fought multiple conflicts from 718-732 to stabilize France and his power. His son ‘Pepin the Short’ would be the first to crown himself, but it would be Martel’s grandson, Charlemagne, who would change history.\n\nCharlemagne conquered most of western and central Europe, ultimately being crowned the first ‘Holy Roman Emperor’ by the Pope in 800 CE. However, quarreling amongst his 3 grandsons would force the Emperor to split in 3 parts in the ‘Treaty of Verdun’ in 843. In turn, all 3 would be weakened by constant raiding from Scandinavians for the remainder of their reign.\n\n\n","023f72dc-79b4-4137-8e5a-47d2e58ed9c8",[66],{"id":67,"data":68,"type":38,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19},"1791f613-18b3-4ca6-949f-b2d417c5b561",{"type":38,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":20,"binaryQuestion":69,"binaryCorrect":71,"binaryIncorrect":73},[70],"Who was crowned the first 'Holy Roman Emperor' by the Pope in 800 CE?",[72],"Charlemagne",[74],"Clovis I",{"id":76,"data":77,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"pages":79},"c3f6e2dd-e95e-40db-93d8-87628df5d367",{"type":25,"title":78},"Medieval Dynasties and Power Shifts",[80,98,113],{"id":81,"data":82,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":86},"7515ae2b-fc01-4872-983a-a5ab2c914df4",{"type":20,"title":83,"markdownContent":84,"audioMediaId":85},"The Capetians and Valois (987 CE - 1328 CE)","\nWhen Hugh Capet was elected King by French nobles in 987, France was at a low point, besieged by raiders on all sides. His direct line would rule for over 300 years, slowly increasing in power and uniting France. The Capetians would also establish such institutions as the Crown’s legal courts, or ‘Parlements,’ the representative assembly or ‘Estates General,’ and royal local officials called  ‘Baillis.’\n\n ![Graph](image://eaf9314f-d718-4c83-b8ea-06670afce776 \"Hugh Capet\")\n\nA large reason the Capetians outpaced their rivals was their remarkable stability, sometimes referred to as the ‘Capetian Miracle,’ with the Crown being passed directly from father to son for an astonishing 341 years. They also started a tradition of granting younger sons prestigious titles to let them maintain status and dissuade them from any attempted coup. While other kingdoms dealt with constant fracturing and infighting during periods of succession, the Capetians were able to maintain and continuously expand their territories until they controlled all of France.\n\n","817afa2c-25ca-4017-8aa7-06eed07c775f",[87],{"id":88,"data":89,"type":38,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19},"da662ab7-8358-44d2-93b5-809bed1abd31",{"type":38,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":20,"multiChoiceQuestion":90,"multiChoiceCorrect":92,"multiChoiceIncorrect":94},[91],"What is the term used to describe the remarkable stability of the Capetian dynasty?",[93],"The Capetian Miracle",[95,96,97],"The Capetian Revolution","The Capetian Coup","The Capetian Uprising",{"id":99,"data":100,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":104},"e5ad4a44-d899-40b1-b949-e607edc97b5d",{"type":20,"title":101,"markdownContent":102,"audioMediaId":103},"Valois (1328 CE - 1589 CE)","\nThe House of Valois was a branch of the Capetians, coming to power when Philip VI inherited the crown with the death of his Capetian cousin. The beginning of their reign was dominated by the ‘100-Years War' with England, in which much of the country was destroyed and held by Britain. France won in 1453, partly thanks to Joan of Arc, who convinced the crown prince to let her lead an army to alleviate the siege of Orleans, winning a stunning victory.\n\nThe later part of the Valois dynasty was dominated by the ‘Habsburg-Valois' Wars. These were a series of conflicts from 1494-1559, mostly in Italy, as the French Valois sought expansion, bringing them into conflict with the Holy Roman Habsburgs. When Francis I was defeated and captured at the battle of Pavia in 1525, he was forced to give up the French region of Burgundy to secure his release. \n\nThe remainder of the dynasty saw both the French Renaissance take place, as well as internal violence as Protestants and Catholics vied for control.\n\n","c6249da9-91be-4c17-880f-63a7e99e6c5a",[105],{"id":106,"data":107,"type":38,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19},"4813a8ba-6d62-4930-8017-bb10eb5e2047",{"type":38,"reviewType":108,"spacingBehaviour":20,"clozeQuestion":109,"clozeWords":111},4,[110],"The House of Valois was a branch of the Capetians, coming to power when Philip VI inherited the crown.",[112],"Valois",{"id":114,"data":115,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":119},"fad3042f-d073-4f9b-a389-b3ff78eda1d2",{"type":20,"title":116,"markdownContent":117,"audioMediaId":118},"The Bourbons (1589-1792)","\nThe Bourbons were another branch of the Capetians who gained the Crown with the death of a cousin. After his cousin was assassinated by a priest, the newly crowned Henry IV converted to Catholicism and issued the ‘Edict of Nantes’ in 1589 to grant religious tolerance to bring stability to France. He was assassinated in 1610, and power went to Cardinal Richelieu, who navigated France to a victory over the Habsburgs in the ’30 Years' War.’\n\n ![Graph](image://634fd095-f702-48b2-af6d-de58b7134971 \"The Bourbons\")\n\nLouis XIV is most famous for claiming ‘divine right,’ and building the Royal palace at Versailles. Divine Right was the concept that his authority came from God, essentially giving him absolute power over his subjects. He used Versailles to subjugate his nobles, forcing them to dwell there and dote on him, while the brilliant minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, helped France achieve a massive global empire by the time of his death in 1715.\n\nLouis XV took over the throne and oversaw a loss of foreign territory in the ‘7-Years War’ with Britain, but also saw the French Enlightenment take place. Such vaunted thinkers as Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau made Paris the intellectual capital of the world during that time.\n\n","eaa8292e-ac12-4555-b5ef-6332fda2d8a4",[120],{"id":121,"data":122,"type":38,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19},"d2290a68-be2e-4cc7-b1c1-23e75127581f",{"type":38,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":20,"multiChoiceQuestion":123,"multiChoiceCorrect":125,"multiChoiceIncorrect":127},[124],"Who claimed 'divine right' and built the Royal palace at Versailles?",[126],"Louis XIV",[128,129,130],"Louis XV","Henry IV","Cardinal Richelieu",{"id":132,"data":133,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"pages":135},"2890ba51-d2a5-458d-b97e-5ad679b60d20",{"type":25,"title":134},"Revolution and Empire",[136,154,179],{"id":137,"data":138,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":142},"23dd535b-09b9-4655-b09e-0359cf76d21a",{"type":20,"title":139,"markdownContent":140,"audioMediaId":141},"The French Revolution (1774-1799)","\nConstant conflict nearly bankrupted France by time Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, had the throne. Supporting the American Revolution used up the last of the Crown’s finances, forcing a calling of the Estates General, the French Parliament, in 1789. \n\n ![Graph](image://39a4e2eb-b273-4f3e-8009-63ecd83d397d \"Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI\")\n\nThe ‘3rd Estate’ represented 97% of the population but was outnumbered in the assembly by the 1st and 2nd Estate, made up of Priests and Nobles. Therefore, they were forced to carry all of the tax burdens. In protest of the system, they broke off to form the ‘National Assembly’ at the palace tennis court. Word of the split reached Paris, causing violence and the ‘Storming of the Bastille’ on July 14th. The ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man’ was adopted on August 27th, and a new constitution featuring a constitutional monarchy was adopted in September 1791.\n\nA radical group known as the Jacobins considered the new government too conservative and staged a coup. They seized power and the revolution devolved into chaos as they declared war on their neighbors and began using the guillotine to execute thousands, including the royal family.\n\n","586ba7fe-3be8-4c57-85d6-75eab368a0ab",[143],{"id":144,"data":145,"type":38,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19},"07c0761f-c40a-4193-a8ca-a658636a6f1e",{"type":38,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":20,"multiChoiceQuestion":146,"multiChoiceCorrect":148,"multiChoiceIncorrect":150},[147],"On what date did the 'Storming of the Bastille' occur?",[149],"July 14th 1789",[151,152,153],"August 27th 1791","September 1791","June 1940",{"id":155,"data":156,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":160},"5c2f3ef9-9c30-4904-b767-44e071714d7f",{"type":20,"title":157,"markdownContent":158,"audioMediaId":159},"The Age of Napoleon (1799-1815)","\nOut of the chaos, General Napoleon Bonaparte rose through brilliant military victories, eventually leading him to power in 1799 and being crowned Emperor in 1804. \n\nThe ‘Napoleonic Wars’ lasted from 1803-1815. To help fund these conflicts, Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803. He conquered most of Europe but had several setbacks. In 1805, the naval Battle of Trafalgar was a major victory for the British as they destroyed the French fleet and ended any chance of an invasion of England. \n\n ![Graph](image://92900106-35a7-4639-82ea-2752b9ea39f7 \"Napoleon Bonaparte\")\n\nNapoleon continued to win on land until his army was broken by the ‘Scorched Earth’ tactics of Russia in a failed 1812 invasion, losing ¾ of his army. He was eventually defeated by a coalition of Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Sweden, and was forced to abdicate his throne in 1814, being banished to the isle of Elba. \n\nLess than a year later, in February 1815, Napoleon escaped back to the mainland and raised an army to start his ‘Hundred-Days Campaign.’ He was defeated at Waterloo in July 1815. Although his reign was short, his legacy lives on as he established the metric system, public education, and countless other administrative reforms.\n\n","a4139d87-7747-476d-a0a2-849c0f16b817",[161,168],{"id":162,"data":163,"type":38,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19},"bb282316-1639-41e0-b65e-4766c7f6bcd6",{"type":38,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":20,"activeRecallQuestion":164,"activeRecallAnswers":166},[165],"When was Napoleon crowned Emperor?",[167],"1804",{"id":169,"data":170,"type":38,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19},"d0ba6412-4fd6-4998-aa0d-0a6da9581a22",{"type":38,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":20,"multiChoiceQuestion":171,"multiChoiceCorrect":173,"multiChoiceIncorrect":175},[172],"How long did the 'Napoleonic Wars' last?",[174],"From 1803-1815",[176,177,178],"From 1799-1814","From 1804-1815","From 1805-1814",{"id":180,"data":181,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":185},"560c359c-127c-4641-83df-562a87126101",{"type":20,"title":182,"markdownContent":183,"audioMediaId":184},"The Restoration and 2nd Republic (1815-1870)","\nThe Bourbons returned to power with the crowning of Louis XVIII in 1814, which was known as the ‘Restoration.’ Reactionary forces dominated the administration and intensified their influence with the ascension of Charles X in 1824. Finally, the people revolted in 1830 in what was known as the ‘July Rebellion,’ forcing Charles to give up the throne to his more progressive Bourbon cousin, Louis Phillipe, who ruled the ‘July Monarchy’ through a period of peace and prosperity. When he too began cracking down on political rights, he was overthrown in 1848 by Napoleon’s nephew, Louis Napoleon, who was president for a few years before being declared emperor and becoming known as Napoleon III. \n\n ![Graph](image://2f8d4f57-070f-4167-94ac-5412de1021a2 \"Louis XVIII of France\")\n\nThis ‘Second Empire’ saw France begin to industrialize and continue to expand its overseas holdings. Railroads began to be built, Paris was redesigned by Baron Haussman, and people left the rural countryside to begin working in urban factories.\n\nThe Second Empire ended when it suffered a massive defeat during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871.\n\n","79e6eaed-e044-4bb5-89b3-ad4ee8580c07",[186],{"id":187,"data":188,"type":38,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19},"6a94f981-47fa-4731-b562-689dfe1e7e63",{"type":38,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":20,"activeRecallQuestion":189,"activeRecallAnswers":191},[190],"When did the Second French Empire end?",[192],"In 1870-1871",{"id":194,"data":195,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"pages":197},"3cf7d65c-c25b-43b0-8eec-4def3f4b1a5a",{"type":25,"title":196},"Modern France and Global Conflicts",[198,216,234],{"id":199,"data":200,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":204},"e15f8f0e-bb90-4290-9f35-08d68281b37e",{"type":20,"title":201,"markdownContent":202,"audioMediaId":203},"3rd Republic (1870-1940)","\nAfter the Prussian victory in 1870, yet another uprising, ‘La Commune,’ erupted in 1871. Its defeat ended the monarchy and began the start of the ‘3rd Republic.’ Vital rights were guaranteed at this time, such as the freedom of assembly, freedom of the press, and the right to join unions. The French Empire increased its size by conquering territory in both Africa and southeast Asia. Mandatory education, a strict separation of church and state, and industrialization all were implemented during this era.\n\nIn 1914, France was drawn into World War I due to its alliances. The ensuing war killed 1.4 million French soldiers as trench warfare and new technology brought murder to an industrial scale. The victory did little to cover France’s losses, but the economy did recover during the roaring twenties before plummeting in the great depression of the 1930s. ","393d3821-e145-41ef-b83a-f1518222e51a",[205],{"id":206,"data":207,"type":38,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19},"d49617a7-ac74-426b-838a-37718aab3ce2",{"type":38,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":20,"multiChoiceQuestion":208,"multiChoiceCorrect":210,"multiChoiceIncorrect":212},[209],"What event marked the beginning of the '3rd Republic' in France?",[211],"The defeat of 'La Commune'",[213,214,215],"The Prussian victory in 1870","The French Empire's conquest of territory in Africa and Southeast Asia","The victory in World War I",{"id":217,"data":218,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":222},"54e880ca-18b9-449e-992c-0778564f7fe1",{"type":20,"title":219,"markdownContent":220,"audioMediaId":221},"World War II and Vichy France (1939-1944)","\nThe 3rd Republic was ended by defeat at the hands of the Nazis in World War II. When Hitler invaded Poland in September 1939, both France and Great Britain declared war. At the time, France was thought to have had the largest and most prestigious army in the world, as well as a massive line of fortifications along the border with Germany, the ‘Maginot Line.’\n\n ![Graph](image://3733cd8a-a888-4f48-8e71-94578ac90e1d \"Scenes from World War II\")\n\nThey were well prepared for a rerun of WWI’s plodding trench warfare but utterly vulnerable to the Nazi’s technology-powered ‘Blitzkrieg’ strategy of high-speed attack. The Germans successfully penetrated the allied line by going through the Ardennes forest, and then scorched their way through the allied interior. Prime Minister, Marshal Petain, surrendered and ceded northern France to German control, retreating to southern France and declaring the Vichy government. \n\nMeanwhile, Charles De Gaulle led France’s government in exile, continuing the fight for the remainder of the war abroad while resistance fighters continued the fight within until the liberation of Paris from Nazi rule in August 1944. \n\n","be107576-c679-4738-9878-e441748c14ad",[223],{"id":224,"data":225,"type":38,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19},"b4946739-52a6-44c4-8ac4-d0dd9246c3a9",{"type":38,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":20,"multiChoiceQuestion":226,"multiChoiceCorrect":228,"multiChoiceIncorrect":230},[227],"How did the Germans penetrate the allied line during World War II?",[229],"By going through the Ardennes forest",[231,232,233],"By going through the Alps","By going through the Pyrenees","By going through the Rhine",{"id":235,"data":236,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":240},"7ab72a70-d098-48eb-aa0e-3cfa9d82e089",{"type":20,"title":237,"markdownContent":238,"audioMediaId":239},"Modern France (Post 1948)","\nFrance recovered from the devastation of the war, shedding its colonial holdings on its way to becoming a progressive modern economic power. Though much of the country had been devastated during the fighting, the ‘American Marshall Plan’ helped inject France with funds to rebuild and recover. Decolonization saw conflicts in southeast Asia and North Africa, leading to independence for several former French colonies, including Vietnam and Algeria. France freed all of its African colonies at once in 1960, bringing its overseas empire to an end. \n\n ![Graph](image://59021670-1964-449d-81a3-7283860c8363 \"Paris in the 21st century\")\n\nFrance also joined the ‘North Atlantic Treaty Organization' (NATO) and worked with allies against the communist Warsaw Pact for the duration of the Cold War. France’s economy has seen continued growth over the past half century, and progressive reforms have given it a high standard of living. Its continued tourism has made it one of the world’s most visited countries.\n\n","d7e56b81-726b-44fc-9b93-aa4c08d5b06f",[241],{"id":242,"data":243,"type":38,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19},"18bd6808-097a-48ee-a4ed-ef0945dfe92c",{"type":38,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":20,"activeRecallQuestion":244,"activeRecallAnswers":246},[245],"In which year did France free all of its African colonies?",[247],"In 1960",[249,343,422,519],{"id":23,"data":24,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"pages":250},[251,288,313],{"id":29,"data":30,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":34,"parsed":252},{"data":253,"body":256,"toc":286},{"title":254,"description":255},"","Ancient France was populated by a Celtic people called the Gauls. These fierce warriors had an empire that stretched from modern Portugal to the Mediterranean coast around 300 BCE. They were known for their strength, bravery, and light hair. Today, the French word gaillard means a ‘strong, strapping person,' in their honor.",{"type":257,"children":258},"root",[259,266,271,281],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":262,"children":263},"element","p",{},[264],{"type":265,"value":255},"text",{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":267,"children":268},{},[269],{"type":265,"value":270},"They constructed the first French towns as hill forts and worked iron, bronze, and gold as well as created ornate musical instruments such as the ‘carnyx,’ a giant horn. They lived mostly in tribal groups. It’s estimated that, when Julius Caesar arrived to subjugate them, they were splintered into as many as 60 distinct groups, making them much easier to conquer.",{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":272,"children":273},{},[274],{"type":260,"tag":275,"props":276,"children":280},"img",{"alt":277,"src":278,"title":279},"Graph","image://c867d4e7-dcd5-4d78-bfba-79ff20466e01","A depiction of pre-Roman Gaul",[],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":282,"children":283},{},[284],{"type":265,"value":285},"Resistance against the Romans was led by Gaulish hero, Vercingetorix, whose name translates to 'Victor of a 100 Battles,' and who was later immortalized by a pristine statue built by Napoleon. After 8 years of brutal fighting, the Romans were victorious and Vercingetorix was sent to Rome as a prized prisoner, revered even by his enemies.",{"title":254,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":287},[],{"id":46,"data":47,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":51,"parsed":289},{"data":290,"body":292,"toc":311},{"title":254,"description":291},"Roman rule was a transformative period for France. The first 2 centuries occurred during the ‘Pax Romana,’ a time of peace and tremendous prosperity for the empire. The Gaulish language was slowly replaced by Latin, and Christianity was introduced during the 2nd century CE. Although early Christians were persecuted in Gaul, Gauls were allowed to be full Roman citizens - multiple Roman Senators, and even Emperors Claudius and Caracalla, were born in Gaul.",{"type":257,"children":293},[294,298,306],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":295,"children":296},{},[297],{"type":265,"value":291},{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":299,"children":300},{},[301],{"type":260,"tag":275,"props":302,"children":305},{"alt":277,"src":303,"title":304},"image://5d468e13-12ec-41ca-8cfd-fb5ecca4f81d","King Clovis of the Franks",[],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":307,"children":308},{},[309],{"type":265,"value":310},"The 3rd century CE saw the strength of the Roman empire start to crumble as Gaul began suffering a series of invasions from ‘barbarians' like the Franks, the Vandals, and the Visigoths. Initially, some of these Germanic peoples chose to settle and accept Roman rule. During this period, commoners began seeking out local lords for protection from the invaders, a process that would see the feudal system emerge. King Clovis of the Franks ended the period of chaos and united Gaul under his reign, naming the new kingdom as France.",{"title":254,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":312},[],{"id":60,"data":61,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":65,"parsed":314},{"data":315,"body":317,"toc":341},{"title":254,"description":316},"Clovis I founded the Merovingian dynasty of Frankish kings when he united all of Gaul with Paris as his capital. They were often called the ‘Long-Haired Kings,’ because their leaders kept their hair long as a symbol of power, while their soldiers were forced to keep theirs short.",{"type":257,"children":318},[319,323,331,336],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":320,"children":321},{},[322],{"type":265,"value":316},{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":324,"children":325},{},[326],{"type":260,"tag":275,"props":327,"children":330},{"alt":277,"src":328,"title":329},"image://060fceb8-6aa0-4130-9428-4f6695c1327d","Charles Martel",[],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":332,"children":333},{},[334],{"type":265,"value":335},"Charles Martel, ‘The Mayor of the Palace,' served as the de facto ruler of France and initiated the Carolingian dynasty, putting an end to a line of weak Merovingian rulers. He fought multiple conflicts from 718-732 to stabilize France and his power. His son ‘Pepin the Short’ would be the first to crown himself, but it would be Martel’s grandson, Charlemagne, who would change history.",{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":337,"children":338},{},[339],{"type":265,"value":340},"Charlemagne conquered most of western and central Europe, ultimately being crowned the first ‘Holy Roman Emperor’ by the Pope in 800 CE. However, quarreling amongst his 3 grandsons would force the Emperor to split in 3 parts in the ‘Treaty of Verdun’ in 843. In turn, all 3 would be weakened by constant raiding from Scandinavians for the remainder of their reign.",{"title":254,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":342},[],{"id":76,"data":77,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"pages":344},[345,370,392],{"id":81,"data":82,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":86,"parsed":346},{"data":347,"body":349,"toc":368},{"title":254,"description":348},"When Hugh Capet was elected King by French nobles in 987, France was at a low point, besieged by raiders on all sides. His direct line would rule for over 300 years, slowly increasing in power and uniting France. The Capetians would also establish such institutions as the Crown’s legal courts, or ‘Parlements,’ the representative assembly or ‘Estates General,’ and royal local officials called  ‘Baillis.’",{"type":257,"children":350},[351,355,363],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":352,"children":353},{},[354],{"type":265,"value":348},{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":356,"children":357},{},[358],{"type":260,"tag":275,"props":359,"children":362},{"alt":277,"src":360,"title":361},"image://eaf9314f-d718-4c83-b8ea-06670afce776","Hugh Capet",[],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":364,"children":365},{},[366],{"type":265,"value":367},"A large reason the Capetians outpaced their rivals was their remarkable stability, sometimes referred to as the ‘Capetian Miracle,’ with the Crown being passed directly from father to son for an astonishing 341 years. They also started a tradition of granting younger sons prestigious titles to let them maintain status and dissuade them from any attempted coup. While other kingdoms dealt with constant fracturing and infighting during periods of succession, the Capetians were able to maintain and continuously expand their territories until they controlled all of France.",{"title":254,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":369},[],{"id":99,"data":100,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":104,"parsed":371},{"data":372,"body":374,"toc":390},{"title":254,"description":373},"The House of Valois was a branch of the Capetians, coming to power when Philip VI inherited the crown with the death of his Capetian cousin. The beginning of their reign was dominated by the ‘100-Years War' with England, in which much of the country was destroyed and held by Britain. France won in 1453, partly thanks to Joan of Arc, who convinced the crown prince to let her lead an army to alleviate the siege of Orleans, winning a stunning victory.",{"type":257,"children":375},[376,380,385],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":377,"children":378},{},[379],{"type":265,"value":373},{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":381,"children":382},{},[383],{"type":265,"value":384},"The later part of the Valois dynasty was dominated by the ‘Habsburg-Valois' Wars. These were a series of conflicts from 1494-1559, mostly in Italy, as the French Valois sought expansion, bringing them into conflict with the Holy Roman Habsburgs. When Francis I was defeated and captured at the battle of Pavia in 1525, he was forced to give up the French region of Burgundy to secure his release.",{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":386,"children":387},{},[388],{"type":265,"value":389},"The remainder of the dynasty saw both the French Renaissance take place, as well as internal violence as Protestants and Catholics vied for control.",{"title":254,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":391},[],{"id":114,"data":115,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":119,"parsed":393},{"data":394,"body":396,"toc":420},{"title":254,"description":395},"The Bourbons were another branch of the Capetians who gained the Crown with the death of a cousin. After his cousin was assassinated by a priest, the newly crowned Henry IV converted to Catholicism and issued the ‘Edict of Nantes’ in 1589 to grant religious tolerance to bring stability to France. He was assassinated in 1610, and power went to Cardinal Richelieu, who navigated France to a victory over the Habsburgs in the ’30 Years' War.’",{"type":257,"children":397},[398,402,410,415],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":399,"children":400},{},[401],{"type":265,"value":395},{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":403,"children":404},{},[405],{"type":260,"tag":275,"props":406,"children":409},{"alt":277,"src":407,"title":408},"image://634fd095-f702-48b2-af6d-de58b7134971","The Bourbons",[],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":411,"children":412},{},[413],{"type":265,"value":414},"Louis XIV is most famous for claiming ‘divine right,’ and building the Royal palace at Versailles. Divine Right was the concept that his authority came from God, essentially giving him absolute power over his subjects. He used Versailles to subjugate his nobles, forcing them to dwell there and dote on him, while the brilliant minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, helped France achieve a massive global empire by the time of his death in 1715.",{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":416,"children":417},{},[418],{"type":265,"value":419},"Louis XV took over the throne and oversaw a loss of foreign territory in the ‘7-Years War’ with Britain, but also saw the French Enlightenment take place. Such vaunted thinkers as Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau made Paris the intellectual capital of the world during that time.",{"title":254,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":421},[],{"id":132,"data":133,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"pages":423},[424,454,489],{"id":137,"data":138,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":142,"parsed":425},{"data":426,"body":428,"toc":452},{"title":254,"description":427},"Constant conflict nearly bankrupted France by time Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, had the throne. Supporting the American Revolution used up the last of the Crown’s finances, forcing a calling of the Estates General, the French Parliament, in 1789.",{"type":257,"children":429},[430,434,442,447],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":431,"children":432},{},[433],{"type":265,"value":427},{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":435,"children":436},{},[437],{"type":260,"tag":275,"props":438,"children":441},{"alt":277,"src":439,"title":440},"image://39a4e2eb-b273-4f3e-8009-63ecd83d397d","Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI",[],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":443,"children":444},{},[445],{"type":265,"value":446},"The ‘3rd Estate’ represented 97% of the population but was outnumbered in the assembly by the 1st and 2nd Estate, made up of Priests and Nobles. Therefore, they were forced to carry all of the tax burdens. In protest of the system, they broke off to form the ‘National Assembly’ at the palace tennis court. Word of the split reached Paris, causing violence and the ‘Storming of the Bastille’ on July 14th. The ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man’ was adopted on August 27th, and a new constitution featuring a constitutional monarchy was adopted in September 1791.",{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":448,"children":449},{},[450],{"type":265,"value":451},"A radical group known as the Jacobins considered the new government too conservative and staged a coup. They seized power and the revolution devolved into chaos as they declared war on their neighbors and began using the guillotine to execute thousands, including the royal family.",{"title":254,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":453},[],{"id":155,"data":156,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":160,"parsed":455},{"data":456,"body":458,"toc":487},{"title":254,"description":457},"Out of the chaos, General Napoleon Bonaparte rose through brilliant military victories, eventually leading him to power in 1799 and being crowned Emperor in 1804.",{"type":257,"children":459},[460,464,469,477,482],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":461,"children":462},{},[463],{"type":265,"value":457},{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":465,"children":466},{},[467],{"type":265,"value":468},"The ‘Napoleonic Wars’ lasted from 1803-1815. To help fund these conflicts, Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803. He conquered most of Europe but had several setbacks. In 1805, the naval Battle of Trafalgar was a major victory for the British as they destroyed the French fleet and ended any chance of an invasion of England.",{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":470,"children":471},{},[472],{"type":260,"tag":275,"props":473,"children":476},{"alt":277,"src":474,"title":475},"image://92900106-35a7-4639-82ea-2752b9ea39f7","Napoleon Bonaparte",[],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":478,"children":479},{},[480],{"type":265,"value":481},"Napoleon continued to win on land until his army was broken by the ‘Scorched Earth’ tactics of Russia in a failed 1812 invasion, losing ¾ of his army. He was eventually defeated by a coalition of Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Sweden, and was forced to abdicate his throne in 1814, being banished to the isle of Elba.",{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":483,"children":484},{},[485],{"type":265,"value":486},"Less than a year later, in February 1815, Napoleon escaped back to the mainland and raised an army to start his ‘Hundred-Days Campaign.’ He was defeated at Waterloo in July 1815. Although his reign was short, his legacy lives on as he established the metric system, public education, and countless other administrative reforms.",{"title":254,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":488},[],{"id":180,"data":181,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":185,"parsed":490},{"data":491,"body":493,"toc":517},{"title":254,"description":492},"The Bourbons returned to power with the crowning of Louis XVIII in 1814, which was known as the ‘Restoration.’ Reactionary forces dominated the administration and intensified their influence with the ascension of Charles X in 1824. Finally, the people revolted in 1830 in what was known as the ‘July Rebellion,’ forcing Charles to give up the throne to his more progressive Bourbon cousin, Louis Phillipe, who ruled the ‘July Monarchy’ through a period of peace and prosperity. When he too began cracking down on political rights, he was overthrown in 1848 by Napoleon’s nephew, Louis Napoleon, who was president for a few years before being declared emperor and becoming known as Napoleon III.",{"type":257,"children":494},[495,499,507,512],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":496,"children":497},{},[498],{"type":265,"value":492},{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":500,"children":501},{},[502],{"type":260,"tag":275,"props":503,"children":506},{"alt":277,"src":504,"title":505},"image://2f8d4f57-070f-4167-94ac-5412de1021a2","Louis XVIII of France",[],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":508,"children":509},{},[510],{"type":265,"value":511},"This ‘Second Empire’ saw France begin to industrialize and continue to expand its overseas holdings. Railroads began to be built, Paris was redesigned by Baron Haussman, and people left the rural countryside to begin working in urban factories.",{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":513,"children":514},{},[515],{"type":265,"value":516},"The Second Empire ended when it suffered a massive defeat during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871.",{"title":254,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":518},[],{"id":194,"data":195,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"pages":520},[521,538,568],{"id":199,"data":200,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":204,"parsed":522},{"data":523,"body":525,"toc":536},{"title":254,"description":524},"After the Prussian victory in 1870, yet another uprising, ‘La Commune,’ erupted in 1871. Its defeat ended the monarchy and began the start of the ‘3rd Republic.’ Vital rights were guaranteed at this time, such as the freedom of assembly, freedom of the press, and the right to join unions. The French Empire increased its size by conquering territory in both Africa and southeast Asia. Mandatory education, a strict separation of church and state, and industrialization all were implemented during this era.",{"type":257,"children":526},[527,531],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":528,"children":529},{},[530],{"type":265,"value":524},{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":532,"children":533},{},[534],{"type":265,"value":535},"In 1914, France was drawn into World War I due to its alliances. The ensuing war killed 1.4 million French soldiers as trench warfare and new technology brought murder to an industrial scale. The victory did little to cover France’s losses, but the economy did recover during the roaring twenties before plummeting in the great depression of the 1930s.",{"title":254,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":537},[],{"id":217,"data":218,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":222,"parsed":539},{"data":540,"body":542,"toc":566},{"title":254,"description":541},"The 3rd Republic was ended by defeat at the hands of the Nazis in World War II. When Hitler invaded Poland in September 1939, both France and Great Britain declared war. At the time, France was thought to have had the largest and most prestigious army in the world, as well as a massive line of fortifications along the border with Germany, the ‘Maginot Line.’",{"type":257,"children":543},[544,548,556,561],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":545,"children":546},{},[547],{"type":265,"value":541},{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":549,"children":550},{},[551],{"type":260,"tag":275,"props":552,"children":555},{"alt":277,"src":553,"title":554},"image://3733cd8a-a888-4f48-8e71-94578ac90e1d","Scenes from World War II",[],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":557,"children":558},{},[559],{"type":265,"value":560},"They were well prepared for a rerun of WWI’s plodding trench warfare but utterly vulnerable to the Nazi’s technology-powered ‘Blitzkrieg’ strategy of high-speed attack. The Germans successfully penetrated the allied line by going through the Ardennes forest, and then scorched their way through the allied interior. Prime Minister, Marshal Petain, surrendered and ceded northern France to German control, retreating to southern France and declaring the Vichy government.",{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":562,"children":563},{},[564],{"type":265,"value":565},"Meanwhile, Charles De Gaulle led France’s government in exile, continuing the fight for the remainder of the war abroad while resistance fighters continued the fight within until the liberation of Paris from Nazi rule in August 1944.",{"title":254,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":567},[],{"id":235,"data":236,"type":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":240,"parsed":569},{"data":570,"body":572,"toc":591},{"title":254,"description":571},"France recovered from the devastation of the war, shedding its colonial holdings on its way to becoming a progressive modern economic power. Though much of the country had been devastated during the fighting, the ‘American Marshall Plan’ helped inject France with funds to rebuild and recover. Decolonization saw conflicts in southeast Asia and North Africa, leading to independence for several former French colonies, including Vietnam and Algeria. France freed all of its African colonies at once in 1960, bringing its overseas empire to an end.",{"type":257,"children":573},[574,578,586],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":575,"children":576},{},[577],{"type":265,"value":571},{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":579,"children":580},{},[581],{"type":260,"tag":275,"props":582,"children":585},{"alt":277,"src":583,"title":584},"image://59021670-1964-449d-81a3-7283860c8363","Paris in the 21st century",[],{"type":260,"tag":261,"props":587,"children":588},{},[589],{"type":265,"value":590},"France also joined the ‘North Atlantic Treaty Organization' (NATO) and worked with allies against the communist Warsaw Pact for the duration of the Cold War. France’s economy has seen continued growth over the past half century, and progressive reforms have given it a high standard of living. Its continued tourism has made it one of the world’s most visited countries.",{"title":254,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":592},[],{"left":4,"top":4,"width":594,"height":594,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":595},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":594,"height":594,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":597},"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"M4 5h16M4 12h16M4 19h16\"/>",1778179270122]