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USA.",3,[36,88,148,220],{"id":37,"data":38,"type":21,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":40},"62dba8bf-cb75-4664-b306-69a15c1ac2d0",{"type":21,"title":39},"Early American History",[41,58,74],{"id":42,"data":43,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":47},"9aa2c130-6c0a-4def-a2bd-51b013b84e9a",{"type":25,"title":44,"markdownContent":45,"audioMediaId":46},"Pre-colonial America (prior to 1585)","15-20,000 years ago, ancient peoples crossed the Bering Strait, either by foot or sail, from Kamchatka to Alaska and populated the Americas with hundreds of rich societies.\n\nPrior to the arrival of the Europeans, the Americas were a land teeming with cultural diversity, estimated to have as high a population as Europe before the Columbian Exchange brought devastating diseases across the Atlantic.\n\n![Graph](image://e4d53810-fb40-4bdc-92a6-c168d407d6e6 \"A member of the Hopi people\")\n\nPrevious generations have tended to stereotype Native Americans as being primitive, nature-loving, hunter-gatherers rather than credit the incredible array of cultures displayed across the continents. There were peaceful tribes like the Hopi, Zuni, and Pueblo peoples of the arid deserts of the southwest who built incredible clay structures.\n\nThe Maya and Aztec people of Central America and Mexico were known for their warlike human-sacrificing empires. There were nomadic buffalo-hunting tribes like the Apache, Comanche, and Sioux who lived in tipis, and there were agriculturally-focused tribes in the southeast, like the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw, who lived in permanent structures and practiced advanced techniques like interseeding and crop rotation to avoid depleting soil nutrients.","9642c3ce-4940-44e9-be9b-f9603204c1a3",[48],{"id":49,"data":50,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"c230ee3e-c680-4fd5-a863-707c62144865",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":52,"binaryCorrect":54,"binaryIncorrect":56},11,[53],"Where were the Hopi people to be found in North America?",[55],"The South West",[57],"The North",{"id":59,"data":60,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":64},"a6888357-01cd-4bdd-8a97-3d3f69941128",{"type":25,"title":61,"markdownContent":62,"audioMediaId":63},"Colonial America (1585-1763)","The English began exploring and settling the New World in the late 16th century. This proved challenging, as the first English colony at Roanoke quickly disappeared after being left for 3 years by its governor, John White. It wasn’t until 1607 that the first permanent colony, Jamestown, Virginia was established.\n\n![Graph](image://c871be13-d775-48fd-b346-3a1c36e7b5ea \"English governor John White\")\n\nThough the vast majority of settlers died in the winter of 1609-1610, the spring brought new settlers and the strategy of farming tobacco, which allowed the fledgling colony to survive. 10 years later, a group of Calvinists, also known as ‘Pilgrims', landed at Plymouth Rock near Boston and established a second colony.\n\nThe 13 colonies developed into 3 distinct regions, the economies of which were largely dictated by topography and climate. New England, made up of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island and New Hampshire, was theocratic and trade-focused.\n\nThe Middle Colonies of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware became the ‘breadbasket’ of the colonies by focusing on growing grains and oats. Finally, the Southern Colonies of North and South Carolina, Virginia, Maryland, and Georgia produced cash crops such as tobacco, rice, and eventually, cotton.","5592a653-d274-45df-ad03-922129085b6a",[65],{"id":66,"data":67,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"077262ab-72bf-495d-8aba-d5410d58ddfe",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":68,"binaryCorrect":70,"binaryIncorrect":72},[69],"When did the English establish the first permanent colony in the New World?",[71],"1607",[73],"1597",{"id":75,"data":76,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":80},"ebb121be-206b-4ac0-ab10-0e908a529721",{"type":25,"title":77,"markdownContent":78,"audioMediaId":79},"Causes of the American Revolution (1763-1783) ","Initially, the colonies enjoyed a period of ‘salutary neglect,’ in which Britain rarely enforced any of its mercantilist trade policies. The colonies grew prosperous, becoming used to their autonomy, but this robust era ended with a victory in the colonies' first major conflict. The conclusion of the ‘French and Indian War,’ or ‘Seven Years War,’ saw Britain and the colonies expel France from North America, at a great financial cost to the British Empire.\n\n![Graph](image://b54acb88-2cee-44ac-87aa-30f9896a64dc \"Image- A map of North America during the Seven Years' War. Image: Jon Platek, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nFinally, Britain began enforcing its latent trade policies, and instituting new taxes such as the infamous ‘Stamp Act’ to get the colonists to help pay the costs of the war. Many colonists supported the taxation, but wanted to be given the same rights as citizens born in England, specifically the right to vote and send representatives to the British Parliament.\n\nNot wanting to go down the slippery slope of allowing representatives from all parts of their massive empire, the British refused. This gave rise to the famous ‘no taxation without representation’ offense the colonists would use to push for independence.","3c9511b6-11e7-4001-834a-5c00338be815",[81],{"id":82,"data":83,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"47903419-ba10-4fbe-8ae2-65b9aa472724",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":84,"clozeWords":86},[85],"Initially, the colonies enjoyed a period of ‘salutary neglect,’ in which Britain rarely enforced any of its trade policies.",[87],"salutary neglect",{"id":89,"data":90,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":92},"6c24b56e-8ddd-4536-93ec-01120eec79ca",{"type":21,"title":91},"The Revolutionary Era",[93,118,132],{"id":94,"data":95,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":99},"2ac1bd76-2760-4a2b-b671-919fa72a5288",{"type":25,"title":96,"markdownContent":97,"audioMediaId":98},"The American Revolution (1776-1783)"," After a period of escalation, shots were fired at Lexington and Concord in 1775 and King George III declared the colonies to be in rebellion. In 1776, a ‘Declaration of Independence’ was signed and a makeshift government was constructed. Britain won the majority of contests at the start of the war until momentum was shifted in 1777 with the Battle of Saratoga, which convinced France to declare war on Britain. \n\n ![Graph](image://72dfe715-6c22-4218-889d-ca6bd7e854a0 \"The Battle of Lexington and Concord\")\n\nThe impact of the French entering the war was immense, providing high-quality military supplies and more importantly, forcing Britain to fight the conflict on a global scale rather than concentrate the full force of their mighty empire solely on the colonies.\n\nThe American army spent the winter of 1777-1778 at Valley Forge, where 2 major developments took place: colonial soldiers were inoculated against smallpox, and renowned Prussian officer Baron Von Steuben was hired to train the army into a world-class force. Soon after, Washington’s forces began scoring victories, culminating in the Battle of Yorktown in 1781, where the last British Army in the colonies was forced to surrender. \n\n","64207406-2041-4432-bfe7-36d1949a8eb8",[100,107],{"id":101,"data":102,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"34e020cc-045e-4867-a948-944b1364979f",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":103,"activeRecallAnswers":105},[104],"When did the Battle of Saratoga take place?",[106],"In 1777",{"id":108,"data":109,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"b767d7fc-3d13-435d-a121-77fb7bbe0458",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":110,"multiChoiceCorrect":112,"multiChoiceIncorrect":114},[111],"In 1777, what event convinced France to declare war on Britain?",[113],"The Battle of Saratoga",[115,116,117],"The Battle of Lexington and Concord","The Battle of Yorktown","The signing of the Declaration of Independence",{"id":119,"data":120,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":124},"1aaab5fb-8191-4f16-a345-2750a66b4db7",{"type":25,"title":121,"markdownContent":122,"audioMediaId":123},"The young republic (1783-1812)","\nThe former colonists' first attempt at a government with the ‘Articles of Confederation’ proved to be a failure as the lack of a federal authority led to problems. The most glaring incident was ‘Shay’s Rebellion,’ where poor farmers in Massachusetts led a revolt that had to be put down by a privately funded militia. \n\n ![Graph](image://75e7a193-6326-40a0-888c-b145c5ddf055 \"Scenes from the War of 1812\")\n\nThe states then sent delegates to Philadelphia for the ‘Constitutional Convention’ and drafted a new government with 3 branches, including a powerful executive. The Constitution was ratified by the states and George Washington became the first and only unanimously-elected president in U.S. History. The Bill of Rights was officially added two years later in 1791. \n\nIn the early years, the U.S. often found itself at odds with the European powers of France and Great Britain. As the two powers battled one another, American ships were often targeted by both sides, a situation which escalated to the ‘War of 1812’ between the U.S. and Britain. Though the war ended in a draw, it started a period of U.S. isolationism when it came to global affairs. \n\n","a6316584-1404-4466-a709-3c1e5c913c3e",[125],{"id":126,"data":127,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"d606db5a-ea4f-40b7-88d3-8859968adffe",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":128,"clozeWords":130},[129],"The former colonists' first attempt at a government in America was the ‘Articles of Confederation’",[131],"Articles of Confederation",{"id":133,"data":134,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":138},"7dc73f3e-ef2b-4b36-9b8e-10fe23938130",{"type":25,"title":135,"markdownContent":136,"audioMediaId":137},"Antebellum period (1812-1861)","\nThe period leading up to the Civil War is called the ‘Antebellum’ period, from the Latin for “before the war.”  This time is known for its 3 major periods of change: westward expansion, northern industrialization, and southern slavery.\n\nThe northern states industrialized with the aid of a constant influx of cheap immigrant labor and cheap natural resources from the western territories. The construction of railroads and factories led to urbanization and widespread population growth.\n\n ![Graph](image://64d299d5-2dee-4ef5-842f-e44ad4065c2f \"Slaves harvesting cotton\")\n\n“Manifest Destiny,” or the belief that American expansion was moral and justified by God, led to rapid westward expansion. Natives were moved with force, and land was taken from Mexico in the Mexican-American War in the late 1840s.\n\nThe invention of the ‘cotton gin’ allowed enslaved workers to produce 50 times the amount of cotton per day. Slavery expanded dramatically, becoming entrenched in southern economy and culture.\n","f2ad049e-ad62-4006-a90b-48a839b60068",[139],{"id":140,"data":141,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"a92631cb-3e5a-4920-8a01-d5e5fe9e330f",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":142,"binaryCorrect":144,"binaryIncorrect":146},[143],"What is the period leading up to the American Civil War called?",[145],"Antebellum",[147],"Postbellum",{"id":149,"data":150,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":152},"0da093f3-f4e6-4f8b-a121-cf4c09eb340a",{"type":21,"title":151},"The Civil War and Reconstruction",[153,167,185,206],{"id":154,"data":155,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":159},"cbff1e9e-e32f-4399-8532-bf260ba2c96c",{"type":25,"title":156,"markdownContent":157,"audioMediaId":158},"The American Civil War and reconstruction (1860-1877)","\nThe issue of slavery festered until the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860. Since he had campaigned on preventing the expansion of slavery, his victory prompted southern states to secede. The war began when Confederates fired on Fort Sumter Federal Military Base in South Carolina in 1861.\n\nThe American Civil war would go on to last 4 years, killing over 620,000 American soldiers. The North was able to win due to its significant material advantages including population, railroad development, factories, and the size of its navy. Lincoln enacted the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. \n\nAs well as an ideological statement against the practice of slavery, this was also a necessary wartime measure to weaken the Confederate states and prevent them from gaining an alliance with European nations, which had banned slavery decades before. \n\n ![Graph](image://8b7eed12-0063-4ade-b7c0-f8090f0320be \"The American Civil War was a hugely violent conflict\")\n\nThe Reconstruction Period (1865-1877) saw tremendous progressive gains at the federal level but many were largely nullified as southern whites regained power at the state and local levels. The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the Constitution were passed, abolishing slavery, granting citizenship, and giving voting rights to black Americans. However, the lack of any reparations, combined with the passage of segregation and restricting voting rights, led the South to the racist “Jim Crow” era.\n\n","4ac98b8c-2bae-4310-8476-25c2d66e62dd",[160],{"id":161,"data":162,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"a02f2cd6-505d-419c-a968-9c7b2fe9db8c",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":163,"clozeWords":165},[164],"The issue of slavery festered until the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860.",[166],"slavery",{"id":168,"data":169,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":173},"615f2029-09a4-4c5d-8ff5-4c089ff4e491",{"type":25,"title":170,"markdownContent":171,"audioMediaId":172},"The Gilded Age (1870-1900)","\nThe combination of cheap labor, access to abundant natural resources, and a nearly complete lack of restriction on business practices led to a period of unprecedented economic growth, but also growing inequality. Some of the richest men to ever live, known as the “Robber Barons,” built incredible wealth through establishing monopolies and ruthlessly crushing both their competitors' and their employees' attempts to unionize and gain more rights. \n\nDuring this period, movements to improve both worker’s rights and women’s rights began to build momentum, but both would not see great improvements until the next century. In the South, African Americans began fleeing persecution and lynchings in large numbers. This began the “Great Migration” that would last for most of the next century. The infamous Plessy vs Ferguson Supreme Court Decision of 1896 declared segregation legal and would stay in place into the 1950s.","58daad33-69e6-4e73-a0df-1e997ece5d8e",[174],{"id":175,"data":176,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"d27753a9-2594-4a39-bb54-b0b0b8dc1262",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":177,"multiChoiceCorrect":179,"multiChoiceIncorrect":181},[178],"What Supreme Court Decision declared segregation legal in 1896?",[180],"Plessy vs Ferguson",[182,183,184],"Brown vs Board of Education","Roe vs Wade","Dred Scott vs Sanford",{"id":186,"data":187,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":191},"191df1d0-36f1-4737-8c25-aa74993a6c4b",{"type":25,"title":188,"markdownContent":189,"audioMediaId":190},"The early 20th century (1900-1920s)","\nThe turn of the century saw the United States cement itself as the leading economic power in the world. This happened because of robust industrial growth, continued waves of immigration, and tremendous profit, stemming from trade in World War I. While every other industrial power was mired in the war and heading into debt in 1914, the U.S. initially stayed neutral and played arms dealer for its eventual allies.\n\n ![Graph](image://591b4899-6e64-4914-8564-d3c511113c4c \"President Woodrow Wilson\")\n\nIn 1917, thanks to incidents with German submarines and the infamous ‘Zimmerman Telegram,’ a request by Germany to Mexico to invade the United States, President Woodrow Wilson entered the war. When Germany and its allies capitulated in 1918, President Wilson pushed his ‘Fourteen Points’ agenda for preventing future conflict. \n\nThe most notable point was the establishment of a ‘League of Nations’ to settle international disputes. However, staunch isolationists in the United States prevented it from joining, leaving the league crippled. Meanwhile, the U.S. took its post-war economic momentum and saw soaring growth in the 'roaring 20s.’ American women finally gained the right to vote via the 19th Amendment, passed in 1919.\n\n","da7000ed-7b3b-45a6-b4ac-7fc6114a6a9c",[192,199],{"id":193,"data":194,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"43d39d78-e151-445f-9a8c-028678d9fc25",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":195,"activeRecallAnswers":197},[196],"When did the United States enter World War I?",[198],"In 1917",{"id":200,"data":201,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"c8fa9906-5357-4362-ac76-0d128b13b5ff",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":202,"activeRecallAnswers":204},[203],"Which international organisation was established due to Wilson's 14 points?",[205],"The League of Nations",{"id":207,"data":208,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":212},"f364a7ed-f0c6-427c-9967-ac3651b3fe8e",{"type":25,"title":209,"markdownContent":210,"audioMediaId":211},"Mid-20th century (1930s-WW2)","\nThe economic boom of the 1920s ended in the stock market crash of 1929 and triggered the Great Depression. The crash was caused by soaring inequality, agricultural overproduction, and rampant stock speculation. In 1932, newly elected President Franklin D. Roosevelt enacted his ‘New Deal,’ kickstarting the most progressive government spending in U.S. history. Social Security, the federal minimum wage, and even the 40-hour workweek were all adopted along with an infrastructure spending plan to create jobs and foster growth.\n\n ![Graph](image://6d9e3208-3e71-4691-8db8-cf382c354c88 \"Hiroshima after the atom bomb\")\n\nWhen World War II broke out, the United States was neutral until the surprise attack on the U.S. Naval Base at Pearl Harbor by the Japanese on December 7th, 1941. There was an outpouring of nationalism and production as the U.S. built an industrial war machine unlike any before.\n\nMomentum was taken from Japan at the battle of Midway in 1942, and Germany’s fate was sealed with the Normandy landings of 1944. President Harry Truman made the controversial decision to utilize the newly invented atomic bomb on both Hiroshima and Nagasaki, causing nearly 200,000 Japanese casualties and leading to Japan’s final surrender.\n\n","fbabf790-6a3c-4913-97a9-f3cf65ed4f75",[213],{"id":214,"data":215,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"19c87e89-0562-47e1-9557-598f78036396",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":216,"clozeWords":218},[217],"The US economic boom of the 1920s ended in the stock market crash of 1929 and triggered the Great Depression.",[219],"Great Depression",{"id":221,"data":222,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":224},"6de24f81-bd96-4399-a126-c7011ab1912e",{"type":21,"title":223},"Modern American History",[225,239],{"id":226,"data":227,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":231},"9ecf2213-6c10-4cfc-a048-bd1701558d8e",{"type":25,"title":228,"markdownContent":229,"audioMediaId":230},"Civil Rights era (1954-1968)","\nThe Civil Rights era in America followed an era of \"Jim Crow laws\": a series of state and local statutes enacted primarily in the Southern United States, enforcing racial segregation between Black and white Americans in public places like schools, buses, and restrooms. These laws created a social and legal framework of discrimination that persisted for decades.\n\n ![Graph](image://52a3d857-a3c7-48e8-9d33-8cb6c4525f4a \"Martin Luther King Jr.\")\n\nCharles Hamilton Houston was a pivotal attorney who worked tirelessly to dismantle this system of segregation through the courts. He laid the groundwork for challenging these discriminatory laws, and his protégé, Thurgood Marshall, continued his legacy. Marshall achieved a landmark victory with the Brown v. Board of Education case in 1954, which ruled that segregated schools were unconstitutional. Marshall later became the first Black Supreme Court Justice.\n\nThe movement against racial segregation and discrimination gained significant momentum in 1955 when Emmett Till, a 14-year-old Black boy, was brutally murdered for allegedly whistling at a white woman in Mississippi. \n\nThis shocking event galvanized activists, leading Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. to organize a bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, in support of Rosa Parks, who had been arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white person. \n\nThese events helped spur the Civil Rights Movement into full swing, ultimately resulting in the passage of transformative legislation like the 1964 Civil Rights Act, the 1965 Voting Rights Act, and the 1968 Housing Rights Act.","9700be50-7aaf-447e-9a3d-324c29377212",[232],{"id":233,"data":234,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"7b705959-93e9-404e-bf43-b72d51914424",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":235,"clozeWords":237},[236],"Attorney Charles Hamilton Houston set the stage for the end of ‘Jim Crow’ segregation by winning multiple court cases.",[238],"Jim Crow",{"id":240,"data":241,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":245},"626133e4-2aa2-4936-b751-dacac6d3f65c",{"type":25,"title":242,"markdownContent":243,"audioMediaId":244},"Cold War (1945-1991)","\nThe 'Cold War’ began with the end of World War 2. During the Yalta conference of 1945, the Soviet Union was granted a post-war ‘sphere of influence’ that would include parts of Japan and Germany’s Eastern European former holdings. The Soviet Union established an “Iron Curtain” of communist governments across Eastern Europe and split both Germany and Korea into communist and capitalist segments. \n\n ![Graph](image://2972098c-4ebd-4fa7-8f42-11d65e9bf152 \"US Navy forces during the Cold War\")\n\nMeanwhile, the U.S. adopted a policy of ‘containment,' working to stop the spread of communism, and formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to oppose the communist Warsaw Pact. The ensuing arms race came closest to going nuclear during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, but direct conflict never broke out. \n\nThe U.S. fought several wars during this period, including in Korea from 1950-1953 and in Vietnam from 1962-1973. The Korean War eventually ended in a stalemate after 4 years of fighting. When inflicting heavy civilian casualties turned popular opinion against the U.S., Vietnam became the United States’ first major military defeat.\n\nThe Americans and Soviets worked against one another for decades until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, creating a largely neo-Western prevailing world consensus. \n\n","2bbd82f9-a438-4729-a528-11b4d078c016",[246],{"id":247,"data":248,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"07310ab8-a8c4-4bcd-a9d9-e329eba295c2",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":249,"multiChoiceCorrect":251,"multiChoiceIncorrect":253},[250],"When did the 'Cold War' begin?",[252],"With the end of World War 2",[254,255,256],"With the Russian Revolution","With the First World War","With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991",{"id":258,"data":259,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"orbs":262},"86c62f6c-8e57-4e93-9535-2a8258a92fc6",{"type":26,"title":260,"tagline":261},"China: From the First Dynasty to the Rise of Mao.","Gain an understanding of the major figures, events, and periods of Chinese History.",[263,318,371,419],{"id":264,"data":265,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":267},"681af8af-62d2-4e26-aff3-7fb8fef9525b",{"type":21,"title":266},"Early Chinese Dynasties",[268,282,300],{"id":269,"data":270,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":274},"9dc00dd9-75fd-4230-8e7d-62f77216e3aa",{"type":25,"title":271,"markdownContent":272,"audioMediaId":273},"The first dynasties: the Xia and Shang Dynasties (2100- 1050 BC)","\nChina’s first dynasty, the Xia, dates back to 2000 BC. The Xia is so largely shrouded in mystery though, that some scholars consider it potentially mythical. The Xia’s founder was the legendary Yu the Great, who supposedly developed an irrigation technique that saved farmers' crops from a ‘Great Flood.’ Xia China existed 500 years before the first written Chinese artifacts, so the stories of this period would’ve been passed down orally, further clouding the Xia dynasty in mystery.\n\n ![Graph](image://4d2eb43d-ac46-4f1f-90ec-7bf241bd5966 \"Yu the Great\")\n\nThe Shang is the first dynasty in recorded Chinese history, thanks to the finding of inscriptions on tortoise shells unearthed by archaeologists. A great leader named Tang established the Shang dynasty after defeating the last Xia ruler in the ‘Battle of Mingtiao,’ which was fought during a great thunderstorm. Tang is known for lowering the number of drafted soldiers and starting various social programs to help the kingdom’s poor. The Shang’s achievements include advances in math, astronomy, artwork, military technology, rich burial practices, and ancestor worship as religion.\n\n","403f529a-ce06-4e88-ad0f-1c512a900164",[275],{"id":276,"data":277,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"7d24b6a9-96fb-4618-9742-f27cab58d61b",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":278,"activeRecallAnswers":280},[279],"What was the first dynasty in recorded Chinese history?",[281],"The Shang Dynasty",{"id":283,"data":284,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":288},"88276fe6-ef9d-4eea-9d88-0a2e119638c6",{"type":25,"title":285,"markdownContent":286,"audioMediaId":287},"The Zhou Dynasty (1050 - 221 BCE)","\nThe Zhou Dynasty, considered the last of the Ancient China dynasties, ruled longer than any other at an astounding 800 years. To help consolidate their power over such a vast region, the Zhou developed a feudal system with different regions led by appointed rulers. In a brilliant move designed to give their reign legitimacy, the Zhou introduced the concept of the “Mandate of Heaven,” essentially saying their emperor’s authority was ordained by God and required their emperor to be a virtuous and moral ruler.\n\n ![Graph](image://a9ec43c7-78b6-4793-b7cc-71a7c861bdba \"Clothing worn by the Zhou dynasty\")\n\nCulturally the Zhou reigned during an incredible flourishing of the arts and humanities. Three major philosophical schools of thought emerged during the Zhou dynasty: Confucianism, which emphasized social and family structure, Daoism, which encouraged following the patterns of and being in balance with nature, and Legalism, which promoted systemic rewards and punishments.\n\n","b502b9fa-b0bb-4470-8b9f-11acd3fb1d2d",[289],{"id":290,"data":291,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"621b6fef-ab86-4224-9c2d-f2beb0ce6bb0",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":292,"multiChoiceCorrect":294,"multiChoiceIncorrect":296},[293],"What was the concept introduced by the Zhou Dynasty to give their reign legitimacy?",[295],"The Mandate of Heaven",[297,298,299],"The Righteousness of Heaven","The Law of Heaven","The Blessing of Heaven",{"id":301,"data":302,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":306},"ba1786a5-ad49-496e-8ce9-5209e7f6a85c",{"type":25,"title":303,"markdownContent":304,"audioMediaId":305},"The Warring States Period (481/403 - 221 BCE) and the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC)","\nChaos ruled for the final 3 centuries of the Zhou Dynasty during a time known as “The Warring States Period.” 7 major states emerged from the feudal system, including the Chu, Han, Qi, Qin, Wei, Yan, and Zhao. These states technically swore loyalty to the Zhou emperor but would attack one another with new and deadly iron age weapons at will, fielding massive armies over 1 million strong as they vied against one another, birthing the theory of Sun Tzu’s *The Art of War*.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://bc2bfe22-beb0-4a5d-84f5-6398f3083c54 \"King Zheng\")\n\nEventually, the Qin triumphed, not just through military might, but through economic and political ingenuity. They invented a much more efficient system for dividing administrative regions, allowing for large increases in both conscripts and taxes. This allowed them to field better equipped and larger armies than their opponents. After uniting China, King Zheng of the Qin awarded himself the title of 'First Emperor.’ The Qin Dynasty is considered the first in the era of “Imperial China” and it was Zheng who built himself a city-sized mausoleum, famously guarded by the magnificent “Terracotta Army,” as well as beginning work on what would become the Great Wall of China.\n\n","f881ad59-3bcc-4581-9ba3-130244ba763a",[307],{"id":308,"data":309,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"c4c2e99a-3506-4e2b-b74e-77908daba21f",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":310,"multiChoiceCorrect":312,"multiChoiceIncorrect":314},[311],"Who was the first Emperor of the Qin Dynasty?",[313],"King Zheng",[315,316,317],"King Qin","King Wei","King Han",{"id":319,"data":320,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":322},"925be165-8735-4707-8f50-5953294528d0",{"type":21,"title":321},"Golden Ages and Turmoil",[323,339,353],{"id":324,"data":325,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":329},"fd6f517c-6e82-4a03-b074-5a890c0625c9",{"type":25,"title":326,"markdownContent":327,"audioMediaId":328},"Han Dynasty (206 BCE - 220 CE)","\nThe Han Dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history, featuring an extended period of stability and prosperity as well as a flourishing of the arts. The most famous development during Han rule was the establishment of the “Silk Road,” a trade route which would reach all the way to Europe and help China become one of the wealthiest countries in the world for centuries. The Han embraced Confucianism, even adding its study to the imperial university. \n\n ![Graph](image://5ee99f45-5910-4368-9ef0-b6dd64780a2b \"Cai Lun\")\n\nPaper was invented in Han China by a man named Cai Lun in 105 CE using a combination of bamboo, hemp, tree bark, rags, and fishing nets smashed into a pulp and spread thin. This period also saw the first Chinese Dictionary, including characters from the Zhou and Shang periods that would prove invaluable for deciphering countless ancient inscriptions as well as the first written history of China called “The Grand Scribe’s Records,” which included 130 chapters still referenced by modern historians. Throughout its existence, the Han was troubled by constant feuding and intrigue amongst the royal family, eventually collapsing into chaos, leading to a military coup.\n\n\n","e6bbddc7-7c55-44c0-95ae-84d21c24f3b7",[330],{"id":331,"data":332,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"7241a3a2-f68c-45ec-b3b5-860932f5f42d",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":333,"binaryCorrect":335,"binaryIncorrect":337},[334],"What invention was made during the Han Dynasty?",[336],"Paper",[338],"Gunpowder",{"id":340,"data":341,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":345},"8ae69fe4-bbef-46b6-bf59-32a44f0b91e0",{"type":25,"title":342,"markdownContent":343,"audioMediaId":344},"Six Dynasties Period (220- 581) and Sui Dynasty (581-618)","Politically, the ‘Six Dynasties Period’ was chaotic, with multiple dynasties gaining and losing power in rapid succession. Despite the turmoil, many cultural achievements were made, including a shift from Confucianism toward Daoism and Buddhism. Some significant inventions include the wheelbarrow and kites, coal first being used as fuel, and a vast proliferation of art including painting and poetry.\n\nThis is also when the ‘Three Kingdoms’ period took place, immortalized by the Ming-era epic novel *The Romance of the Three Kingdoms*, which takes place over a hundred years and describes the struggle between rival factions to reunite China.\n\n ![Graph](image://3f3f4cae-4669-4f4f-950d-9adf710a60a9 \"Members of the Sui Dynasty\")\n\nThough the Sui Dynasty was brief, it ended the previous 4 centuries of strife and unified China under one Emperor, putting into place political, economic, and cultural practices that would help their successors, the Tang, become a zenith in Chinese cultural history. The architecture of the Sui was dominated by the legendary Yuwen Kai, who created an entire capital city at Daxing 6 times the size of its modern counterpart, (Xi’an) including a rotating pavilion capable of holding over 200 guests. \n\n\n\n","f76b5919-0fa3-41bc-be9c-c3ceddd93f07",[346],{"id":347,"data":348,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"e4b771e9-a58a-49fb-83d2-b3999e81e8ea",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":349,"activeRecallAnswers":351},[350],"Which dynasty is credited with unifying China under one Emperor?",[352],"The Sui Dynasty",{"id":354,"data":355,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":359},"374a3fe6-af25-4fb6-821b-27cc7d1f54ce",{"type":25,"title":356,"markdownContent":357,"audioMediaId":358},"Tang Dynasty (618-906)","\nThe Tang Dynasty lasted nearly 300 years and is considered a golden age for Chinese arts and culture. Their success came when Emperor Taizong set up Confucian state schools and used them to recruit talented scholars for civil service positions. This enabled hard-working lower-class citizens to work their way up in government without the need for familial connections.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://71a1dbeb-69d5-48f1-a392-2854e988b7ae \"Tang Emperor Wenzong\")\n\nThe Tang also created an academy for poetry, developed block printing, and saw Buddhism and its monasteries reach new heights of power and popularity. Printing became a staple at many Buddhist monasteries as they worked to mass produce texts, helping them also serve as schools, inns, and event halls for large gatherings and celebrations. \n\nIn 835, Tang Emperor Wenzong became convinced his government officials were plotting against him and struck out in what would become known as “The Sweet Dew Incident.” Over 1,000 officials, as well as some of their families, were killed, plunging the countryside into chaos. A rogue general named Huang Chao took advantage of the turmoil and the government infighting by staging a coup and bringing the Tang Dynasty to its official end.\n\n","4d3d0db1-96a5-4d58-8cba-273092958b8f",[360],{"id":361,"data":362,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"1683bf82-2b99-4a00-8c10-de9c3f44fdfc",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":363,"multiChoiceCorrect":365,"multiChoiceIncorrect":367},[364],"What event marked the end of the Tang Dynasty?",[366],"The Sweet Dew Incident",[368,369,370],"The Great Wall of China","The Opium War","The Boxer Rebellion",{"id":372,"data":373,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":375},"0f26525b-12fd-4b1c-8ed4-f6885ba0a424",{"type":21,"title":374},"Transition and Transformation",[376,390,405],{"id":377,"data":378,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":382},"863cf9ce-1deb-4ca0-a27f-19e496cc4daa",{"type":25,"title":379,"markdownContent":380,"audioMediaId":381},"Five Dynasties Period (907-960) and Song Dynasty (960-1279)","\nThe Five Dynasties Period contained 50 years of chaos, with 5 regime changes in the north and 10 in the south of China. \n\nThe Song Dynasty would be one of the longest and greatest in China’s history. It was established by Zhao Kuangyin, who instituted twin reforms of making high-ranking military positions rotational so no one general could grow too powerful. Kuangyin also put the civil service as supervisors of the military instead of the other way around. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://49290f9d-a933-48a3-8a28-a67a50287779 \"Zhao Kuangyin of the Song Dynasty\")\n\nDuring the Song dynasty, there was a huge population boom, economic growth, and many cultural developments which are now considered to be quintessentially Chinese. It was during the Song Dynasty that people switched from consuming mostly wheat and wine to consuming rice and tea. The first ‘Chinese roof’ buildings, with upturned corners, originated in the Song period as well. Despite its status as the most technologically and culturally advanced country in the world, the Song would not be able to survive the invasion of the Mongols.\n\n","8328853d-7eb3-4a33-a7c0-85d1c8107337",[383],{"id":384,"data":385,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"f9abb9c4-2fbc-433e-aa5c-7cda00d88913",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":386,"activeRecallAnswers":388},[387],"Which Chinese Dynasty was established by Zhao Kuangyin?",[389],"The Song Dynasty",{"id":391,"data":392,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":396},"71965a0e-f9ff-40af-b0db-8f82bfea0f6e",{"type":25,"title":393,"markdownContent":394,"audioMediaId":395},"Yuan Dynasty and the rule of the Mongols (1279 - 1368)","The ‘Mongol conquest of China’ was started by Ghengis Khan in 1211 and wasn’t completed until 1279, by his grandson Kublai Khan. Kublai established the Yuan Dynasty as a global economic superpower with Beijing as its capital, but he and his successors would never fully assimilate. He often hired foreigners for important government positions and was always viewed as an invader by most Chinese people. Italian Marco Polo made his epic voyage and stayed during this time, returning after 17 years in Kublai Khan's court as his ambassador to Europe. \n\n ![Graph](image://b12b64b8-816b-48b0-a18c-ec1eb15ef1a3 \"Ghengis Khan\")\n\nAt the time, Chinese culture began romanticizing about the pre-Mongol glory days, like the Song and Tang Dynasties. The “4 Masters of the Yuan Dynasty” were painters who embodied the new “literati” style known for valuing knowledge and personal expression over simple accurate representation. Another important development was the appearance of ‘blue and white wear,’ porcelain pieces that would become incredibly popular at the other end of the Silk Road in Europe.\n\nThe distrust between the Mongol Emperors and their Chinese subjects would lead to their final overthrow in 1368, making them the shortest lived of China’s major dynasties.\n\n","ad148ca8-7ee4-434c-a3c0-c7166734b859",[397],{"id":398,"data":399,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"653a2ce3-e2f7-462c-8d70-5b7639d4b412",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":400,"clozeWords":402},[401],"The ‘Mongol conquest of China’ was started by Ghengis Khan in 1211 and wasn’t completed until 1279, by his grandson Kublai Khan.",[403,404],"Ghengis Khan","Kublai Khan",{"id":406,"data":407,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":411},"a4e96f1e-a697-4256-a3bc-4a7dbbf6f18a",{"type":25,"title":408,"markdownContent":409,"audioMediaId":410},"Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)","\nThe Ming Dynasty continued China’s legacy as the most advanced country in the world. Its trade goods of silk, spices, and porcelain allowed it to grow its wealth as its goods flowed along the Silk Road, fueling economies all the way to Europe. Some of the first firearms, developed during the Yuan dynasty, were used to overthrow the Mongols and establish the Ming Empire. One of the earliest medical books on Eastern Medicine was developed by the Ming, as well as the world’s largest encyclopedia, only recently surpassed by Wikipedia in 2004. They even completed the Great Wall in 1633, more than 2,000 years after its construction began. \n\n ![Graph](image://f0cb54f6-9b3f-4746-ad78-b8af67cce378 \"The Great Wall of China\")\n\nThe Ming sent Chinese explorer Zheng He on 7 naval expeditions around the Indian Ocean using navigational techniques and ships far ahead of their time. These voyages took place between 1405-1433, almost a full century ahead of European explorers like Columbus and Vasco de Gama. Ultimately, the Ming decided to focus internally on completing their wall and shunning outside culture rather than expanding their global influence. \n\n","85db01e9-08a5-42b0-8db4-fc4b4a6c4682",[412],{"id":413,"data":414,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"5c6ce061-318a-43cc-b49a-27d4ec2562c3",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":415,"clozeWords":417},[416],"The Ming Dynasty sent Chinese explorer Zheng He on 7 naval expeditions between 1405 and 1433, almost a century ahead of European explorers.",[418],"Zheng He",{"id":420,"data":421,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":423},"e3f0e675-80bc-4f7b-ae19-f093b4064f59",{"type":21,"title":422},"Decline and Foreign Influence",[424,450,464],{"id":425,"data":426,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":430},"f4ba687e-6e36-472d-a06e-2768b4395fea",{"type":25,"title":427,"markdownContent":428,"audioMediaId":429},"Qing Dynasty (1644-1912)","\nThe Qing Dynasty was the final imperial dynasty of China and is known for its initial prosperity and successes, as well as its eventual revolutions and failures. The Qing were Manchurians who struck during a period of turmoil. In their early years, they had 2 strong and long-lived emperors, Kangxi and Qianlong, who helped to cement their power. Kangxi in particular led a cultural backlash against previous dynasties’ Han culture, burning books and beheading intellectuals while simultaneously promoting Manchurian culture and art. They successfully repelled Russian attempts at expansion and only began losing power with the growing influence of the British. \n\n ![Graph](image://794869c7-c1d8-4b32-b32b-6b1f0755cb50 \"Members of the Qing Dynasty\")\n\nOpium had been used for medicinal purposes for centuries, but the British began importing huge amounts for recreational use, leading to an epidemic of addiction. By 1800, the Qing attempted to outlaw Opium and its import, but the British responded by working with smugglers. The crisis erupted into the Opium Wars of 1839-1842 and 1856-1860, which the Qing lost. The resulting treatises gave Britain Hong Kong foreign access to dozens more ports for trade, as well as access for Christian Missionaries throughout China.\n\n\n","9b0da017-d05a-4f73-9075-0b10f2c9e957",[431,439],{"id":432,"data":433,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"15231672-ae79-4949-aef7-f2a7a16b2f7a",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":434,"activeRecallAnswers":436},[435],"Which two emperors helped to cement the power of the Qing Dynasty?",[437,438],"Kangxi","Qianlong",{"id":440,"data":441,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"bf924365-d7c9-4f19-874c-5e6f50894342",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":442,"multiChoiceCorrect":444,"multiChoiceIncorrect":446},[443],"What dynasty was the final imperial dynasty of China?",[445],"The Qing Dynasty",[447,448,449],"The Ming Dynasty","The Yuan Dynasty","The Han Dynasty",{"id":451,"data":452,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":456},"245dd77d-f568-4278-b757-5dfa898ee176",{"type":25,"title":453,"markdownContent":454,"audioMediaId":455},"Revolution and the Republic of China (1911- 1949)","\nBy the 20th century, there was growing support to establish Democratic rule in China and end Imperial Rule. American-educated Sun Yat-sen returned home at the beginning of the revolution, publishing the “Three Principles” and attempting to become President. However, a military leader named Yuan Shih-k’ai seized power and attempted to make himself emperor, fracturing China once again into loosely allied regions that lasted through to the Second World War. \n\n ![Graph](image://b022863b-2dc4-46a9-b6b8-c4cb1b950806 \"The Massacre of Nanking\")\n\nDuring this time, two primary factions took shape: The Communist Party of China (CPC), led by Mao Zedong, and the Nationalist Party, led by Chiang Kai-shek. This triggered a Civil War in 1927, which paused during World War II. The Japanese had begun taking Chinese territory in the early 1930s and launched a massive invasion in 1937. \n\nThe Japanese committed atrocities, including the “Massacre of Nanking,” where thousands of Chinese were killed or raped. When the Japanese were defeated, the two Chinese sides resumed the Civil War until the CPC won in 1949, leaving the Nationalists in control of only Taiwan. \n\n","b489cceb-9c90-44b5-82dd-47e87d61d70a",[457],{"id":458,"data":459,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"da9fc6a8-ea0a-4aec-8d34-79c53f659e69",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":460,"clozeWords":462},[461],"The Chinese Civil War was fought between the Communist Party of China (CPC), led by Mao Zedong, and the Nationalist Party, led by Chiang Kai-shek in 1927.",[463],"Chiang Kai-shek",{"id":465,"data":466,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":470},"9ca165a2-6996-43d0-99df-a14e9329ddad",{"type":25,"title":467,"markdownContent":468,"audioMediaId":469},"The age of Mao","\t\t\nMao Zedong took control of China in 1949, attempting to create a Marxist paradise known as 'The Great Leap Forward.” However, it was very quickly modified after famines resulted in the deaths of millions. Mao tempered his plans and introduced capitalist reforms, allowing farmers to sell surplus produce for profit and enacting factory reforms. He initiated a ‘Cultural Revolution’ in 1966 which saw the formation of a force of young zealots known as the ‘Red Guards’ to attempt to rid China of anti-communist ‘impurity’ by persecuting intellectuals and defacing ancient Chinese relics, causing havoc throughout the country.\n\n ![Graph](image://268d0530-422c-4dbf-9e72-3f6369c9ee4a \"Chairman Mao Zedong\")\n\nDeng Xiaoping took power soon after the death of Mao and began instituting economic reforms. In 1979, Deng opened the country to foreign investment and reduced barriers to trade. The CPC has resisted further calls for democratic reforms, most famously violently putting down protests in Tiananmen Square in 1989, resulting in the deaths of hundreds of civilians. Modern China continues on a pace to become the world’s largest economy, but also continues to be accused of troubling human rights violations.\n\n","37c6d185-0adf-4109-b6f7-b27d95f93595",[471],{"id":472,"data":473,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"b7b1d9d1-b98f-46e6-aed8-73b1c4e0bbb2",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":474,"multiChoiceCorrect":476,"multiChoiceIncorrect":478},[475],"Who took power in China after the death of Mao Zedong?",[477],"Deng Xiaoping",[463,479,480],"Xi Jinping","Zhou Enlai",{"id":482,"data":483,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"orbs":486},"489ed52c-b4ed-45b4-aa79-54c0fb0873de",{"type":26,"title":484,"tagline":485},"India: From the Mysterious Vedas to the World’s Largest Democracy","Gain an understanding of the major figures, events, and periods of Indian History.",[487,545,594],{"id":488,"data":489,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":491},"c371c4ad-a1b9-4bbc-b334-d766bc95bc24",{"type":21,"title":490},"Early Indian Civilizations",[492,513,531],{"id":493,"data":494,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":498},"a5c83f94-4f97-4a52-a3fd-e3f5e1f9d7a1",{"type":25,"title":495,"markdownContent":496,"audioMediaId":497},"Urbanization begins in the Indus River Valley (5500 - 1300 BCE)","\nAdvanced civilization in India began in 3300 BCE, with the formation of several major cities in the Indus River Valley. The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan or the Indus Civilization, took a leap from the preceding semi-nomadic herding cultures. Thanks to the addition of wheat and barley agriculture, the civilization moved toward the formation of major cities and a vast maritime trade network connecting Mesopotamia to China.\n\n ![Graph](image://a3cf504f-af83-40bb-8523-ffeacb8afed9 \"Remnant of the ancient city of Harappa\")\n\nThe Indus Valley civilization is thought to be the largest of the ‘Ancient Four’ Civilizations of India, China, Egypt, and Mesopotamia. It had 2 major cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, and huge swathes of territory in modern east India and Pakistan. They developed one of the first and most accurate systems of weight and measurement down to units as small as 1.6 mm. They created sculptures, seals, pottery, and jewelry from materials such as terracotta, metals, and stone. They also had a distinct writing system, the mysterious “Indus Script,” which includes 600 unique characters that have yet to be fully deciphered.\n\n","8c9e9454-2983-460b-a28b-d406e635fda7",[499,506],{"id":500,"data":501,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"9bc789bc-5f04-4507-961f-c53be983cf71",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":502,"clozeWords":504},[503],"The Indus Valley Civilization was also known as the Harappan or the Indus Civilization.",[505],"Harappan",{"id":507,"data":508,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"d41c8762-7e9c-406c-b180-35c6f7843c9f",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":509,"activeRecallAnswers":511},[510],"When did the Indus Valley Civilization begin?",[512],"3300 BCE",{"id":514,"data":515,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":519},"70709f79-4231-4f3e-8fdd-09accaf0c55d",{"type":25,"title":516,"markdownContent":517,"audioMediaId":518},"The Vedic Age (1500 - 500 BCE)","\nAround 1500 BCE began a series of migrations by nomadic central Asians known as the Aryans, whose religion was recorded in oral collections called the Vedas. The Aryans conquered fiefdoms out of India and instituted their religious beliefs into the culture. These, combined with the epic poem, Mahabharata, and a different collection of poems called the Upanishads, formed the religion known as Hinduism.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://c6e85371-434d-4083-9156-e0e91d1a843b \"Scenes from the Vedas\")\n\nThe caste system was set up in such a way that kept people rigidly trapped from birth, with marriage between castes forbidden. The top caste was the priests, or ‘Brahmins,’ followed by the warriors, or ‘Kshatriyas,’ then common tradesmen or farmers known as ‘Vaishyas,' and finally the menial workers and laborers, the ‘Shudras.’ Existing outside the caste system altogether and often completely shunned were the ‘Untouchables,’ who performed the most degrading tasks of all, like dealing with human waste.\n\n","0e1314da-ff4c-463e-9d0a-b2b8f5541eb9",[520],{"id":521,"data":522,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"16f8d933-703f-4c0b-ba29-8e15d5b6f704",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":523,"multiChoiceCorrect":525,"multiChoiceIncorrect":527},[524],"What is the lowest caste in Hinduism?",[526],"The Shudras",[528,529,530],"The Kshatriyas","The Vaishyas","The Brahmins",{"id":532,"data":533,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":537},"e58277b2-7510-45a6-96dd-93f224dd2b03",{"type":25,"title":534,"markdownContent":535,"audioMediaId":536},"The rise of Buddhism (5th Century BCE)","\nBuddhism was founded by Siddhartha Gautama, who is known as the Buddha. Gautama began as a prince in what is now Nepal. While he led a privileged life, he was profoundly impacted by the suffering he saw in the world and chose to endure poverty. When that did not fulfill him, he began pursuing a 'Middle Way’ between overindulgence and deprivation. After 6 years, he reached enlightenment while meditating under a Bodhi tree, and dedicated the rest of his life to teaching his followers how to reach this spiritual state through his lessons, called the ‘dharma.’\n\n ![Graph](image://4e4da8e0-02f8-40a0-8e8e-09f10f89ae61 \"Siddhartha Gautama - the Buddha\")\n\nThe goal of Buddhism is to reach enlightenment, a kind of 'spiritual Nirvana.’ They do not acknowledge any specific deity, and believe in both “karma” and reincarnation. Central to the religion are the “4 Noble Truths” that explain why humans suffer. According to Buddhism, the way to overcome this suffering is through following the moral philosophy of “The Eightfold Path,” which encourages moral conduct, mental discipline, and the achievement of wisdom.\n\n","b589ce77-7352-4f0e-a222-c3cb1c2dbc1d",[538],{"id":539,"data":540,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"bf33b0d9-dcce-4fad-b727-8e011b302af7",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":541,"activeRecallAnswers":543},[542],"Who founded Buddhism?",[544],"Siddhartha Gautama",{"id":546,"data":547,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":549},"dd74d3d0-ee63-4f86-bc06-249b92086da3",{"type":21,"title":548},"Classical Indian Empires",[550,566,580],{"id":551,"data":552,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":556},"7170f2dd-72f0-4be8-9b9c-1900fe2b124d",{"type":25,"title":553,"markdownContent":554,"audioMediaId":555},"The Mauryan Empire (321 BCE - 185 BCE)","\nThe Mauryan was the first pan-Indian empire. It covered central and northern India, as well as parts of modern-day Iran. It was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, who took advantage of the death of Alexander the Great to strike at Magadha, and then expanded from there. His chief minister, Kautilya, became immortalized by writing the ‘Arthashastra,’ a treatise on leadership and government. He takes a decidedly pessimistic view of human nature, including strongly recommending vast networks of spies. \n\n ![Graph](image://7b9996cb-a7b7-4b63-b2d1-ef579d669107 \"Chandragupta Maurya\")\n\nChandragupta’s grandson, Ashoka, would profoundly alter the course of the empire after a bloody campaign of expansion against the rival kingdom of Kalinga. He decided to convert to Buddhism, invoking strict policies of non-violence for himself and his people. He immortalized his edicts on large stone pillars. After this change, the Mauryans continued to rule but the empire slowly fell apart until the last emperor was assassinated in 185 BCE. \n\nIndia would be divided during the next few centuries into multiple states until the start of the ‘Golden Age of India,’ with the Gupta Empire.\n\n","893e7e6a-92ac-4e97-b6d1-bd28dac1ecc5",[557],{"id":558,"data":559,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"06a64380-6060-4c03-bb9a-75bf50c8ec12",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":560,"binaryCorrect":562,"binaryIncorrect":564},[561],"Who wrote the 'Arthashastra', a treatise on leadership and government?",[563],"Kautilya",[565],"Ashoka",{"id":567,"data":568,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":572},"4d101a6b-475c-44af-abb1-4d054a8fab68",{"type":25,"title":569,"markdownContent":570,"audioMediaId":571},"The Gupta Empire and the “Golden Age of India” (400 CE - 600 CE)","\nBy the 4th century CE, India had splintered into hundreds of rival kingdoms. Chandragupta I took the throne in the kingdom of Magadha and began ruthlessly consolidating power through military conquests and marriage alliances in an effort to reunite the nation. Chandragupta II brought the Gupta to the height of its power by allowing conquered kings to retain their thrones, as long as they were loyal and sent tribute. However, the rise of the Huns and their increasing attacks would topple the Guptas by the end of 6th century CE.  \n\n ![Graph](image://3f923040-8ae6-4866-b01d-28c5a0d55959 \"The Gupta Empire\")\n\nHuge cultural developments took place during the Gupta Age, including the invention of the decimal system, the calculation of pi to 4 decimal places, and the mathematical concept of zero. The scholar Aryabhata showed the Earth was a sphere, demonstrating how it revolved around its axis each day and orbited the Sun. Sanskrit was used by Indian scholars and the legendary playwright, Kalidasa, wrote plays and poems to make it a vital period for Indian literature.\n\n","57c85a5e-ab29-4588-afbf-2b519d3c1c10",[573],{"id":574,"data":575,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"bff9e110-b506-452b-bc99-52da795b9c4f",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":576,"clozeWords":578},[577],"Chandragupta II brought the Gupta to the height of its power by allowing conquered kings to retain their thrones, as long as they were loyal and sent tribute.",[579],"Chandragupta II",{"id":581,"data":582,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":586},"d993aaa5-728c-4789-983b-bf8e165fdc6c",{"type":25,"title":583,"markdownContent":584,"audioMediaId":585},"Early medieval India (600 CE - 1200 CE)","\nThe collapse of the Guptas saw centuries of fractured states at war, none able to regain the size or glory of the Mauryan or Guptan empires. The attacks by the Huns were slowly replaced by invasions of Muslim forces. By the 9th and 10th centuries, three powerful states conquered large territories: the Gurjara-Pratiharas in the northwest, the Palas in the northeast, and the Rashtrakutas in the south. These three struggled with one another, leading the era to be branded with the title, ‘The Tripartite Struggle.’\n\n ![Graph](image://5edda0e1-a48b-4325-8a14-b2d763980ea9 \"A Rajput\")\n\nIn this era, throughout India, a class of warlord princes called “Rajputs” rose to power over small fiefdoms.\n\nHinduism came to dominate India as other religions nearly disappeared, though came to incorporate certain Buddhist beliefs. \n\nIn addition, the increasing attacks by Muslims, who were unified by religion, encouraged Indians to band together around a ‘state’ religion, further hastening the decline of Buddhism.\n\n","95d8f977-751b-4b01-a493-76d40d70cd67",[587],{"id":588,"data":589,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"e1ee1a38-98b8-4143-94a1-8c90875e6695",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":590,"activeRecallAnswers":592},[591],"Which era saw three powerful states struggle with one another in India?",[593],"The Tripartite Struggle",{"id":595,"data":596,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":598},"1b7cd579-4043-4b9f-9270-e2e11137b462",{"type":21,"title":597},"Medieval to Modern Periods",[599,615,638,656],{"id":600,"data":601,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":605},"24e97be5-4398-4e71-9149-396d1200f2aa",{"type":25,"title":602,"markdownContent":603,"audioMediaId":604}," Late medieval period and the Delhi Sultanate (1200 CE - 1526 CE)","\nMuhammed of Gur began a systematic conquest of the sub-continent at the end of the 12th century, conquering most of northern India and establishing Delhi as the capital. His successor took the title of Sultan and continued the expansion. The Delhi Sultanate was ruled by several different dynasties during its lifespan, all of which were Muslim. \n\n ![Graph](image://b69a476f-4b15-4cc4-a19d-550ce0126c31 \"Timur, the Mongol conqueror\")\n\nThis had lasting effects as it tied India more closely economically and culturally to other parts of the Muslim world and set the stage for the eventual rule of the Mughals in 1526. The use of waterwheels with gears and pulleys, as well as the manufacture of paper, became widespread during the Delhi Sultanate’s time in India. \n\nThe Sultanate existed in near-constant fear of Mongol invasion. These fears would come true in 1398 when the conqueror, Timur, originally from modern-day Uzbekistan, marched on Delhi. He claimed the Sultanate was too lenient with their Hindu subjects and defeated the Delhi army, reducing the capital to rubble before returning to his empire. The Sultanate would remain a small state until being subjugated by the Mughals.\n\n","dab39ef1-845b-4986-9022-a517a9eea9ab",[606],{"id":607,"data":608,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"6a2226f5-360a-4674-a538-453a8abe1afa",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":609,"binaryCorrect":611,"binaryIncorrect":613},[610],"Who conquered the Delhi Sultanate in 1398?",[612],"Timur",[614],"Muhammed of Gur",{"id":616,"data":617,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":621},"38c3a95d-59d0-4c68-8ca8-1966f6928d13",{"type":25,"title":618,"markdownContent":619,"audioMediaId":620},"Mughal Empire (1526 - 1857)","\nThe Mughal Empire would come to unite and dominate all of India. It was founded by Babur, the great-grandson of Timur, who returned to India to finish what his ancestor had started. He did so by defeating a much larger force with the use of just 20 cannons, making the Mughal one of history's 3 'Gunpowder Empires,’ along with the Ottoman Empire and the Safavid Empire. \n\n ![Graph](image://c2534f15-07ac-4699-a710-f6ff205020b9 \"Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire\")\n\nBabur’s grandson, Akbar the Great, would forge the Mughal legacy. A workaholic who rarely slept more than 3 hours a night, his policies included graduated income tax and religious toleration that allowed a population that was majority Hindu to be ruled by Muslims. Mughal India became one of the richest countries in the world, trading cloth goods and spices to Europeans who began arriving in droves seeking trade in the 17th century.\n\nThe leader most credited with the demise of the Mughals was Aurangzeb. He was a religious zealot who instituted Sharia law and waged nearly constant war against both his neighbors and subjects. In fact, every ruler before him is considered to be among the ‘Great Mughals,’ and every ruler after, a ‘Lesser Mughal.’ \n\n","b8d3bb26-d333-4c11-9f49-e8a3267146d1",[622,631],{"id":623,"data":624,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"1d879f13-8abd-480a-80cd-42de8b14d45c",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":625,"binaryCorrect":627,"binaryIncorrect":629},[626],"Who is credited with the demise of the Mughals?",[628],"Aurangzeb",[630],"Akbar the Great",{"id":632,"data":633,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"7a86621d-20e5-47f6-9276-c7948b3e29b8",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":634,"clozeWords":636},[635],"The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur and was later ruled by Akbar the Great and Aurangzeb, the 'Lesser' Mughal.",[637],"Babur",{"id":639,"data":640,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":644},"062f08d3-7ccf-43af-94bc-cc024e0339d6",{"type":25,"title":641,"markdownContent":642,"audioMediaId":643},"The British Raj (1857 - 1948)","\nThe British relationship with India changed drastically in 1757. During the Battle of Plassey, the British defeated a Bengali force and took control of Bengal, becoming ‘neighbors’ with the Mughals. In 1857, Indian troops serving in the British army started a massive rebellion and pledged allegiance to the Mughal emperor. After a year-long struggle, the British captured and exiled the Mughal emperor to Burma, and executed his family. This is seen as the official start of the British Raj.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://2745acee-a661-4b8b-9630-351ec1feccde \"British merchants arrive in India\")\n\nIndia would become the ‘Jewel’ of the British empire as they exploited its vast natural resources to fuel industrialization. English became the common language and Indian students were taught the British curriculum. \n\n1.5 million Indians served in the British army in World War I, as calls for independence grew louder at home. Mahatma Gandhi began leading protests against British rule that would occupy him for the remainder of his life. In 1948, Britain announced its withdrawal from India, as well as its plans to divide the subcontinent along religious lines into 2 main new independent countries: Pakistan and India. \n\n","7143efd8-bebd-484b-91fd-c3ec0a6c34c9",[645],{"id":646,"data":647,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"b44aa5ec-0b44-4f96-906f-ad21db03642f",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":648,"multiChoiceCorrect":650,"multiChoiceIncorrect":652},[649],"When did the British officially start their imperial rule of India?",[651],"1857",[653,654,655],"1757","1948","1945",{"id":657,"data":658,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":662},"61bd879e-6ce7-43fa-847f-3ddcebefa584",{"type":25,"title":659,"markdownContent":660,"audioMediaId":661},"Modern India (Post 1947)","\nIndia experienced turmoil during its transition to self-rule. Violence between Muslims and Hindus led to the death of up to 1 million people, as 10 million fled across the new border between Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan to escape persecution. \n\n ![Graph](image://50e48065-50ae-4a7f-84ae-f843e03456ff \"The disputed regions of Kashmir\")\n\nDisagreement about the Kashmir region, which was designated as part of India but had a large Muslim population, led to the ‘1st Kashmir War,’ one of 4 conflicts that occurred between India and Pakistan over control of the region from 1947-1999. Mahatma Gandhi led demonstrations against Muslim/Hindu violence until he was assassinated by a Hindu extremist in 1948 for being too tolerant of Muslims. The tension between the two countries' faiths is still present to this day.\n\nThe 1960s saw several wars with China over disputed borders in the Himalayas, without any lasting resolutions. India remained neutral in the Cold War but would institute many socialist policies until massive economic reforms in 1991 ignited a new period of growth. Since that point, India has emerged as one of the world’s largest and fastest-growing economies.\n\n","a6d3c0ab-cb68-4b40-8102-e33aecadafcb",[663],{"id":664,"data":665,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"83ec14db-89ba-44bb-932c-27b718cde90c",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":666,"clozeWords":668},[667],"The partition of India led to the creation of the Muslim state of Pakistan.",[669],"Pakistan",{"id":671,"data":672,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"orbs":675},"2b469b18-26e2-4118-8e79-045c62cfe7c8",{"type":26,"title":673,"tagline":674},"Great Britain: Roman Occupation to Empire","Gain an understanding of the major figures, events, and periods of British History.",[676,716,752,793,826,859],{"id":677,"data":678,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":680},"59c8a3dc-be40-48c6-a0b4-9ee33fac3e59",{"type":21,"title":679},"Ancient and Iron Age Britain",[681,695],{"id":682,"data":683,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":687},"a4a68884-41a5-4443-a085-aeec9cfd4a8d",{"type":25,"title":684,"markdownContent":685,"audioMediaId":686},"Ancient Britain (Before 800 BCE)","\nContinuous habitation of the British isles began around 9000 BCE, after the end of the last Ice Age. It remained a peninsula connected to mainland Europe until rising seas cut off the land bridge around 6500 BCE. \n\nPeople practiced traditional nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles until the introduction of farming in 4000 BCE. \n\nMonuments (such as henges) would be constructed, including the famous Stonehenge, built around 2500 BCE. \n\nDuring the Bronze Age (2300-800 BCE), metals began to be worked into a new distinct form of pottery known as ‘Beaker.’ Extravagant individual tombs would feature a host of possessions buried with the deceased. People began building permanent round houses, dividing up fields, and establishing villages during this era.\n\n","584d0079-ff3f-436d-ac11-1822ead2e2e6",[688],{"id":689,"data":690,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"f2c8df0a-14a6-4ac8-a8aa-5f74d5bf469f",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":691,"clozeWords":693},[692],"Continuous habitation of the British isles began around 9000 BCE, after the end of the last Ice Age.",[694],"9000",{"id":696,"data":697,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":701},"50496086-e6b3-41eb-bac2-8709cf025688",{"type":25,"title":698,"markdownContent":699,"audioMediaId":700},"Iron Age Britain (800 BCE - 50 CE)","\nThe Iron Age (800 BCE - 50 CE) brought about the first coinage, weapons, and tools made of iron. Trade networks emerged with both continental Europe and even the Phoenicians, as far away as the Mediterranean. More advanced architecture, such as hill forts, shows an emergence of a warrior aristocracy and tribal territories. Julius Caesar arrived in 55 BCE and documented mysterious religious leaders called Druids, but Roman occupation would wait another 100 years. \n\n ![Graph](image://0a575d85-8dc6-4494-8937-7ad59b805cc7 \"An AI's Imagining of Iron Age Britain (featuring curiously colourful clothing...)\")\n\nThe British Druids are thought to share many similarities with the cultures of the Celts located in Gaul and Ireland. They had a 3-tiered society with serfs at the bottom, warriors in the middle, and learned men at the top. They practiced the ritual sacrifice of animals, humans, and metalworks, such as weapons and jewelry, by casting them into rivers and lakes for their deities. \n\nDespite being renowned for their knowledge in the fields of mathematics, astronomy, and physics, their lack of written language leaves many aspects of their culture shrouded in mystery.\n","1c0871e4-7b4d-42d0-b3a6-65af15aaf5e2",[702,709],{"id":703,"data":704,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"18a1df52-471b-474a-82af-b70f66a8f9bd",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":705,"activeRecallAnswers":707},[706],"When did Julius Caesar arrive in Britain?",[708],"55 BCE",{"id":710,"data":711,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"7b901fd9-8356-43c8-923d-87d7e08df9c4",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":712,"clozeWords":714},[713],"The British Druids are thought to share many similarities with the cultures of the Celts located in Gaul and Ireland.",[715],"Druids",{"id":717,"data":718,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":720},"0f722e26-c379-4e11-8028-2c6103482ab5",{"type":21,"title":719},"Roman and Early Medieval Britain",[721,739],{"id":722,"data":723,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":727},"27cf21a7-d1d8-414e-84e9-801e9258b397",{"type":25,"title":724,"markdownContent":725,"audioMediaId":726},"Britain under Rome (43 CE - 410 CE)","\nLooking for prestige, Roman Emperor Claudius ordered a full-scale invasion of Britain in 43 CE. The Romans advanced quickly until 60 CE, when Queen Boudicca of the Iceni of East Anglia led a revolt that burned down several newly founded Roman cities, including Londinium. \n\nThe advance continued in 70 CE, and in 83 CE, the Scottish tribes were defeated, seemingly granting control of the entire island to Rome. However, after the battle, when troops left to deal with a separate conflict on the Danube, the remaining Romans retreated South. Emperor Hadrian toured Britain in 122 CE, famously ordering the construction of Hadrian’s Wall to defend his southern possessions.\n\nRoman influence on Britain can be seen through a Roman-style network of roads branching out from London, the implementation of rural Roman-style architecture, and the introduction of Christianity in 312 CE. Years later, a great invasion known as the ‘Barbarian Conspiracy of 367 CE,’ left Rome’s troubles elsewhere to slowly reduce its presence until Britons were left to fend for themselves in 410 CE.\n\n\n","ce47399c-db79-4c2a-962f-4c5ad1699ea0",[728],{"id":729,"data":730,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"8b161040-61b9-48bf-8664-46de5b10c85b",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":731,"multiChoiceCorrect":733,"multiChoiceIncorrect":735},[732],"When did Emperor Hadrian tour Britain?",[734],"122 CE",[736,737,738],"83 CE","367 CE","410 CE",{"id":740,"data":741,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":745},"8cd91cb1-89a5-4cc5-9457-7c315b08f193",{"type":25,"title":742,"markdownContent":743,"audioMediaId":744},"Early Medieval England (410 CE - 1066 CE)","\nThe Dark Ages began in 410 when Roman Emperor Honorius sent a letter to his British subjects to “look to their own defense.” The Romans would never again exert direct influence over the island. Soon, large populations of Germanic Anglo-Saxons settled, battling the Britons to give rise to the legends of King Arthur. \n\n ![Graph](image://2e953db9-5b35-4161-8be9-8cde243f88d1 \"Vikings arrive in England\")\n\nIn the late 700s, Viking invasions would transform England. A series of raids crystallized into a massive invasion in 865, conquering every kingdom except Wessex. King Alfred of Wessex was able to defeat the Vikings but signed a treaty giving them control of northern Britain, creating the so-called period of ‘Danelaw.’ \n\nFor two centuries there were constant struggles between the Vikings and the Anglo-Saxons. This continued until the death of Edward the Confessor in 1066. He had no apparent heirs, and this led to three men trying to claim the throne - William of Normandy, the Anglo-Saxon Harold Godwinson, and the Viking Harald Hardrada.","62f9730c-fe59-4a6b-bac9-ec970f3e4c7a",[746],{"id":747,"data":748,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"7cdb1bfe-fc47-4e11-b4e8-d13770414b79",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":749,"activeRecallAnswers":751},[750],"When did the Dark Ages begin in Britain?",[738],{"id":753,"data":754,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":756},"f3df46c0-2b45-4ed3-9eea-62ab53deb23f",{"type":21,"title":755},"Medieval and Tudor England",[757,775],{"id":758,"data":759,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":763},"1982c4b0-e0e6-4764-b66f-52e21d588599",{"type":25,"title":760,"markdownContent":761,"audioMediaId":762},"Medieval England (1066 - 1485)","\nWilliam ‘the Conqueror’ became King of England when he defeated the same Anglo-Saxon army at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. During the reign of the crusading King Richard, nobles forced his younger brother, John, to sign a document limiting the power of the Crown. This document is known as the ‘Magna Carta.’ Although it was ignored on the King’s return, the Magna Carta came to be seen as one of the first protections against tyranny, and as a foundation of ‘Common Law.’\n\n ![Graph](image://5cba18a0-f8ac-4d4b-b895-a7b05d0a4e24 \"The Battle of Bosworth\")\n\nTwo major events characterized the following centuries. The first was the near-constant wars with France and Scotland, which led to the longbow becoming the principal weapon. The second was disease: in 1348-1349, the Black Death wiped out nearly half the British population, causing economic collapse. \n\nDuring this time, the Crown was plagued by infighting until the 1455 ‘War of the Roses,’ between the York and Lancaster houses. The war lasted for 30 years until Henry Tudor won at the Battle of Bosworth in 1485. After, he married the heir to the opposing claim, cementing his power.\n\n\n","04ddafc5-4242-4dfe-8637-7ee1ee7d1c6a",[764],{"id":765,"data":766,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"24b24121-487a-4f90-8e9d-8dca8420b6b2",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":767,"multiChoiceCorrect":769,"multiChoiceIncorrect":771},[768],"What document was signed by John, limiting the power of the Crown?",[770],"The Magna Carta",[772,773,774],"The Royal Charter","The Charter of Liberties","The Great Declaration",{"id":776,"data":777,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":781},"cadf665a-e6b9-4472-9f20-1b1677317113",{"type":25,"title":778,"markdownContent":779,"audioMediaId":780},"The Tudors (1485 - 1603)","\nMassive changes occurred over the course of the Tudor dynasty. Henry VIII changed the course of history when he made the decision to break from the Catholic Church after the Pope refused him a divorce. In all, he had 6 wives, divorcing Catharine of Aragon and Anne of Cleeves, beheading Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard, and Jane Seymore dying during the birth of their son. Catherine Parr, his last wife, outlived him during their marriage.\n\n ![Graph](image://7c48813e-1f4b-46d4-96a1-bb491c58bc95 \"Elizabeth I\")\n\nAfter his death, the crown bounced quickly from Edward VI to Mary I due to Edward’s sickly nature. However, unlike her brother, Mary was an ardent Catholic, burning Protestants at the stake and marrying the despised Philip II of Spain.\n\nWhen she died, she was replaced by the Protestant Elizabeth I, who would become known as ‘Gloriana'. During the Elizabethan age, English culture flourished as Shakespeare produced his incredible body of work and Royal Navy privateers ventured into the New World. Spain’s Phillip II attacked with his ‘Spanish Armada’ in 1588, a fleet of 130 ships but were defeated by poor weather conditions, cementing Britain as the world’s preeminent naval superpower. \n\n","bf34f008-1182-431f-8841-de5799f85122",[782],{"id":783,"data":784,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"2ef61faf-dd93-4311-a352-de0f731ab73a",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":785,"multiChoiceCorrect":787,"multiChoiceIncorrect":789},[786],"Which Tudor Queen was known as 'Gloriana'?",[788],"Elizabeth I",[790,791,792],"Edward VI","Mary I","Jane Seymore",{"id":794,"data":795,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":797},"3b23f4d9-9dbf-4174-8977-f9684f7b03d1",{"type":21,"title":796},"Stuart and Republican England",[798,812],{"id":799,"data":800,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":804},"a46e3fe3-f0e8-44bd-83a9-7d6a5487c8fd",{"type":25,"title":801,"markdownContent":802,"audioMediaId":803},"The Stuarts (1603 - 1649)","\nThough the reign of the Stuarts was tumultuous, it was vital to the development of democracy. Elizabeth I died childless, so the throne passed to the first Stuart, James I, who was also the King of Scotland. This united the two countries. However, by the formation of Stuart England, the Crown was reliant on the Parliament to aid Crown financing.\n\n ![Graph](image://704102de-e5d9-44e1-94c4-dcdd6790e4a3 \"Charles I in the English Civil War\")\n\nWhen James’ son Charles I inherited a political system wrought with debt and critical of his inner circle, he disbanded the Parliament in 1629, sparking the ‘Personal Rule.’ However, when the British Crown teetered on the verge of bankruptcy in 1640, he was obliged to recall Parliament, who perceived his actions as a breach of the constitution. \n\nEventually, this sparked the English Civil War, in which 212,000 lives were lost. Because of their early seizing of London and the implementation of meritocratic promotion principles by Parliamentary Cavalry General Oliver Cromwell, the King was captured in 1646.\n\n","878a1edc-5a77-4f30-bda8-f054b6b48381",[805],{"id":806,"data":807,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"6e00b710-c9fe-4131-b400-1231dd8b66a2",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":808,"activeRecallAnswers":810},[809],"Who was the first Stuart to inherit the throne?",[811],"James I",{"id":813,"data":814,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":818},"e68cc5f8-4158-420a-bc6d-3e60a2f326da",{"type":25,"title":815,"markdownContent":816,"audioMediaId":817},"The English Republic and The Restoration (1649 - 1714)","\nAfter winning the English Civil War, the Parliament was faced with a problem. Though initially favoring a settlement with the King that involved a separation of powers, attempts by the King to escape to Scotland led to key Parliamentary generals concluding that he was untrustworthy. This, coupled with the proto-communist sympathies of the New Model Army, led to the beheading of the King and the establishment of the English Republic.\n\nDuring the English Republic, policies of church simplification and the banning of rituals, including the celebration of Christmas, were implemented. However, the system struggled for consistency, going through 6 constitutions by the time its leader, Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell, died in 1649.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://11651b4c-bc29-4116-922c-0ac09ed60957 \"William and Mary of Orange\")\n\nAfter Cromwell’s death, General Monck invited Charles II, the son of the beheaded Charles I, to reestablish the monarchy. Although this was originally greeted with popularity, upon his death, Charles II gave the Crown to his Catholic brother James II and the prominent Protestants decided to oust him. As a result, the ‘Glorious Revolution’ saw William and Mary of Orange take power, while also agreeing to sign a Bill of Rights limiting their own power.\n\n","11358a15-a5b4-45b0-b02f-03e3f89df500",[819],{"id":820,"data":821,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"db4661e4-4087-4153-a5a2-deecb6f599ca",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":822,"activeRecallAnswers":824},[823],"How many constitutions were implemented during the English Republic?",[825],"Six",{"id":827,"data":828,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":830},"cc100b09-8fe4-47c8-be79-c5b14781473a",{"type":21,"title":829},"Georgian and Victorian Britain",[831,845],{"id":832,"data":833,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":837},"57f85626-2abf-4bca-b766-1fe0d32ea8fd",{"type":25,"title":834,"markdownContent":835,"audioMediaId":836},"The Georgians (1714 - 1837)","\nWhen Anne Stuart died without an heir, distant cousins, the Hanovers from Germany were brought in to rule. Each of the four Hanoverian rulers would be named George, causing the era to be branded as ‘Georgian’. Although Britain lost America during the reign of ‘mad’ King George III, they saw a victory in the Seven Years' War of 1756 - 1763, expelling France from North America. This set them on a path of conflict with both Revolutionary and Napoleonic France, which lasted from 1793 until 1815, when the Duke of Wellington, aided by the Prussians, finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://c098aa24-b291-4a4a-b24b-34b8dbd18641 \"AI-generated image: 'Mad King George III'\")\n\nThe Georgian period saw the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. The ‘seed drill’ was invented by Jethro Tull, allowing agriculture to explode in efficiency. This caused the ‘Enclosure Movement,’ where wealthy landowners would evict farmers to commercialize farming. \n\nThe ousted farmers left to find work in the city and largely ended up providing cheap labor for the nascent factories powered by newly-invented steam power. The raw materials pouring in from the Empire’s vast foreign holdings allowed Britain to rapidly industrialize, flooding the world’s markets with manufactured goods.\n\n","451a31b1-982e-4e3c-8f33-b352e432b324",[838],{"id":839,"data":840,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"57ecb146-901f-4168-9289-7bd6b931426f",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":841,"activeRecallAnswers":843},[842],"When did the Georgian period begin?",[844],"When Anne Stuart died without an heir in 1714",{"id":846,"data":847,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":851},"0bb03e42-aa29-4b6a-96cf-149fc60a09f7",{"type":25,"title":848,"markdownContent":849,"audioMediaId":850},"The Victorian era (1836 - 1901)","\nThe reign of Queen Victoria lasted more than 60 years and saw the British Empire reach the pinnacle of its power, covering more than 1/5th of the planet’s landmass. British soldiers fought to maintain and expand the empire nearly every year of Victoria’s reign, adding vast stretches of territory during the ‘Scramble for Africa’ and by adding India as the ‘Jewel' in the Crown of the empire. Imperialism became a part of British identity as London became the world’s economic center. \n\n ![Graph](image://a78f98a3-80a1-470f-b7f0-176188c610d6 \"A young Queen Victoria\")\n\nIndustrialization brought both tremendous change and challenges to Victorian England. Steamboats, railroads, and the telegraph transformed transportation and communication. However, crop failures and mismanagement in the 1840s, including the ‘Irish Potato Famine,’ highlighted the extreme inequalities in British society. The work of Charles Dickens immortalized the conditions in Victorian England as major advances in medicine, science, and engineering transformed the country but often left the lower classes out of the progress.\n\n","320b9376-4b4c-4135-a3ef-60f52a83e9b7",[852],{"id":853,"data":854,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"3934adbe-b757-422b-988d-6b39a98b502a",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":855,"clozeWords":857},[856],"The reign of Queen Victoria lasted more than 60 years and saw the British Empire reach the pinnacle of its power, covering more than 1/5th of the planet’s landmass.",[858],"Queen Victoria",{"id":860,"data":861,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":863},"5cbb423d-5a8a-4c4f-898d-892c6712aa48",{"type":21,"title":862},"Early and Mid 20th Century Britain",[864,880,893],{"id":865,"data":866,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":870},"553311f2-88cb-4eea-94df-cb9672f7742d",{"type":25,"title":867,"markdownContent":868,"audioMediaId":869},"Early 20th Century (1901 - 1929)","\nWorld War I began in 1914, when Britain declared war on Germany in support of its allies. Overall, nearly 900,000 British soldiers died in the ‘War to End All Wars’ because of ‘Trench Warfare’, within which both sides dug heavily fortified positions using machine guns to slaughter any troops who attempted an offensive. \n\n ![Graph](image://a77e30bd-486d-4d41-ad9c-686fb913516a \"English soldiers march to battle during World War One\")\n\nThe Allies won this war of attrition with the addition of the United States in 1917, which gave them an overwhelming advantage in supplies and troops. The Treaty of Versailles concluding the war gave Britain former German territories, creating lasting resentment between the two nations. \n\nPost War Britain saw a period of economic growth and prosperity. The Republic of Ireland broke away from the empire with a conflict that concluded in 1921. The economic recovery came to a jarring halt with the stock market crash of 1929 and the ensuing years of economic depression. \n\n","54e20e5b-9466-4461-af9b-c7c78059b2b2",[871],{"id":872,"data":873,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"5de30a01-5829-434b-946e-c035a039c312",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":874,"binaryCorrect":876,"binaryIncorrect":878},[875],"When did the Republic of Ireland break away from the British Empire?",[877],"1921",[879],"1914",{"id":881,"data":882,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":886},"65b05741-8aa1-451f-9a7f-5dbc3214c448",{"type":25,"title":883,"markdownContent":884,"audioMediaId":885},"Mid 20th Century (1930 - 1945)","\nThis Great Depression saw the rise of Fascism across Europe. Although Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain attempted to temper Hitler’s aggression through ‘appeasement,’ the invasion of Poland in 1939 forced Britain and France to declare war.\n\nDespite the Allies having superior numbers and the vaunted ‘Maginot Line’ of defenses on the Franco-German border, the Nazi’s surprise attack through the Ardennes forest resulted in an all-out rout. The bulk of Britain’s army was nearly pinned at Dunkirk, but an astounding volunteer effort by hundreds of civilian fishermen allowed them to ferry over 300,000 troops to safety. \n\nThe Nazis' advance was unchecked as each of Britain’s allies was defeated by 1941. Britain was Hitler’s last remaining opponent. Hitler hoped his numerically superior air force, the ‘Luftwaffe,’ would pave the way for a German invasion but the ‘Battle of Britain,’ where British aircraft successfully used radar, saw any chance of German invasion destroyed. Britain was able to hang on as the addition of the Soviet Union and the United States to the Allied side turned the tide of the conflict and helped Britain become victorious once again.\n\n","0a7d59d9-f8d3-4bcb-abe3-ccbc47739a56",[887],{"id":888,"data":889,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"d9739c84-5ad0-4a7a-93de-0343e2d2f364",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":890,"clozeWords":892},[891],"The rise of Fascism can in part be attributed to the Great Depression, caused by financial crashes in the USA in the early 1930s.",[219],{"id":894,"data":895,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":899},"b4421fc4-738b-48a3-a6e5-120f6b76114e",{"type":25,"title":896,"markdownContent":897,"audioMediaId":898},"Modern Britain (Post 1948)","\nThe end of the war catalyzed great changes in Britain. Former colonies were given independence, and ‘Proxy Wars’' were fought to help stop the spread of communism as the Cold War began to dominate foreign policy. Domestically, the National Health Service began and the middle class grew. Refrigerators, automobiles, and washing machines became ubiquitous in British life. \n\n ![Graph](image://8587907a-af1c-4223-a14f-afe4fb18aeda \"Margaret Thatcher\")\n\nIn 1956, the ‘Suez Crisis’ illustrated Britain’s decline in global influence. Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, which connects the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea, serving as a major avenue for global trade. Fighting broke out as Britain, France, and Israel sent troops to retake control of the canal. The Soviet Union backed Egypt, and the United States threatened trade sanctions against the 3 invaders leading Egypt to be victorious as Britain and its allies withdrew its troops, signaling their subordination to the new world superpowers.\n\nA major domestic shift happened in the 1980s under the leadership of Margaret Thatcher. National industries became privatized, and the power of unions was limited with the miner’s strike of 1985- 1986. Thatcher’s policies marked a rightward shift still felt in modern British politics today.\n","bf182f7a-f1fd-4424-85d5-503ebfe655a9",[900,907],{"id":901,"data":902,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"618e4109-8177-451c-a330-0ee0d876c683",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":903,"clozeWords":905},[904],"Domestically, the National Health Service began and the middle class grew in post-war Britain.",[906],"Health",{"id":908,"data":909,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"fd3c5920-4fb2-4c2a-93ef-d0baaa16df2a",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":910,"multiChoiceCorrect":912,"multiChoiceIncorrect":914},[911],"What event in 1956 illustrated Britain’s decline in global influence?",[913],"The Suez Crisis",[915,916,917],"The Falklands War","The Cold War","The Iraq War",{"id":919,"data":920,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"orbs":923},"0b95497d-ad25-411a-b95d-2dbaece8c0ae",{"type":26,"title":921,"tagline":922},"France: From the Roman Gaul to the Age of Napoleon","Gain an understanding of the major figures, events, and periods of French History.",[924,975,1030,1092],{"id":925,"data":926,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":928},"f941e299-1349-49e1-8232-ee1c71eed3cf",{"type":21,"title":927},"Ancient Gaul and Roman Influence",[929,945,959],{"id":930,"data":931,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":935},"1cd667df-01d1-4212-952f-853597642b2e",{"type":25,"title":932,"markdownContent":933,"audioMediaId":934},"Gaul: Pre-Roman History (Before 50 BCE)","\nAncient France was populated by a Celtic people called the Gauls. These fierce warriors had an empire that stretched from modern Portugal to the Mediterranean coast around 300 BCE. They were known for their strength, bravery, and light hair. Today, the French word gaillard means a ‘strong, strapping person,' in their honor.\n\nThey constructed the first French towns as hill forts and worked iron, bronze, and gold as well as created ornate musical instruments such as the ‘carnyx,’ a giant horn. They lived mostly in tribal groups. It’s estimated that, when Julius Caesar arrived to subjugate them, they were splintered into as many as 60 distinct groups, making them much easier to conquer.\n\n ![Graph](image://c867d4e7-dcd5-4d78-bfba-79ff20466e01 \"A depiction of pre-Roman Gaul\")\n\nResistance against the Romans was led by Gaulish hero, Vercingetorix, whose name translates to 'Victor of a 100 Battles,' and who was later immortalized by a pristine statue built by Napoleon. After 8 years of brutal fighting, the Romans were victorious and Vercingetorix was sent to Rome as a prized prisoner, revered even by his enemies.\n\n","973d9e9d-9c06-4dbd-96ec-5d9bf051a3cb",[936],{"id":937,"data":938,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"fdfcc7c8-9181-49cc-b18a-6b1ae676dde5",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":939,"binaryCorrect":941,"binaryIncorrect":943},[940],"How many distinct groups did the Gauls splinter into when Julius Caesar arrived to subjugate them?",[942],"60",[944],"40",{"id":946,"data":947,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":951},"e0b35061-dbd7-46db-a2e2-2af0fafdffee",{"type":25,"title":948,"markdownContent":949,"audioMediaId":950},"Roman Gaul (50 BCE - 486 CE)","\nRoman rule was a transformative period for France. The first 2 centuries occurred during the ‘Pax Romana,’ a time of peace and tremendous prosperity for the empire. The Gaulish language was slowly replaced by Latin, and Christianity was introduced during the 2nd century CE. Although early Christians were persecuted in Gaul, Gauls were allowed to be full Roman citizens - multiple Roman Senators, and even Emperors Claudius and Caracalla, were born in Gaul. \n\n ![Graph](image://5d468e13-12ec-41ca-8cfd-fb5ecca4f81d \"King Clovis of the Franks\")\n\nThe 3rd century CE saw the strength of the Roman empire start to crumble as Gaul began suffering a series of invasions from ‘barbarians' like the Franks, the Vandals, and the Visigoths. Initially, some of these Germanic peoples chose to settle and accept Roman rule. During this period, commoners began seeking out local lords for protection from the invaders, a process that would see the feudal system emerge. King Clovis of the Franks ended the period of chaos and united Gaul under his reign, naming the new kingdom as France.\n\n","9327a651-ed34-4876-be11-fa2f6240ce48",[952],{"id":953,"data":954,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"d7818e16-1275-43ed-a0fe-f9d83460be82",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":955,"activeRecallAnswers":957},[956],"When did the Feudal system emerge in Gaul?",[958],"During the 3rd century CE",{"id":960,"data":961,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":965},"54f818b2-6190-40a7-9cbe-e8da24f6d377",{"type":25,"title":962,"markdownContent":963,"audioMediaId":964},"The Merovingians and Carolingians (486 - 987)","\nClovis I founded the Merovingian dynasty of Frankish kings when he united all of Gaul with Paris as his capital. They were often called the ‘Long-Haired Kings,’ because their leaders kept their hair long as a symbol of power, while their soldiers were forced to keep theirs short. \n\n ![Graph](image://060fceb8-6aa0-4130-9428-4f6695c1327d \"Charles Martel\")\n\nCharles Martel, ‘The Mayor of the Palace,' served as the de facto ruler of France and initiated the Carolingian dynasty, putting an end to a line of weak Merovingian rulers. He fought multiple conflicts from 718-732 to stabilize France and his power. His son ‘Pepin the Short’ would be the first to crown himself, but it would be Martel’s grandson, Charlemagne, who would change history.\n\nCharlemagne conquered most of western and central Europe, ultimately being crowned the first ‘Holy Roman Emperor’ by the Pope in 800 CE. However, quarreling amongst his 3 grandsons would force the Emperor to split in 3 parts in the ‘Treaty of Verdun’ in 843. In turn, all 3 would be weakened by constant raiding from Scandinavians for the remainder of their reign.\n\n\n","023f72dc-79b4-4137-8e5a-47d2e58ed9c8",[966],{"id":967,"data":968,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"1791f613-18b3-4ca6-949f-b2d417c5b561",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":969,"binaryCorrect":971,"binaryIncorrect":973},[970],"Who was crowned the first 'Holy Roman Emperor' by the Pope in 800 CE?",[972],"Charlemagne",[974],"Clovis I",{"id":976,"data":977,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":979},"c3f6e2dd-e95e-40db-93d8-87628df5d367",{"type":21,"title":978},"Medieval Dynasties and Power Shifts",[980,998,1012],{"id":981,"data":982,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":986},"7515ae2b-fc01-4872-983a-a5ab2c914df4",{"type":25,"title":983,"markdownContent":984,"audioMediaId":985},"The Capetians and Valois (987 CE - 1328 CE)","\nWhen Hugh Capet was elected King by French nobles in 987, France was at a low point, besieged by raiders on all sides. His direct line would rule for over 300 years, slowly increasing in power and uniting France. The Capetians would also establish such institutions as the Crown’s legal courts, or ‘Parlements,’ the representative assembly or ‘Estates General,’ and royal local officials called  ‘Baillis.’\n\n ![Graph](image://eaf9314f-d718-4c83-b8ea-06670afce776 \"Hugh Capet\")\n\nA large reason the Capetians outpaced their rivals was their remarkable stability, sometimes referred to as the ‘Capetian Miracle,’ with the Crown being passed directly from father to son for an astonishing 341 years. They also started a tradition of granting younger sons prestigious titles to let them maintain status and dissuade them from any attempted coup. While other kingdoms dealt with constant fracturing and infighting during periods of succession, the Capetians were able to maintain and continuously expand their territories until they controlled all of France.\n\n","817afa2c-25ca-4017-8aa7-06eed07c775f",[987],{"id":988,"data":989,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"da662ab7-8358-44d2-93b5-809bed1abd31",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":990,"multiChoiceCorrect":992,"multiChoiceIncorrect":994},[991],"What is the term used to describe the remarkable stability of the Capetian dynasty?",[993],"The Capetian Miracle",[995,996,997],"The Capetian Revolution","The Capetian Coup","The Capetian Uprising",{"id":999,"data":1000,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1004},"e5ad4a44-d899-40b1-b949-e607edc97b5d",{"type":25,"title":1001,"markdownContent":1002,"audioMediaId":1003},"Valois (1328 CE - 1589 CE)","\nThe House of Valois was a branch of the Capetians, coming to power when Philip VI inherited the crown with the death of his Capetian cousin. The beginning of their reign was dominated by the ‘100-Years War' with England, in which much of the country was destroyed and held by Britain. France won in 1453, partly thanks to Joan of Arc, who convinced the crown prince to let her lead an army to alleviate the siege of Orleans, winning a stunning victory.\n\nThe later part of the Valois dynasty was dominated by the ‘Habsburg-Valois' Wars. These were a series of conflicts from 1494-1559, mostly in Italy, as the French Valois sought expansion, bringing them into conflict with the Holy Roman Habsburgs. When Francis I was defeated and captured at the battle of Pavia in 1525, he was forced to give up the French region of Burgundy to secure his release. \n\nThe remainder of the dynasty saw both the French Renaissance take place, as well as internal violence as Protestants and Catholics vied for control.\n\n","c6249da9-91be-4c17-880f-63a7e99e6c5a",[1005],{"id":1006,"data":1007,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"4813a8ba-6d62-4930-8017-bb10eb5e2047",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1008,"clozeWords":1010},[1009],"The House of Valois was a branch of the Capetians, coming to power when Philip VI inherited the crown.",[1011],"Valois",{"id":1013,"data":1014,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1018},"fad3042f-d073-4f9b-a389-b3ff78eda1d2",{"type":25,"title":1015,"markdownContent":1016,"audioMediaId":1017},"The Bourbons (1589-1792)","\nThe Bourbons were another branch of the Capetians who gained the Crown with the death of a cousin. After his cousin was assassinated by a priest, the newly crowned Henry IV converted to Catholicism and issued the ‘Edict of Nantes’ in 1589 to grant religious tolerance to bring stability to France. He was assassinated in 1610, and power went to Cardinal Richelieu, who navigated France to a victory over the Habsburgs in the ’30 Years' War.’\n\n ![Graph](image://634fd095-f702-48b2-af6d-de58b7134971 \"The Bourbons\")\n\nLouis XIV is most famous for claiming ‘divine right,’ and building the Royal palace at Versailles. Divine Right was the concept that his authority came from God, essentially giving him absolute power over his subjects. He used Versailles to subjugate his nobles, forcing them to dwell there and dote on him, while the brilliant minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, helped France achieve a massive global empire by the time of his death in 1715.\n\nLouis XV took over the throne and oversaw a loss of foreign territory in the ‘7-Years War’ with Britain, but also saw the French Enlightenment take place. Such vaunted thinkers as Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau made Paris the intellectual capital of the world during that time.\n\n","eaa8292e-ac12-4555-b5ef-6332fda2d8a4",[1019],{"id":1020,"data":1021,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"d2290a68-be2e-4cc7-b1c1-23e75127581f",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1022,"multiChoiceCorrect":1024,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1026},[1023],"Who claimed 'divine right' and built the Royal palace at Versailles?",[1025],"Louis XIV",[1027,1028,1029],"Louis XV","Henry IV","Cardinal Richelieu",{"id":1031,"data":1032,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1034},"2890ba51-d2a5-458d-b97e-5ad679b60d20",{"type":21,"title":1033},"Revolution and Empire",[1035,1053,1078],{"id":1036,"data":1037,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1041},"23dd535b-09b9-4655-b09e-0359cf76d21a",{"type":25,"title":1038,"markdownContent":1039,"audioMediaId":1040},"The French Revolution (1774-1799)","\nConstant conflict nearly bankrupted France by time Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, had the throne. Supporting the American Revolution used up the last of the Crown’s finances, forcing a calling of the Estates General, the French Parliament, in 1789. \n\n ![Graph](image://39a4e2eb-b273-4f3e-8009-63ecd83d397d \"Marie Antoinette, wife of Louis XVI\")\n\nThe ‘3rd Estate’ represented 97% of the population but was outnumbered in the assembly by the 1st and 2nd Estate, made up of Priests and Nobles. Therefore, they were forced to carry all of the tax burdens. In protest of the system, they broke off to form the ‘National Assembly’ at the palace tennis court. Word of the split reached Paris, causing violence and the ‘Storming of the Bastille’ on July 14th. The ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man’ was adopted on August 27th, and a new constitution featuring a constitutional monarchy was adopted in September 1791.\n\nA radical group known as the Jacobins considered the new government too conservative and staged a coup. They seized power and the revolution devolved into chaos as they declared war on their neighbors and began using the guillotine to execute thousands, including the royal family.\n\n","586ba7fe-3be8-4c57-85d6-75eab368a0ab",[1042],{"id":1043,"data":1044,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"07c0761f-c40a-4193-a8ca-a658636a6f1e",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1045,"multiChoiceCorrect":1047,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1049},[1046],"On what date did the 'Storming of the Bastille' occur?",[1048],"July 14th 1789",[1050,1051,1052],"August 27th 1791","September 1791","June 1940",{"id":1054,"data":1055,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1059},"5c2f3ef9-9c30-4904-b767-44e071714d7f",{"type":25,"title":1056,"markdownContent":1057,"audioMediaId":1058},"The Age of Napoleon (1799-1815)","\nOut of the chaos, General Napoleon Bonaparte rose through brilliant military victories, eventually leading him to power in 1799 and being crowned Emperor in 1804. \n\nThe ‘Napoleonic Wars’ lasted from 1803-1815. To help fund these conflicts, Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States in 1803. He conquered most of Europe but had several setbacks. In 1805, the naval Battle of Trafalgar was a major victory for the British as they destroyed the French fleet and ended any chance of an invasion of England. \n\n ![Graph](image://92900106-35a7-4639-82ea-2752b9ea39f7 \"Napoleon Bonaparte\")\n\nNapoleon continued to win on land until his army was broken by the ‘Scorched Earth’ tactics of Russia in a failed 1812 invasion, losing ¾ of his army. He was eventually defeated by a coalition of Britain, Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Sweden, and was forced to abdicate his throne in 1814, being banished to the isle of Elba. \n\nLess than a year later, in February 1815, Napoleon escaped back to the mainland and raised an army to start his ‘Hundred-Days Campaign.’ He was defeated at Waterloo in July 1815. Although his reign was short, his legacy lives on as he established the metric system, public education, and countless other administrative reforms.\n\n","a4139d87-7747-476d-a0a2-849c0f16b817",[1060,1067],{"id":1061,"data":1062,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"bb282316-1639-41e0-b65e-4766c7f6bcd6",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1063,"activeRecallAnswers":1065},[1064],"When was Napoleon crowned Emperor?",[1066],"1804",{"id":1068,"data":1069,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"d0ba6412-4fd6-4998-aa0d-0a6da9581a22",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1070,"multiChoiceCorrect":1072,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1074},[1071],"How long did the 'Napoleonic Wars' last?",[1073],"From 1803-1815",[1075,1076,1077],"From 1799-1814","From 1804-1815","From 1805-1814",{"id":1079,"data":1080,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1084},"560c359c-127c-4641-83df-562a87126101",{"type":25,"title":1081,"markdownContent":1082,"audioMediaId":1083},"The Restoration and 2nd Republic (1815-1870)","\nThe Bourbons returned to power with the crowning of Louis XVIII in 1814, which was known as the ‘Restoration.’ Reactionary forces dominated the administration and intensified their influence with the ascension of Charles X in 1824. Finally, the people revolted in 1830 in what was known as the ‘July Rebellion,’ forcing Charles to give up the throne to his more progressive Bourbon cousin, Louis Phillipe, who ruled the ‘July Monarchy’ through a period of peace and prosperity. When he too began cracking down on political rights, he was overthrown in 1848 by Napoleon’s nephew, Louis Napoleon, who was president for a few years before being declared emperor and becoming known as Napoleon III. \n\n ![Graph](image://2f8d4f57-070f-4167-94ac-5412de1021a2 \"Louis XVIII of France\")\n\nThis ‘Second Empire’ saw France begin to industrialize and continue to expand its overseas holdings. Railroads began to be built, Paris was redesigned by Baron Haussman, and people left the rural countryside to begin working in urban factories.\n\nThe Second Empire ended when it suffered a massive defeat during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871.\n\n","79e6eaed-e044-4bb5-89b3-ad4ee8580c07",[1085],{"id":1086,"data":1087,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"6a94f981-47fa-4731-b562-689dfe1e7e63",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1088,"activeRecallAnswers":1090},[1089],"When did the Second French Empire end?",[1091],"In 1870-1871",{"id":1093,"data":1094,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1096},"3cf7d65c-c25b-43b0-8eec-4def3f4b1a5a",{"type":21,"title":1095},"Modern France and Global Conflicts",[1097,1115,1133],{"id":1098,"data":1099,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1103},"e15f8f0e-bb90-4290-9f35-08d68281b37e",{"type":25,"title":1100,"markdownContent":1101,"audioMediaId":1102},"3rd Republic (1870-1940)","\nAfter the Prussian victory in 1870, yet another uprising, ‘La Commune,’ erupted in 1871. Its defeat ended the monarchy and began the start of the ‘3rd Republic.’ Vital rights were guaranteed at this time, such as the freedom of assembly, freedom of the press, and the right to join unions. The French Empire increased its size by conquering territory in both Africa and southeast Asia. Mandatory education, a strict separation of church and state, and industrialization all were implemented during this era.\n\nIn 1914, France was drawn into World War I due to its alliances. The ensuing war killed 1.4 million French soldiers as trench warfare and new technology brought murder to an industrial scale. The victory did little to cover France’s losses, but the economy did recover during the roaring twenties before plummeting in the great depression of the 1930s. ","393d3821-e145-41ef-b83a-f1518222e51a",[1104],{"id":1105,"data":1106,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"d49617a7-ac74-426b-838a-37718aab3ce2",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1107,"multiChoiceCorrect":1109,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1111},[1108],"What event marked the beginning of the '3rd Republic' in France?",[1110],"The defeat of 'La Commune'",[1112,1113,1114],"The Prussian victory in 1870","The French Empire's conquest of territory in Africa and Southeast Asia","The victory in World War I",{"id":1116,"data":1117,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1121},"54e880ca-18b9-449e-992c-0778564f7fe1",{"type":25,"title":1118,"markdownContent":1119,"audioMediaId":1120},"World War II and Vichy France (1939-1944)","\nThe 3rd Republic was ended by defeat at the hands of the Nazis in World War II. When Hitler invaded Poland in September 1939, both France and Great Britain declared war. At the time, France was thought to have had the largest and most prestigious army in the world, as well as a massive line of fortifications along the border with Germany, the ‘Maginot Line.’\n\n ![Graph](image://3733cd8a-a888-4f48-8e71-94578ac90e1d \"Scenes from World War II\")\n\nThey were well prepared for a rerun of WWI’s plodding trench warfare but utterly vulnerable to the Nazi’s technology-powered ‘Blitzkrieg’ strategy of high-speed attack. The Germans successfully penetrated the allied line by going through the Ardennes forest, and then scorched their way through the allied interior. Prime Minister, Marshal Petain, surrendered and ceded northern France to German control, retreating to southern France and declaring the Vichy government. \n\nMeanwhile, Charles De Gaulle led France’s government in exile, continuing the fight for the remainder of the war abroad while resistance fighters continued the fight within until the liberation of Paris from Nazi rule in August 1944. \n\n","be107576-c679-4738-9878-e441748c14ad",[1122],{"id":1123,"data":1124,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"b4946739-52a6-44c4-8ac4-d0dd9246c3a9",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1125,"multiChoiceCorrect":1127,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1129},[1126],"How did the Germans penetrate the allied line during World War II?",[1128],"By going through the Ardennes forest",[1130,1131,1132],"By going through the Alps","By going through the Pyrenees","By going through the Rhine",{"id":1134,"data":1135,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1139},"7ab72a70-d098-48eb-aa0e-3cfa9d82e089",{"type":25,"title":1136,"markdownContent":1137,"audioMediaId":1138},"Modern France (Post 1948)","\nFrance recovered from the devastation of the war, shedding its colonial holdings on its way to becoming a progressive modern economic power. Though much of the country had been devastated during the fighting, the ‘American Marshall Plan’ helped inject France with funds to rebuild and recover. Decolonization saw conflicts in southeast Asia and North Africa, leading to independence for several former French colonies, including Vietnam and Algeria. France freed all of its African colonies at once in 1960, bringing its overseas empire to an end. \n\n ![Graph](image://59021670-1964-449d-81a3-7283860c8363 \"Paris in the 21st century\")\n\nFrance also joined the ‘North Atlantic Treaty Organization' (NATO) and worked with allies against the communist Warsaw Pact for the duration of the Cold War. France’s economy has seen continued growth over the past half century, and progressive reforms have given it a high standard of living. Its continued tourism has made it one of the world’s most visited countries.\n\n","d7e56b81-726b-44fc-9b93-aa4c08d5b06f",[1140],{"id":1141,"data":1142,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"18bd6808-097a-48ee-a4ed-ef0945dfe92c",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1143,"activeRecallAnswers":1145},[1144],"In which year did France free all of its African colonies?",[1146],"In 1960",{"id":1148,"data":1149,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"orbs":1152},"90498b76-923e-4db5-b277-115c28302a0b",{"type":26,"title":1150,"tagline":1151},"Greece: From the Ancient Philosophers to a Holiday Paradise","Gain an understanding of the major figures, events, and periods of Greek History.",[1153,1201,1252],{"id":1154,"data":1155,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1157},"ead8042c-fad2-4cc4-9ef3-314339e1e633",{"type":21,"title":1156},"Early Greek Civilizations",[1158,1172,1186],{"id":1159,"data":1160,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1164},"6e1c2795-683f-4dff-b93a-cb3a65db42a7",{"type":25,"title":1161,"markdownContent":1162,"audioMediaId":1163},"Ancient Greece (Before 1100 BCE)","\nGreece features some of the earliest civilizations in Europe. The oldest organized settlement in Europe was discovered in Poliochni on Lemnos island in Greece, dating back to the 3rd millennium BCE. The Bronze Age began around 3000 BCE and saw the rise of at least 3 great civilizations.\n\n ![Graph](image://aca7d454-f81b-4477-9534-2903ff51dbb1 \"An Ancient Greek temple\")\n\nThe Cycladic civilization, which centered on the Cyclades islands, prospered from its key position as a trade station between Asia and Europe. They developed rapidly in trade, politics, and culture as they produced impressive frescoes and marble figurines.\n\nThe Minoan Civilization, on Crete, began around 2600 BCE and quickly grew into a regional power. They developed the first writing in the Greek World, built luxurious palaces, and set up colonies all throughout the Aegean Sea. The Minoans disappeared around 1500 BCE, possibly because of a volcanic eruption on Santorini island which caused an earthquake and massive tsunamis to brutalize the Aegeans.\n\nThe most powerful of all ancient Greek civilizations was the Mycenaean Civilization, centered in the town of Mycenae, on the mainland. They built advanced walled cities, developed ‘Linear B’ as a written script, and went to war with Troy.\n\n","7eb247e2-2fe4-48a0-bb7f-7465ef9a52f2",[1165],{"id":1166,"data":1167,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"63534cac-4e33-41e1-8548-23dbfca749dd",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1168,"clozeWords":1170},[1169],"The Cycladic civilization, which centered on the Cyclades islands, prospered from its key position as a trade station between Asia and Europe.",[1171],"Cycladic civilization",{"id":1173,"data":1174,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1178},"a3f5a63e-a444-4ddd-88f5-553a28594b1c",{"type":25,"title":1175,"markdownContent":1176,"audioMediaId":1177},"The “Dark” Ages (1100-800 BCE)","\nSometime in the 12th century BCE, the Dorians invaded from the north and decimated the Mycenaean civilization. This was likely caused by the fact that the Dorians had superior iron weapons, which later signaled the end of the Bronze Age. When destroying the Mycenaean people, the Dorians also destroyed their culture as vast amounts of knowledge were lost, most notably, their written language. This was the same time the mysterious ‘Sea Peoples’ traveled the Mediterranean and wiped out the Egyptians and several other advanced civilizations. In this era, warfare shifted from cavalry-focused to infantry-focused.\n\nInitially, kings ruled divided territories, but over time, the aristocrats took power, and then even smaller groups of elite citizens began to rule independent and unique ‘city-states.’","34be2cc6-ff55-4069-a649-d193517b77d1",[1179],{"id":1180,"data":1181,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"a2129f52-4cfa-40a3-af5b-586c997833c4",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1182,"clozeWords":1184},[1183],"Sometime in the 12th century BCE, the Dorians invaded from the north and decimated the Mycenaean civilization.",[1185],"Dorians",{"id":1187,"data":1188,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1192},"62a9497e-00c2-42d7-ba51-d2aa796c04da",{"type":25,"title":1189,"markdownContent":1190,"audioMediaId":1191},"The Archaic Period (750 - 500 BCE)","\nThe Archaic period saw these city-states take on a particular deity as a sponsor and protector, a shift to agriculture led to large-scale population growth, and writing was relearned from the Phoenicians. Over 1,500 Greek settlements sprang up across the Mediterranean between 750 and 600 BCE. Unique to the Archaic period, every one of these was a completely independent city-state, with no allegiance to the cities from which they came. As trade increased wealth, new autocratic leaders, called ‘Tyrants,’ gained power.\n\n ![Graph](image://758662a5-c35a-47ab-9f25-ef2d21fba966 \"'Korai' memorial statues\")\n\nThe humanities began to flourish in this era. The Homeric epics, *The Iliad* and *The Odyssey*, took the written form we receive them in today; Pythagoras developed his Theorem; Anaximandros developed an early theory of gravity; and sculptors created ‘kouroi’ and ‘korai,' intricate statues made as memorials to the dead, showing the cultural power of the Archaic period.\n\n","feb85c80-1cb5-4317-8ac7-7b8054ebf970",[1193],{"id":1194,"data":1195,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"c8156345-a888-4825-ad0d-211c308d4aa1",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1196,"clozeWords":1198},[1197],"During the Archaic period, Homer wrote his epics, Pythagoras developed his Theorem, and sculptors created 'kouroi' and 'korai.'",[1199,1200],"Homer","Pythagoras",{"id":1202,"data":1203,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1205},"26f684ee-a2bf-4e81-94d6-f0bbacce6153",{"type":21,"title":1204},"Classical and Hellenistic Greece",[1206,1220,1234],{"id":1207,"data":1208,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1212},"b6bd3753-a467-4841-91ae-bb37802237ba",{"type":25,"title":1209,"markdownContent":1210,"audioMediaId":1211},"The Classical Period (500 BCE - 323 BCE)","\nThe Classical period of ancient Greece was filled with both tremendous conflict and tremendous cultural achievement. The early years were characterized by continual war with the Persian Empire, most famously including King Leonidas' valiant stand against a massive Persian invading force at Thermopylae, resulting in an eventual Greek victory. \n\n ![Graph](image://070e32b0-7398-4803-abf7-ea7bb14d3af1 \"Phillip II of Macedonia\")\n\nAn Athenian nobleman named Cleisthenes came up with a new political system in 507 BCE he called ‘demokratia,’ where every male citizen over 18 could join the ruling body and vote on policy. Athens grew in power until a conflict with Sparta resulted in the Peloponnesian War from 431-404 BCE, which was won by Sparta. \n\nMacedonians Phillip II and his son Alexander the Great first conquered Greece, and then nearly all of the Ancient world as far away as the Ganges river in India, Egypt, and most of North Africa.\n\nCulturally, this period featured the historian Herodotus, the physician Hippokrates, and the philosopher Socrates.\n\n","dea6d669-86b8-44a1-a45e-3f046809b9dc",[1213],{"id":1214,"data":1215,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"9d1b0621-8053-45ba-b127-e9c76d3d260a",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1216,"activeRecallAnswers":1218},[1217],"Who came up with the political system 'demokratia' in 507 BCE?",[1219],"Cleisthenes",{"id":1221,"data":1222,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1226},"7f563e28-9390-4bb4-9d19-06ade0e7fe20",{"type":25,"title":1223,"markdownContent":1224,"audioMediaId":1225},"Hellenistic Period (323 BCE - 31 BCE)","\nThe Hellenistic period lasted from the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE to when the Romans conquered the last Macedonian territory in 31 BCE. The Greek verb 'hellenizein,' from which the English word Hellenistic derives, means “to speak Greek or identify with Greeks,” and, thanks to Alexander, this was true of a huge portion of the world after his death. His generals divided the massive empire between themselves, with dynasties formed by each: the Seleucids of Syria, the Ptolemies of Egypt, and the Antigonids of Greece. \n\n ![Graph](image://ef4d3279-58b9-4cf6-a8dd-aed207bfb2c5 \"The libraries of Alexander\")\n\nThese three empires were distinct politically, but the age gets its name from the fact that they shared a common culture. Travelers could move from one town to the next and nearly all spoke the same language and practiced similar customs. Kings built elaborate palaces and commissioned art, sculptures, and jewelry, as well as sponsored museums, zoos, universities, and libraries, the most famous of which was at Alexandria. \n\n","8f1998e1-3ee8-4e54-979a-8a6d6bf7185a",[1227],{"id":1228,"data":1229,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"0bbadb72-2399-4325-af31-d29b801f868f",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1230,"activeRecallAnswers":1232},[1231],"How long did the Hellenistic period last?",[1233],"323 BCE - 31 BCE",{"id":1235,"data":1236,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1240},"fabbbb30-b2d4-49d0-9e42-3ca415731eef",{"type":25,"title":1237,"markdownContent":1238,"audioMediaId":1239},"Roman Greece (31 BCE - 324 CE)","Even though Rome would fully subjugate Greece in 31 BCE, Greek culture had a profound impact on Roman society long before this formal control. This influence is most evident in the Roman adaptation of Greek deities, which they renamed to fit into their own religious framework. \n\nFor instance, the Greek god Zeus became the Roman Jupiter, and Athena became Minerva. This syncretism wasn't a sudden shift but rather a gradual cultural blending that had been happening over time.\n\n ![Graph](image://6fe8cd8c-c0fd-4763-bbd0-6063df423143 \"Homer\")\n\nDuring the 'Pax Romana,' the first two centuries CE marked by peace and prosperity throughout the empire, Greeks were allowed to govern themselves in exchange for tribute to Rome. Starting in 212 CE, Greeks could even become Roman citizens and Senators. \n\nBoth Latin and Greek became official languages of the empire, further solidifying the deep cultural exchange. Roman writers like Virgil drew inspiration from Greek works, such as those of Homer, and Roman nobility eagerly studied Greek philosophy, mathematics, and science. Christianity also spread throughout Greece during this period.\n\n","a1209cd3-f19c-4220-acd8-ab8bdcd871ec",[1241],{"id":1242,"data":1243,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"d9ce7bb7-bc67-4238-8d9d-3f243add93e0",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1244,"multiChoiceCorrect":1246,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1248},[1245],"What was the period of peace and prosperity throughout the Roman Empire called?",[1247],"The Pax Romana",[1249,1250,1251],"The Pax Greca","The Pax Latina","The Pax Christiana",{"id":1253,"data":1254,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1256},"f2d35807-2cf2-4614-bff5-e1eb0a59b030",{"type":21,"title":1255},"Byzantine and Frankish Greece",[1257,1272,1286,1304],{"id":1258,"data":1259,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1263},"a904f7af-4247-42ec-9b03-97c200526304",{"type":25,"title":1260,"markdownContent":1261,"audioMediaId":1262},"Byzantine Greece (324 - 1204 CE)","\nWhen the Roman Empire split, Greece became part of the largely Hellenistic Byzantine empire, centered in Constantinople. The first few centuries of Byzantine rule saw emperors Constantine the Great and Justinian secure the borders of the empire, and embrace orthodox Christian doctrine as the religion.\n\n ![Graph](image://558f5107-656f-4a82-8243-3bf63aad3e3a \"Emperor Constantine\")\n\nBetween 600 and 800 CE, Greece and the empire were repeatedly invaded. Near-constant conflict with the Persians, Slavs, Arabs, and Bulgars defined this period, sometimes with invasions that almost reached Constantinople itself.\n\n800 - 1100 CE was a time of peace, as well as cultural and economic prosperity for Byzantine Greece. The population increased and orthodox churches sprouted up throughout the countryside. Art flourished in the form of distinctly Byzantine mosaics, architecture, and silks which inspired the rest of the West.\n\n\n","efdcec9d-f197-4daa-960b-1313e22cea5d",[1264],{"id":1265,"data":1266,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"904e087c-a0cd-40ba-9bdc-77ce5be1c12d",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1267,"clozeWords":1269},[1268],"The first few centuries of Byzantine rule saw emperors Constantine the Great and Justinian secure the borders of the empire, and embrace orthodox Christian doctrine as the religion.",[1270,1271],"Constantine the Great","Justinian",{"id":1273,"data":1274,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1278},"8601dd4f-1a85-4c1b-85e0-027665d063d2",{"type":25,"title":1275,"markdownContent":1276,"audioMediaId":1277},"Frankish/Latin Greece (1204 - 1453)","\nThe Fourth Crusade in 1204 would set in motion a series of events that would lead to the division of Greece between Latin conquerors for decades, before eventually being reunited with the Byzantine empire. The crusade arrived in Venice with less than a third of the army expected and had already commissioned a massive fleet and provisions for transport. \n\nDespite it being populated by fellow Catholics, the crusaders besieged and ransacked the town of Zadar on behalf of the Doge of Venice, in payment of the debt they owed for their fleet. They were then offered a massive financial reward if they could topple the Byzantine emperor in Constantinople. This reward was offered by his son, Alexius, who also offered to convert to Catholicism and have the Byzantines once again swear fealty to the Pope in Rome.\n\n ![Graph](image://dd4eedbd-e3d6-4e44-9404-db09bb0367b8 \"The Sack of Constantinople\")\n\nThe bankrupt Crusaders accepted the bargain and toppled the emperor, raising Alexius to the Crown. However, Alexius could not afford to pay the Crusaders, and there was considerable unrest between the Byzantine citizenry and the Crusaders. Eventually, Alexius was deposed and assassinated, and the Crusaders ransacked the city and divided much of the Byzantine territory amongst themselves, including Greece, which split into multiple territories.\n\n57 years later, the Byzantine empire would reform and regain control of most of Greece. Over the course of the next few centuries, it would slowly shrink, losing power until its final defeat by the Ottomans in 1453.\n\n","9bbc4b6e-0296-4c53-877f-501696056460",[1279],{"id":1280,"data":1281,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"5ad8b648-d009-4d87-9f7b-cc2f35743a50",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1282,"activeRecallAnswers":1284},[1283],"How long did it take for the Byzantine empire to reform and regain control of most of Greece after the 4th crusade?",[1285],"57 years",{"id":1287,"data":1288,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1292},"0a697793-6ba1-4a68-a78b-aca44f08907f",{"type":25,"title":1289,"markdownContent":1290,"audioMediaId":1291},"Ottoman Greece (1453-1829)","\nThe Ottomans began subjugating Greece in 1453 after taking Constantinople but would not fully complete their conquest until 1499. They instituted the ‘millet system,’ which divided Ottoman territories into castes based on religion, with Muslims at the top and other ‘religions of the book,’ like Christianity and Judaism, beneath. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://fdf64416-b131-4d3e-b0e5-6064cd47a9d0 \"The Siege of Constantinople by the Ottomans\")\n\nThe main punishment for non-Muslims was extra taxes, which was a great deal more tolerant than the forced conversions and expulsions Christians enacted on Muslims during this period. Ottoman bureaucracy only interacted with localities in collecting taxes and recruitment, leaving many Greeks to become economically successful through trade.\n\nAs more Greeks at home and abroad found economic success, they founded schools and universities throughout Greece. This led to a population more prideful and focused on their national identity and independence was declared in 1821. \n\nAlthough at first the fighting was done mostly by guerilla fighters, by 1827, the great powers of Russia, France, and Britain took up the Greek cause, sending naval support and acting as intermediaries for negotiations. Greek Independence became official in 1829, but the new country struggled to industrialize, and thousands of Greeks emigrated over the coming decades.\n\n","55803220-443f-460e-ab67-aefa2ec30d22",[1293],{"id":1294,"data":1295,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"0e46b1e2-c700-4fed-a200-8decfe0cef6a",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1296,"multiChoiceCorrect":1298,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1300},[1297],"What system did the Ottomans institute in order to divide their territories?",[1299],"The millet system",[1301,1302,1303],"The caste system","The religion system","The taxation system",{"id":1305,"data":1306,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1310},"824a27f7-0c2c-4d27-9f65-5f172a7563e2",{"type":25,"title":1307,"markdownContent":1308,"audioMediaId":1309},"20th Century Greece (1900 - Present)","\nThe early part of the 20th century saw Greece double in size through victory in the Balkan Wars of 1912-1913 and then gain Smyrna after siding with the Allies in WWI. Turkey attacked to regain Smyrna in 1919. After 4 years of war, a peace agreement was signed, which allowed for a massive population exchange based on religion. Over 1 million Orthodox Christians left Turkey, and 400,000 Muslims left Greece.\n\nDuring World War II, Greece fended off an Italian invasion but was defeated and occupied by the Nazis in 1941. After the Soviets' advance forced the Germans to retreat, the very first conflict of the Cold War took place in Greece in the form of a 5-year (1944-1949) Civil War between Communists and the British- and American-backed Nationalists, who eventually won.  \n\nAfter a military coup resulted in a 7-year dictatorship from 1967-1974, the ‘Third Hellenic Republic’ was established, and Greece has been a democracy ever since.\n\n","fa5b80e0-7697-4e12-90d9-0b79001e60e2",[1311],{"id":1312,"data":1313,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"3480c087-794c-4b67-86d0-328b7bcb2aec",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1314,"activeRecallAnswers":1316},[1315],"When did Greece sign a peace agreement with Turkey that allowed for a massive population exchange based on religion?",[1317],"1923",{"id":1319,"data":1320,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"orbs":1323},"03dcd468-d251-4d16-a5d3-d2bfb7ac717f",{"type":26,"title":1321,"tagline":1322},"Egypt: From the Ancient Pharaohs to the Arab Spring","Gain an understanding of the major figures, events, and periods of Egyptian History.",[1324,1375,1424],{"id":1325,"data":1326,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1328},"bf1e6abf-144f-4044-bd7a-d00379a53bb7",{"type":21,"title":1327},"Ancient Egypt: Foundations and Early Dynasties",[1329,1343,1361],{"id":1330,"data":1331,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1335},"1f3a53b1-9803-457b-adf3-a589b44924c4",{"type":25,"title":1332,"markdownContent":1333,"audioMediaId":1334},"Archaic Period and Old Kingdom (Pre-2181 BCE)","\nThe first king of Egypt was King Menes, who united Egypt in 3100 BCE, the start of the ‘Archaic Period.’ He founded his capital at White Walls, later known as ‘Memphis,’ by the Nile River delta. The archaic period would see the start of ‘kingship,’ where Egyptians worshiped their Pharoah as a divine being. The earliest hieroglyphics were developed during this time, as well. \n\n ![Graph](image://e14d70ff-73f7-4c5d-84cc-24f3002019ed \"The Step-Pyramid of Saqqara\")\n\nThe ‘Old Kingdom’ began with the 3rd dynasty of pharaohs. This is when King Djoser asked his advisor, Imhotep, to build him a funeral monument. The result was the world’s first major stone building, the ‘Step-Pyramid at Saqqara.’ Subsequent rulers would try to outdo one another, with the culmination being in the 26th century BCE with the completion of the Great Pyramid at Giza outside of Cairo. The 3rd and 4th dynasties were times of peace and plenty, but the 5th and 6th dynasties bankrupted the Crown, and Egypt descended into chaos after the death of the 6th dynasty’s, King Pepy II.\n\n","a8e7a361-85a2-427e-9c00-bb42dfa3dbc2",[1336],{"id":1337,"data":1338,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"57452975-1fbd-4ccd-a060-c5a7a879b111",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1339,"activeRecallAnswers":1341},[1340],"When did King Menes unite Egypt?",[1342],"In 3100 BCE",{"id":1344,"data":1345,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1349},"8102112b-7811-4c2f-b4f0-63436b76144e",{"type":25,"title":1346,"markdownContent":1347,"audioMediaId":1348},"First intermediate period and Middle Kingdom (2181 BCE - 1786 BCE)","\nThe ‘First Intermediate Period’ lasted 130 years and saw rampant civil war, foreign invasions, and deadly famines and diseases. Eventually, two families had control of most of Egypt, and the Theban Prince Mentuhotep defeated his rival to reunite Egypt and found the Middle Kingdom.\n\n ![Graph](image://012aa8d7-042c-420b-a77a-193952082bdd \"Theban Prince Mentuhotep\")\n\nThe Middle Kingdom established a new capital at It-towy, and saw stability and smooth transitions of power thanks to the new practice of appointing each successor as co-regent in advance of their ascendancy to power. The Middle Kingdom successfully conquered Nubia, repelled a Bedouin invasion, and established trade relations with Syria and Palestine. They also returned to building pyramids and had the first female ruler, Queen Sobekneferu, take power in 1789 BCE.\n\n","c9a44c41-4330-4a16-a0e0-2a1f1668dcb3",[1350],{"id":1351,"data":1352,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"906cc2c9-75b5-4f53-8895-9ca102708559",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1353,"multiChoiceCorrect":1355,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1357},[1354],"Who was the first female ruler of Egypt?",[1356],"Queen Sobekneferu",[1358,1359,1360],"Queen Hatshepsut","Queen Nefertiti","Queen Cleopatra",{"id":1362,"data":1363,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1367},"2a9115dc-e7fc-4639-8565-ad1dd3614e75",{"type":25,"title":1364,"markdownContent":1365,"audioMediaId":1366},"Second intermediate period, New Kingdom and third intermediate period (1786 - 664 BCE)","\nRapid succession led to chaos and a second chaotic period starting in 1786 BCE. Multiple dynasties existed in both Thebes and Xois, and in 1650 BCE, foreigners called the ‘Hyksos’ invaded and established their own dynasty in the North. Eventually, the Thebans repelled the invaders in 1570 BCE and started the New Kingdom.\n\n ![Graph](image://dfd711d4-7a51-44a0-a0a1-6f318f96ec13 \"Tutankhamun's tomb\")\n\nThe New Kingdom was arguably Egypt’s most powerful, thanks to conquests that forged the world’s first great empire from Nubia to the Euphrates River in Asia. Proof of the New Kingdom’s wealth was preserved in the ‘Valley of the Kings,’ a burial site near Thebes with deep tombs cut into the rock. Tutankhamun’s tomb was found here largely undisturbed by British Egyptologist Howard Carter in 1922. It was also during the New Kingdom that the biblical exodus of Moses and the Israelites took place in the 13th century BCE.\n\nThe Third Intermediate period stretched from 1085 - 664 BCE and saw Egypt lose its territorial holdings, get conquered by Nubia, and see a line of black pharaohs until the Assyrians invaded in 671 and established their own rule.\n\n","e96c1289-f44e-47ea-9abd-8c788ec1de41",[1368],{"id":1369,"data":1370,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"c1537d6d-6495-40bf-b345-3344f234d0cd",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1371,"activeRecallAnswers":1373},[1372],"When did the New Kingdom start in Egypt?",[1374],"In 1570 BCE",{"id":1376,"data":1377,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1379},"824712ad-4f55-43a1-94dd-9c01594b2eee",{"type":21,"title":1378},"Later Dynasties and Foreign Rule",[1380,1396,1410],{"id":1381,"data":1382,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1386},"30628d20-f7f6-49ba-9f0e-89cbc835b709",{"type":25,"title":1383,"markdownContent":1384,"audioMediaId":1385},"The late, Ptolemaic and Roman periods (664 BCE - 639 AD)","\nThe ‘Late Period’ consisted of the Assyrian-founded Saite dynasty, which lasted 2 centuries until it was conquered and assumed by Persia. The tyrannical Persian ruler, Xerxes, provoked a successful Egyptian rebellion in 404 BCE, only for Egypt to be reconquered by Persia in 343 BCE, and then Alexander the Great in 332 BCE.\n\n ![Graph](image://ed7ed3b7-bf65-4b99-814b-32b17aaeee58 \"An early modern depiction of Cleopatra\")\n\nAlexander the Great established a line of Macedonian kings that would rule for centuries until 31 BCE. The first was his general, Ptolemy, whose line oversaw Egypt’s tremendous economic growth during the Hellenistic period at the capital of Alexandria, featuring the ancient world’s greatest library and university. The last Ptolemaic ruler was Cleopatra, who famously committed suicide after the death of her lover, Mark Antony, and the kingdom’s annexation by Rome.\n\nEgypt became the breadbasket for the Roman Empire, and Alexandria's role in trade and culture rivaled Rome itself in importance. \n\n\n","c570c9ab-8aac-4ccb-8e2e-3b354f637b04",[1387],{"id":1388,"data":1389,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"856c8c76-6d2c-41e2-805c-665e98a7ef3c",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1390,"binaryCorrect":1392,"binaryIncorrect":1394},[1391],"Who was the last Ptolemaic ruler of Egypt?",[1393],"Cleopatra",[1395],"Ptolemy",{"id":1397,"data":1398,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1402},"c630bbf7-cce4-4d57-bbd1-e0b1af7a91c4",{"type":25,"title":1399,"markdownContent":1400,"audioMediaId":1401},"Early Islamic period (639 CE - 969 CE)","\nThe first Muslim caliphate to conquer Egypt was the Rashidun in 641 CE. They repelled Byzantine advances multiple times and divided Egypt into 2 provinces: Upper and Lower Egypt. They kept a military force composed entirely of Muslims, in which Christians were spared in exchange for money. \n\n ![Graph](image://18771102-27f1-497e-adff-d0f8f3e7fdac \"The Umayyad Caliphate at its height\")\n\nThe Umayyad Caliphate was the 2nd to rule Egypt, and was able to rule in relative peace until appointing Abd al-Malik ibn Rifa’a al-Fahmi as governor in 706 CE. He made Arabic the official language and began taxing all non-Muslims, leading to multiple revolts and paving the way for the Abbassid Caliphate to take power. The Abbassids famously revered and studied the pyramids, helping to preserve them during their reign. The Muslim population began to surpass the Christian population during their rule, and precious gem mines discovered at Aswan helped enrich them.\n\n","185ff58a-9142-4b6f-9051-a88d5f655461",[1403],{"id":1404,"data":1405,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"e3e5d053-e110-44ef-9fbc-925cb3c16f17",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1406,"clozeWords":1408},[1407],"The first Muslim caliphate to conquer Egypt was the Rashidun in 641 CE.",[1409],"Rashidun",{"id":1411,"data":1412,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1416},"32d8451d-d48a-4cc8-bce0-a22cdfd16729",{"type":25,"title":1413,"markdownContent":1414,"audioMediaId":1415},"High Islamic period (969 - 1252)","\nIn 969 CE, the Fatimid Caliphate invaded and established Cairo as their capital, bringing Shia Islam with them. The Fatimids were tolerant of different sects of Islam in their territory, but persecuted Christians throughout their control. They also did not revere ancient Egyptian monuments, ordering the nose of the Sphinx torn off and nearly dismantling the Pyramids. The later part of their rule was focused on repelling the Crusades.\n\nGeneral Salah al-Din Ayyub, known by the west as ‘Saladin,’ came to power in 1171 CE, starting the Ayyubid Sultanate and restoring Sunni Islam to Egypt. He conquered Syria, defeating a massive army of crusaders and capturing Jerusalem in 1187 CE before establishing his place as one the greatest military and political minds of the time.","ab90bcf7-1802-45a9-b2a4-1d2ccee43bbb",[1417],{"id":1418,"data":1419,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"a9f52053-e7e5-4238-9e50-acd2541adc48",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1420,"clozeWords":1422},[1421],"In 969 CE, the Fatimid Caliphate invaded and established Cairo as their capital, bringing Shia Islam with them.",[1423],"Fatimid Caliphate",{"id":1425,"data":1426,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1428},"d4606c54-077a-4c8f-a94e-82ddf4c733f1",{"type":21,"title":1427},"Islamic Egypt: Early to High Periods",[1429,1445,1463,1481],{"id":1430,"data":1431,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1435},"55636fdf-02ba-4657-8b38-31c3220fcf65",{"type":25,"title":1432,"markdownContent":1433,"audioMediaId":1434},"Late Islamic period (1252-1798)","\nIn 1252, the Bahri dynasty was founded when Mamluk leader Qutuz led a coup against the Ayyubid Sultanate. He then went on to repel a Mongol invasion in 1260 and helped establish Cairo as a major city. The ‘Black Death’ severely weakened the nation, and in turn, the ‘Great Looting of the Tombs of the Pharaohs and the Valley of the Kings' began. The Burji dynasty took power next but their strength declined until they were conquered by the Ottomans after the ‘Battle of Marj Dabiq’ in 1516 proved their superior artillery power.\n\n ![Graph](image://165efeb3-8fdc-411f-910a-0eb8507509f7 \"The nose of the Great Sphinz was cut off during the looting of the tombs of the Pharoahs\")\n\nUnder Sultan Suleiman I, the Ottomans instituted their religious caste ‘Millet System’ and saw their rule dominated by plagues, famines, and unrest. A constantly revolving string of governors was appointed in Egypt, rarely lasting long or making a large impact. Egypt’s power declined along with the Ottomans until the arrival of Napoleon in 1798.\n\n","6d6ed55b-eb76-4e0b-9658-5f9f8e15e426",[1436],{"id":1437,"data":1438,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"67a7b2ec-5acf-425f-add9-7b14cf60ad97",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1439,"binaryCorrect":1441,"binaryIncorrect":1443},[1440],"When did the Battle of Marj Dabiq take place?",[1442],"1516",[1444],"1252",{"id":1446,"data":1447,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1451},"3bb5be80-d9cb-47ee-a434-f904ba9c821c",{"type":25,"title":1448,"markdownContent":1449,"audioMediaId":1450},"Napoleon’s invasion and the Muhhammed Ali Dynasty (1798 - 1952)","\nNapoleon successfully invaded Egypt in 1798, seizing Alexandria and winning the ‘Battle of the Pyramids’ to gain Cairo in what they hoped would be a quick campaign. However, the British under Horatio Nelson sunk the French fleet at the Battle of the Nile in 1798, making it more difficult for them to return home. Napoleon’s prolonged spell in Egypt facilitated one huge discovery, though: the Rosetta Stone, which would finally allow the translation of hieroglyphics, and effectively found the discipline of Egyptology.\n\n![Graph](image://24ec141d-fbfc-40a8-b821-282ed123fa9a \"Muhammed Ali\")\n\nMuhammed Ali was a leader of the Ottoman forces that helped expel the French. In 1804, he seized control and founded his own dynasty that would last nearly 2 centuries. He conquered Northern Sudan and Syria, as well as parts of Arabia and Anatolia, but was forced to give up his possessions by European powers in 1841. He also oversaw the introduction of cotton agriculture in the 1820s, which turned Egypt’s economy into a cash crop monoculture almost overnight. \n\n","b593428b-60d4-4770-8699-10aec5005b01",[1452],{"id":1453,"data":1454,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"9b002c19-e898-41f7-93f5-50f946cce4a3",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1455,"multiChoiceCorrect":1457,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1459},[1456],"What did Napoleon discover during his prolonged spell in Egypt?",[1458],"The Rosetta Stone",[1460,1461,1462],"The Great Pyramid","The Sphinx","The Temple of Karnak",{"id":1464,"data":1465,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1469},"a07ae881-4648-4908-a0cd-54d6457a624e",{"type":25,"title":1466,"markdownContent":1467,"audioMediaId":1468},"British protectorate (1882-1952)","\nFinancial concerns led Britain to take control of Egypt after winning the Battle of Tel el-Kebir. They reinstalled the former sultan as a figurehead and controlled the country for the next 70 years until British rule was made open and official in 1914. A full-scale rebellion took place in 1919, and Britain granted Egypt theoretical independence in 1922, drawing up a new constitution with a parliamentary system. However, Egyptians were conscripted and fought in both World Wars for the British army, and Egypt became a battlefield during the Second World War when Italy and Germany launched multi-year invasions. \n\n\n![Graph](image://7b380a2c-8203-4985-b200-5b7dd2a6d756 \"The Battle of Tel el-Kebir\")\n\nDuring this period, Egypt became a throughway for international trade but received limited economic benefit. The Suez Canal, providing a naval channel between the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea via the Red Sea, was completed after decades of preparation and construction in 1869. Though technically owned by Egypt, the private company that would operate the canal was composed exclusively of French and British investors until it was nationalized in 1956. \n\nEgyptian independence movements had existed since the start of British control, but it was only with the 1952 Revolution that Egypt truly gained autonomy.\n\n","9f1a3395-b7ea-49be-996c-6040a9b0bf29",[1470],{"id":1471,"data":1472,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"8fb17fab-c21d-42a2-8f19-e4510b1d5abf",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1473,"multiChoiceCorrect":1475,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1477},[1474],"When did Egypt gain autonomy?",[1476],"With the 1952 Revolution",[1478,1479,1480],"With the 1914 Revolution","With the 1956 Revolution","With the 1919 Revolution",{"id":1482,"data":1483,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1487},"e48f3e62-1b08-45d0-8edd-13b68792a5d8",{"type":25,"title":1484,"markdownContent":1485,"audioMediaId":1486},"Independent Egypt (1953 - Present)","\nAfter gaining independence, Egypt struggled with a string of dictators from 1956-2011, including Gamal Nasser from 1956-1970, Anwar Sadat from 1970-1981, and Hosni Mubarak from 1981-2011, before establishing democracy.\n\n ![Graph](image://9026ce8e-6159-4292-8ed5-12bae943d4b2 \"Gamal Nasser\")\n\nDuring Nasser’s reign, he made the decision to seize and nationalize the Suez Canal, prompting the ‘Suez Crisis’ of 1956. Nasser saw a major economic opportunity and began taxing the millions of tons of cargo that traveled through the canal each year. In response to nationalization, Israel, Britain, and France all dispatched troops to retake control of the canal. Egypt was able to secure the support of both the Soviet Union and the United States, the former threatening nuclear war, and the latter economic sanctions on their behalf. The invaders were forced to relent and Egypt has had control of the canal ever since.\n\nEgypt’s leaders involved it in several wars against Israel, including the ‘Six Days War’ of 1967, where it lost the Sinai Peninsula, and the ‘October War’ of 1973, which gained it back. \n\n","0391943a-547b-4fca-a909-3e909f48162c",[1488],{"id":1489,"data":1490,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"0183b016-6e66-43be-9b3d-b3db0010cb26",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1491,"activeRecallAnswers":1493},[1492],"In which war did Egypt gain back the Sinai Peninsula?",[1494],"The 'October War' of 1973",{"id":1496,"data":1497,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"orbs":1500},"fb506c66-1362-4d67-9313-fe68b486ba57",{"type":26,"title":1498,"tagline":1499},"West Africa: From Ancient Tribes to the World’s Youngest Countries","Gain an understanding of the major figures, events, and periods of West African History.",[1501,1550,1601],{"id":1502,"data":1503,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1505},"415f1b61-3ee9-4a01-8957-c42ae4c252fd",{"type":21,"title":1504},"Early West African Civilizations",[1506,1520,1534],{"id":1507,"data":1508,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1512},"199e2d61-3a30-42fa-9a36-72e15589c9b9",{"type":25,"title":1509,"markdownContent":1510,"audioMediaId":1511},"Tichitt culture (1900 BCE - 300 BCE)","\nLocated in present-day Mauritania, Tichitt Civilization featured some of the earliest instances of urbanization in west Africa, dating back to 1900 BCE. They had perfected the art of growing superfood pearl millet in the 1500s BCE, allowing the pastoral peoples to settle down and begin constructing stone homes, forts, and even monuments. As the Sahara expanded, the lakes alongside their villages dried up, forcing them to move south over time. \n\n ![Graph](image://ee89faac-3dc2-48d6-9f0d-37a5d1ed50bd \"Tichitt cave art. Image: Linus Wolf, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nCulturally, the Tichitt engaged in cave art. They are credited with helping start the trans-Saharan trade that fueled later empires, and built ornate stone funerary monuments in addition to dwellings 60 to 100 feet in diameter. Earlier settlements seemed to prioritize being alongside lakes, whereas later settlements were placed on tops of hills for defensive purposes.\n\n","96a65bf7-2094-496b-9b29-35a57b1c77da",[1513],{"id":1514,"data":1515,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"7b0a7605-cdbf-4f6d-ad0d-9da3addcce08",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1516,"activeRecallAnswers":1518},[1517],"When did the Tichitt Civilization begin?",[1519],"1900 BCE",{"id":1521,"data":1522,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1526},"04b924e2-8436-45f5-b214-34a9e6363a1b",{"type":25,"title":1523,"markdownContent":1524,"audioMediaId":1525},"Nok culture (500 BCE - 200 CE)","\nThe mysterious Nok civilization gets its name from the artifacts first discovered near the modern Nigerian town of Nok. These artifacts included unique terracotta sculptures of human heads, figures, and animals depicted with elaborate hairstyles and triangular eyes. Analysis of clay artifacts from an 80,000-square kilometer area suggested that they came from a single source, making it likely a central authority controlled the supply of the material.\n\n ![Graph](image://cf5d5af1-7d2d-4e14-a593-ddf1402e49cc \"A terracotta mask made by the Nok culture\")\n\nEvidence suggests the Nok people were one of the only civilizations to go directly from stone tools to iron ones without first using copper or bronze. The fact that the Nok used both stone and iron tools suggests iron was scarce and valuable. Some historians believed they may even have developed these advanced smelting techniques independently from the rest of the world.\n\n","bc602eef-5993-4bec-bdc7-e30e646d6a2f",[1527],{"id":1528,"data":1529,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"bb6a7003-ec47-48fd-a916-524e36c1afbc",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1530,"activeRecallAnswers":1532},[1531],"Which artifacts gave the Nok civilization its name?",[1533],"Terracotta sculptures",{"id":1535,"data":1536,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1540},"4cc66d6a-20de-4e87-a870-ca8c8e4c994e",{"type":25,"title":1537,"markdownContent":1538,"audioMediaId":1539},"Djenne-Djenno (250 BCE - 1100 CE)","\nDjenne-Djenno was a massive ancient city located on the Niger River Delta in modern Mali. There is evidence it may have been the center of a larger culture, but since the region lacked written language at this time, it is difficult to ascertain definitively. Its fertile location by the Niger River allowed it to be an agricultural mecca but its proximity to the crossroads of the trans-Saharan trade routes and the massive Niger made it a center for trade and prosperity.\n\n ![Graph](image://19142b36-f97d-438c-9da4-a31828ee1243 \"The ancient city of Djenne-Djenno\")\n\nCulturally, the city’s inhabitants engaged in pagan ancestor worship, completed extensive art in the form of pottery and terracotta sculptures, and used advanced smelting methods to produce iron weapons and tools. Their trade goods were found as far as 750 kilometers away, along with glass beads from India, implying they were part of a vast network of exchange. Their sculptures seem to be of ordinary people, complete with signs of debilitating diseases and scars, making it likely they were placed in household shrines for worship.\n\n","75a2a0f3-374a-4e05-9a6d-9268c17ebcd8",[1541],{"id":1542,"data":1543,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"86e915a6-ea6e-4a22-8994-264e56aa9bf8",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1544,"binaryCorrect":1546,"binaryIncorrect":1548},[1545],"What is the name of the ancient city located on the Niger River Delta in modern Mali?",[1547],"Djenne-Djenno",[1549],"Timbuktu",{"id":1551,"data":1552,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1554},"033c332c-daaf-4563-865f-3b28e9fc547d",{"type":21,"title":1553},"West African Empires",[1555,1569,1587],{"id":1556,"data":1557,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1561},"0d3f4f33-8e65-45f1-97c8-072c1cf77d9f",{"type":25,"title":1558,"markdownContent":1559,"audioMediaId":1560},"Ghana Empire (500 CE - 1200 CE)","\nAmong the richest empires of its day was the empire of Ghana, located in modern-day Mauritania and Mali. It used its strategic location on trans-Saharan trade routes and abundant natural resources to become wealthy and powerful. Iron, copper, gold, ivory, and access to both the Niger and Senegal rivers allowed them to become the center of trade in West Africa. In addition, their adequate rainfall and the routine flooding by the 2 major rivers provided an abundance of fertile land for agriculture. \n\nThe Kings of Ghana insisted they keep possession of solid gold nuggets to help control the market. Traders could possess gold if it had been broken down to powder or dust. The arrival of Islam seemed peaceful at first, as many traders converted because they believed it was good for business. However, evidence suggests the monarchy never converted from its pagan beliefs. The combination of an unusually arid few seasons ruining crop yields, civil conflicts, and finally a massive invasion by the Almoravids of North Africa in 1076 sent the empire into a spiral of decline.\n","c3e129c0-2d21-4fb6-a336-31749a562447",[1562],{"id":1563,"data":1564,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"806ff2a6-c3ea-4f33-8c1f-21ee9df36fc8",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1565,"clozeWords":1567},[1566],"Among the richest empires of its day was the empire of Ghana, located in modern-day Mauritania and Mali.",[1568],"Ghana",{"id":1570,"data":1571,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1575},"e7c3af30-c0ad-4dd8-9ffe-fa75eab45da9",{"type":25,"title":1572,"markdownContent":1573,"audioMediaId":1574},"Mali Empire (1240 - 1645)","\nMali’s combination of trade and resources made its Islamic Kings some of the richest in history. Mali boasted an army of over 100,000 soldiers and 10,000 calvary, using them to conquer rivals and force them to pay regular tribute to the crown. They were able to supply the gold that would help launch banking in Renaissance Italy and pass on the goods from trans-Saharan trade routes to the African interior via the Niger river for a massive profit. \n\n ![Graph](image://348349f5-6cb2-40e5-9515-dc4cc6962802 \"Mansa Musa I\")\n\nThe height of the empire was the reign of Mansa Musa I, who remains the richest person ever to have lived, with a personal fortune of over $400 billion. Europeans became so enraptured with this legend that his likeness was placed on maps holding a gold nugget.\n\nMali would fall into decline by the 15th century as rival trade routes opened up, maritime trade  began to outpace trans-Saharan caravans, and the mighty Songhai Empire rose to become the last of the ‘Big 3’ West African Empires of this time.\n\n","30c0dac5-240f-449b-b80c-dad1a4299a3e",[1576],{"id":1577,"data":1578,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"fb34ef16-d3b7-4c76-b5dc-a49b8db4a605",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1579,"multiChoiceCorrect":1581,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1583},[1580],"What was the name of the richest person ever to have lived, during the height of the Mali Empire?",[1582],"Mansa Musa I",[1584,1585,1586],"Emperor Haile Selassie","Thutmose III","Shaka Zulu",{"id":1588,"data":1589,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1593},"e4f20072-4e8d-4eac-8131-c4e555fb8875",{"type":25,"title":1590,"markdownContent":1591,"audioMediaId":1592},"The Songhai (1460 - 1591)","\nThe Songhai Empire would take most of what had been Mali’s, including the capital of Timbuktu, and expand even further to cover an area of over 1.4 million square km at its height, making it the largest and most powerful in the history of West Africa. \n\nThe Songhai Empire was founded by Sunni Ali, who reigned for 28 years and won 32 wars straight. He vacillated between being lenient and ruthless, allowing defeated soldiers to choose to join his army, but also massacring certain tribes who proved the most reluctant to give in to his rule. \n\n ![Graph](image://0a01dc0d-8df3-4890-84de-5fc011d7c8ff \"The Songhai Empire at its peak. Image: Author unknown, CC BY-SA 3.0, Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAli’s successor, Askia Mohamad, would see the empire reach its greatest height, both politically and culturally. Controlling most of West Africa and its trade, Timbuktu reached a population of 100,000, nearly a third of which were university students. The most profitable trade for this era was in books, as Askia Mohammed constructed universities, as well as a massive library. Islamic scholars made Timbuktu a center of learning for mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. \n\n","4120965a-9ce8-4241-bb79-f1f7595f5277",[1594],{"id":1595,"data":1596,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"b74ca116-7daf-49dd-834b-e6ea8354e0a2",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1597,"activeRecallAnswers":1599},[1598],"Who founded the Songhai Empire?",[1600],"Sunni Ali",{"id":1602,"data":1603,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1605},"c878dc95-12a0-4248-b094-f1281ee7cdd4",{"type":21,"title":1604},"Colonial and Post-Colonial West Africa",[1606,1620,1638,1652],{"id":1607,"data":1608,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1612},"8704ce26-1586-474a-9b9c-2a9efd403cdd",{"type":25,"title":1609,"markdownContent":1610,"audioMediaId":1611},"The Asante Empire (1701 - 1900)","\nOne of several African kingdoms in the age of the transatlantic slave trade, the Asante, came to power through conquest and selling captives. Leader Osei Tutu took control in the 1670s, uniting the local peoples and establishing a ‘Golden Stool’ as a symbol of his authority. \n\n ![Graph](image://31324696-d222-4015-9de3-cb4545c5264a \"Asante leader Osei Tutu Agyeman Prempeh II\")\n\nThe Asante Empire conquered local tribes, taking them captive before selling them to Europeans in exchange for military goods like firearms. This enabled them to become well-armed and powerful enough to defeat the British in multiple wars starting in 1824. They were not fully defeated until 1895, when the British had the use of the ‘Maxim’ machine gun. \n\n","438f686d-0577-4fe6-8b31-0e8e6cc22d37",[1613],{"id":1614,"data":1615,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"e678a2b9-0134-4290-9818-d689eae55997",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1616,"clozeWords":1618},[1617],"The Asante Empire was established by leader Osei Tutu in the 1670s and was not fully defeated until 1895",[1619],"Osei Tutu",{"id":1621,"data":1622,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1626},"828661c3-9290-478c-af9b-6d0456dac8b3",{"type":25,"title":1623,"markdownContent":1624,"audioMediaId":1625},"The scramble for Africa (1881-1914)","\nEuropeans were finally able to conquer Africa at the turn of the 20th century, thanks to 2 major inventions: the machine gun and the steamboat. Up until this point, Europeans held territory only along the coast of Africa, rarely venturing into the interior even as they established huge territorial colonies in other parts of the world. The infamous Berlin conference of 1884-85 saw European nations carve up Africa according to their ambitions, with no regard for African history or the presence of any African representatives. These European-drawn borders would haunt many African nations for years to come.\n\n ![Graph](image://efd592b9-10df-4efd-bcf6-4cf1ab530fb7 \"The Berlin Conference of 1884\")\n\nIn West Africa, Samori Ture famously led the Mandinka people in resistance to a takeover from France, who had been given their land at the Berlin conference. After winning initially, Ture was slowly forced back by the French until he signed a peace treaty in 1889. Instead of giving up, Ture built a second empire eastward and prepared to resist the French in a second conflict, but was defeated and captured in 1898.  \n\n","e957ee1e-7aa9-48fb-a332-8ae27e30f4f3",[1627],{"id":1628,"data":1629,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"b2a461f7-3661-4fe6-858e-73b4ade27825",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1630,"multiChoiceCorrect":1632,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1634},[1631],"When did the Europeans finally conquer Africa?",[1633],"At the turn of the 20th century",[1635,1636,1637],"At the turn of the 19th century","At the turn of the 18th century","At the turn of the 17th century",{"id":1639,"data":1640,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1644},"37692075-13ef-48cd-bbe8-3b49dfc1be8c",{"type":25,"title":1641,"markdownContent":1642,"audioMediaId":1643},"West Africa under imperialism (1914 - 1960)","\nThe majority of West Africa was held by the French, with their forces centered in Senegal on the western coast where the Portuguese and British also held territory. The main goals of Europeans in Africa were economic: to export as much cash crop and natural resources as possible and to encourage African markets to begin consuming European manufactured goods. This unbalanced trade system allowed European nations to exploit their colonies for tremendous profit. They followed a policy of forced assimilation and French became the most commonly spoken language in West Africa. \n\n ![Graph](image://dea20355-bc24-48a3-bd32-1ad607c1927e \"The French-occupied territories of West Africa\")\n\nInfrastructure, such as railroads, was built by Europeans, but rather than linking West African communities together, they were used to link major production centers to a port to expedite trade with Europe. Little was done to invest in education or healthcare, as Europeans instead focused on forcing Africans to participate in the labor market for cash crops and materials.\n\nWest African resistance was present throughout the entire period of colonization. Strategies varied between countries, including everything from insurrections to non-violent demonstrations. \n\n","aef63499-65e8-459f-b331-3bd60b3cc9a4",[1645],{"id":1646,"data":1647,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"3b3115d1-cd76-4da8-a6ae-d6cddbadbf21",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1648,"activeRecallAnswers":1650},[1649],"Which language became the most commonly spoken language in West Africa during colonization?",[1651],"French",{"id":1653,"data":1654,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1658},"64e21cab-6d9d-45ce-affe-b099da2b0494",{"type":25,"title":1655,"markdownContent":1656,"audioMediaId":1657},"Post-colonial West Africa (Post 1960)","\nDecolonization began in earnest following World War II, leading to the formation of some of the world’s youngest countries, with some unique problems left to address. Ghana gained its independence in 1957 due in part to the tireless work of Kwame Nkrumah, who returned from his studies abroad to lead the movement and became Ghana’s first prime minister and president.  France soon followed suit and freed all of its West African colonies by 1960.\n\n ![Graph](image://01b0ab36-d56e-44fb-8099-1b4766b7fe27 \"Kwame Nkrumah\")\n\nNewly independent West African nations faced serious economic and political issues. Neocolonialism emerged, where large foreign multinational corporations retained power over African economies. The leftover political boundaries drawn by Europeans left new countries often divided amongst multiple tribal peoples with distinct languages and cultures, leading to civil conflicts. \n\nA lack of educational infrastructure had to be corrected so new generations could start to compete in more profitable industries. Despite these issues, West African nations have made tremendous progress since gaining independence.\n\n","a17d3bb2-e35d-413e-8e0b-aae7d0450816",[1659],{"id":1660,"data":1661,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"b551bb86-171e-47f8-a7a2-8bb31596c151",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1662,"binaryCorrect":1664,"binaryIncorrect":1666},[1663],"When did Ghana gain its independence?",[1665],"1957",[1667],"1960",{"id":1669,"data":1670,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"orbs":1673},"27bbc757-63fe-4c2c-9e77-1db89fe5530f",{"type":26,"title":1671,"tagline":1672},"Japan: From Feudal Samurai to High Tech Society ","Gain an understanding of the major figures, events, and periods of Japanese History.",[1674,1725,1776],{"id":1675,"data":1676,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1678},"fd65b999-9a4d-4feb-936a-d30d5cb33756",{"type":21,"title":1677},"Early Japanese History",[1679,1693,1711],{"id":1680,"data":1681,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1685},"e1a4e22f-c7a6-4b0b-95b3-1872cb321f9c",{"type":25,"title":1682,"markdownContent":1683,"audioMediaId":1684},"Ancient Japan","\nThe Jōmon period, from 13000 - 300 BCE, was named after its distinctive ‘rope-patterned', or ‘Jōmon’ pottery. During this time, the tribes inhabiting Japan were primarily hunters, gatherers, and fishermen. They didn’t have iron tools, systematic agriculture, or a written language.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://3ef061d4-4414-44b1-a6d5-efc35235e8ac \"An artist's impression of Ancient Japan\")\n\nThe Yayoi Period, which lasted from 300 BCE until 250 CE, saw the major catalyst of rice agriculture arrive from the mainland. With it came larger and more permanent settlements, social classes, and iron-worked tools and weapons. Yayoi pottery lost the ornate Jomon decorations and instead focused on function: cooking jars were distinct from storage jars, which were distinct from bowls for religious offerings. \n\nThe Yamato Period (250 CE - 710 CE) saw Japan’s first central power, the Yamato, consolidate power over nearly 2/3 of Japan. Shintoism, Japan’s animistic religion worshiping various nature-based deities, became widespread, although Buddhism also arrived from China during this period. Chinese Writing was used to make Prince Shotoku’s Seventeen Article Constitution based on Buddhist and Confucianist ideology. \n\n","e406fdc8-4eb9-412d-8cd5-4098ee06e159",[1686],{"id":1687,"data":1688,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"336292ae-0c7c-4843-b5c5-7b63b5d0c257",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1689,"clozeWords":1691},[1690],"The Jomon period, from 13000 - 300 BCE, was named after its distinctive rope-patterned, or ‘Jomon’ pottery.",[1692],"Jomon",{"id":1694,"data":1695,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1699},"b2b7eac6-2efb-49ae-931a-aa3e0a6d6f25",{"type":25,"title":1696,"markdownContent":1697,"audioMediaId":1698},"Nara and Heian periods (710 - 1185)","\nThe Imperial capital was moved to Nara in 710 CE. This is seen as the first era of classical Japanese history. This period saw massive growth in Buddhism, and with it, power for Buddhist monasteries. The Nara period ended quickly in 784 CE when Emperor Kanmu moved the capital to Kyoto, where it remained for the next thousand years, in an attempt to extricate the court from the influence of powerful Buddhist leaders in Nara. \n\n ![Graph](image://4962055c-5c08-4c66-8018-3e706e040c07 \"The Yamato-e style\")\n\nA Golden Era for culture, the Heian Period is considered by some to be the zenith of classical Japanese humanities and society. The formation of the ‘samurai’ class of warrior nobles occurred during this time. A 31-syllable style of poetry called ‘Waka’ was developed, and some of Japan’s most famous art, done in a colorful style called ‘Yamato-e,’ was done, showing a clear break from Chinese art.  The era ended with the defeat of the ruling Taira clan in the Genpei War (1180-1185).\n\n","9fc2455f-c080-458a-8d95-11f4b7cfc08f",[1700],{"id":1701,"data":1702,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"ca8726f6-2cee-408d-8597-27e1b417233e",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1703,"multiChoiceCorrect":1705,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1707},[1704],"When did the Heian Period begin?",[1706],"784 CE",[1708,1709,1710],"710 CE","1180 CE","1185 CE",{"id":1712,"data":1713,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1717},"3af0324e-bca0-4fe0-a0fc-e27e0b99ff43",{"type":25,"title":1714,"markdownContent":1715,"audioMediaId":1716},"Kamakura Period (1185 - 1333)","\nMinamoto no Yoritomo seized power with victory in the Genpei War and named himself Japan’s first ‘Shogun,’ or supreme military leader. This started the 700 years of feudal Japan and made the imperial court and emperor a symbolic figurehead for its duration.\n\n ![Graph](image://effdc333-b6ed-4512-916b-8ae8bfdc72d2 \"A contemporary depiction of the Genpei War\")\n\nDuring this period, Kublai Khan’s Mongol army attempted an invasion of Japan but suffered a rare defeat. A combination of the Shogun’s forces and a ‘divine wind,’ essentially a massive typhoon, wiped out the Mongol navy in 1281. Paranoid of further invasions, the Kamakura Shogun continued investing in preparing defenses. Unfortunately, this practice would speed their downfall as defenses have costs but produce no profits: financial troubles plagued the government and cost them the loyalty of many nobles.\n\nThis era also included the writing of one of Japan’s greatest historical epics, The Tale of Heike, about the Taira and Minamoto squaring off in the Genpei War.\n","0ce4527d-e575-4971-82ce-3ece9c4d9873",[1718],{"id":1719,"data":1720,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"af38c7d7-df6f-4ae2-8607-d696b74b27f5",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1721,"clozeWords":1723},[1722],"Minamoto no Yoritomo seized power with victory in the Genpei War and named himself Japan’s first ‘Shogun,’ or supreme military leader.",[1724],"Shogun",{"id":1726,"data":1727,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1729},"936b84b6-c515-45e7-87af-74281f3fe7a1",{"type":21,"title":1728},"Feudal Japan and the Rise of the Daimyo",[1730,1748,1762],{"id":1731,"data":1732,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1736},"6c2739af-18c3-474f-8e48-3ec819308d4c",{"type":25,"title":1733,"markdownContent":1734,"audioMediaId":1735},"Ashikaga Period (1336 - 1568)","\nThis era is called either the ‘Muromachi Period,’ after the location of the government’s buildings at the time, or the 'Ashikaga Period,’ after the family of shogun rulers of the time. It occurred after a briefly attempted coup by the emperor Go-Daigo, that lasted from 1333 - 1336. \n\n ![Graph](image://380bc1e3-7910-4b83-abfb-6bb5196ac63e \"A 'Daimyo' warlord\")\n\nAshikaga Takauji deftly switched sides and seized power in Kyoto in 1336, forcing Go-Daigo to flee to the south and appointing his relative to be his puppet emperor. The next 50 years would see the formation of 2 courts, a southern one ruled by Gai-Do at Yoshino, and a northern one at Kyoto controlled by the Ashikaga Shoguns. Battles were common and Kyoto was destroyed multiple times in the continuous fighting. \n\nAs the civil conflict wore on, new economic conditions saw the emergence of powerful warlords called ‘Daimyo’ who begin to acquire and claim territory throughout Japan. Favorable trade with China's Ming Dynasty, agricultural advances, and the founding of new markets allowed for the growth of population, towns, and these new local lords.\n\n","1bcadb8e-8a65-42da-a31e-831049113f17",[1737],{"id":1738,"data":1739,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"f1df84f3-d436-426b-8425-f3af91d6acb1",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1740,"multiChoiceCorrect":1742,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1744},[1741],"What is the name of the period of civil conflict in Japan that saw the emergence of powerful warlords called 'Daimyo'?",[1743],"The Muromachi Period",[1745,1746,1747],"The Heian Period","The Edo Period","The Meiji Period",{"id":1749,"data":1750,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1754},"612f9f11-8fbc-4183-a918-aff9add944cd",{"type":25,"title":1751,"markdownContent":1752,"audioMediaId":1753},"Warring States Period (1467 - 1573)","\nThe rise of the Daimyo during the Ashikaga period coincided with the fall of central authority, ultimately devolving into a chaotic period of civil conflict known as ‘The Warring States Period.’ This century of Japanese history featured nearly constant war amongst rival daimyos throughout the country as they colluded and betrayed one another in an endless struggle for territory and power.\n\n ![Graph](image://9e594a74-7b6d-4f91-a9f6-1255046444fb \"The traditional robes of a Japanese nobleman\")\n\nDuring this time, the first Europeans, the Portuguese, bearing firearms and Christianity, began to arrive in Japan in 1543. At first, daimyos were eager to trade with Europeans to gain access to military goods to use on their rivals. The large-scale introduction of canons into warfare would spur the need for larger and more impregnable castles, leading to the unintended side effect of larger courts and a flourishing of Japanese humanities. \n\n","60ffa54d-819b-417f-b418-8a4135aab6fc",[1755],{"id":1756,"data":1757,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"8153db25-51ab-4606-baf2-083dfee788f6",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1758,"activeRecallAnswers":1760},[1759],"When did the Portuguese arrive in Japan?",[1761],"In 1543",{"id":1763,"data":1764,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1768},"6daf0447-d836-4d9b-9771-6e8528e2edb3",{"type":25,"title":1765,"markdownContent":1766,"audioMediaId":1767},"Azuchi-Momoyama Period (1573 - 1603)","\nThe Azuchi-Momoyama Period is characterized by the emergence of the first 2 of Japan’s 3 ‘Great Unifiers.’ Oda Nobunaga began as Daimyo of the Owari province and, through a combination of shrewd diplomacy, ruthless conquest, and innovative thinking, managed to become ruler of most of Japan, taking Kyoto in 1568. \n\nAlthough firearms had existed in Japan since the 13th century, Nobunaga is credited with using large numbers of muskets to arm his lowest ranking soldiers, allowing them to face even a full charge by Samurai. Nobunaga was only stopped from uniting Japan when he was betrayed and murdered by one of his generals in 1582.\n\n ![Graph](image://f4110c10-3f62-4811-95eb-c8cece86a3e5 \"The Osaka Castle\")\n\n\nToyotomi Hideyoshi, a common-born general of Nobunaga’s, seized the opportunity to defeat the traitorous general Akechi and take control for himself. He not only succeeded in conquering and unifying all of Japan but followed up with an expansionist invasion of Korea with the goal of ultimately conquering all of China. \n\nHe built the famed Osaka Castle and began trying to minimize the influence of Christian missionaries on Japanese culture. His military progress stalled when he was met by a combination of Chinese and Korean forces, and he died during the final evacuation of the peninsula in 1598.","7948c7e9-7cc5-4473-9bbe-ea34e2411445",[1769],{"id":1770,"data":1771,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"b767f7d1-42e7-436e-8dbe-a4cf9ee39dac",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1772,"activeRecallAnswers":1774},[1773],"Who is credited with using large numbers of muskets to arm his lowest ranking soldiers during the Azuchi-Momoyama Period?",[1775],"Oda Nobunaga",{"id":1777,"data":1778,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1780},"510bc96b-2206-4f27-ad48-7718e4dcc0e6",{"type":21,"title":1779},"The Tokugawa Shogunate and Isolation",[1781,1798,1812,1826],{"id":1782,"data":1783,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1787},"3038dc2b-f3e3-485c-9146-8975519a73f9",{"type":25,"title":1784,"markdownContent":1785,"audioMediaId":1786},"Edo/Tokugawa Period (1603-1868)","\nTokugawa Ieyasu, an ally of both Nobunaga and Hideyoshi, would become the 3rd and final ‘Great Unifier,’ as his Tokugawa Shogunate would rule in relative peace for the next 250 years. To bring stability, he not only switched the capital to Edo, now called Tokyo, but required all Daimyo to spend every 2nd year at his court, leaving hostages behind for the other year. This largely deterred them from scheming for autonomy and instead left them competing for a standing in his circle. \n\n ![Graph](image://095aea16-61e2-4e7e-a3df-bcc33da6ea82 \"A 'kabuki' theater\")\n\nThe Tokugawas had an interesting, if limited, relationship with foreign powers. They established trade with the English and Dutch but scapegoated Christianity after several peasant rebellions. The result was a comprehensive isolation policy known as Sakoku (\"locked country\") that started in 1639, banning travel to other nations, and limiting foreigners to trading only at the port of Nagasaki until 1853.\n\nThis period also saw a flourishing of the humanities with the growth of ‘kabuki' theater and ‘ukiyo-e’ art. \n\n","10eae99b-3f04-4b86-9671-c7325af17f72",[1788],{"id":1789,"data":1790,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"9a6406f1-3214-4a53-9df7-5e794d54166b",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1791,"multiChoiceCorrect":1793,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1795},[1792],"When did Japan's period of \"Sakoku\" (isolation), enforced by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ending in 1853, begin?",[1794],"1639",[1796,1797,73],"1737","1534",{"id":1799,"data":1800,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1804},"3fddb1a8-0d67-45d2-a5a9-109d6b763dce",{"type":25,"title":1801,"markdownContent":1802,"audioMediaId":1803},"Meiji Period (1868-1912)","\nThe Meiji Period saw Japan undergo a remarkable change as it went from a subjugated agrarian society to an industrial powerhouse at an incredible speed. The era began when emperor Meiji moved from Kyoto to Tokyo, taking power, establishing Tokyo as his capital, and then establishing parliamentary democracy. Initially disadvantaged by treaties with western powers, the Meiji sent scholars to study abroad while welcoming foreign academics to teach in Japan. They set up mandatory conscription, with an army based on Prussia’s and a navy based on Britain’s. The country industrialized rapidly with a booming textile industry and government subsidies for businesses.\n\n ![Graph](image://ed2616a4-80ab-4c6d-8777-0614a52c803f \"Emperor Meiji\")\n\nJapan’s rapid advancement ran into discriminatory and racist treatment from western powers which fostered resentment. Seeing the age of imperialism unfold, Japan went to war with China in 1894, won, and seized Taiwan. However, Russia, France, and Germany intervened and forced Japan to give up some of its colonies. The insult from this ‘Triple Intervention’ inspired Japan to intensify its militarization, culminating in a victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905, announcing Japan as an official imperial power. \n\n","12bf0bef-8aa0-4f0b-b64d-a1e72381a57f",[1805],{"id":1806,"data":1807,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"514d0c3c-26df-4880-9f07-926c20f6efb2",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1808,"clozeWords":1810},[1809],"The Meiji Period saw Japan undergo a remarkable change as it went from a subjugated agrarian society to an industrial powerhouse at an incredible speed.",[1811],"Meiji Period",{"id":1813,"data":1814,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1818},"48f185cb-b6e0-46b0-98b3-a97080e0e08f",{"type":25,"title":1815,"markdownContent":1816,"audioMediaId":1817},"Taisho and early Showa Period (1912 - 1945)","\nMeiji’s death in 1912 led to his physically and mentally infirm son Taisho's brief 14-year reign where nearly all power shifted to the ‘Diet,’ which was the Japanese Parliament. Japan joined with the Allies in World War I and benefitted both by seizing German colonies and profiting off industrial trade. Taisho died in 1926, leaving the Crown to his son, Showa, who held the title until he died in 1989.\n\n ![Graph](image://6649917d-46d4-4f18-b42f-46f672dd9469 \"The Sino-Japanese War\")\n\nIn the aftermath of the Great Depression of the 1930s, Japan fully embraced militarism to spend its way out of the recession. The strategy was successful economically, but when spending cuts were proposed, the military seized control of the government and doubled down on its imperialist agenda. \n\nThe second Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1937 when escalating tensions in Manchuria turned into a full-blown invasion. Japan won a string of military victories seizing territory, including a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 which made the United States its chief opponent in the Pacific. However, momentum swung in America’s favor with the Battle of Midway in 1942, and for the remainder of the war, Japan was slowly pushed back until nuclear weapons were used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August, 1945. Emperor Showa surrendered the next week.\n\n","e58eee5b-632b-45e8-8eb0-2d978059a45a",[1819],{"id":1820,"data":1821,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"6d2de187-16c6-4b4d-832e-1b49d2c5df83",{"type":51,"reviewType":27,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1822,"clozeWords":1824},[1823],"Meiji’s death in 1912 led to his physically and mentally infirm son Taisho's 14-year reign",[1825],"Taisho",{"id":1827,"data":1828,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1832},"541bf296-db3f-4675-bf85-dc25bddc5f87",{"type":25,"title":1829,"markdownContent":1830,"audioMediaId":1831},"Post-war period","\nJapan was controlled by the U.S., specifically by General Douglas MacArthur, from 1945-1952. MacArthur instituted large-scale reforms such as land redistribution, universal suffrage, and a complete dismantling of the Japanese war machine. In 1947 the Japanese government passed Article 9 of their constitution - forbidding them from ever starting a war again, except for under very limited circumstances of self-defense.\n\nWith the Soviet Union looming large, the two countries agreed to continue the U.S. military presence even after the occupation. Unexpectedly, this period would result in an incredibly close trading relationship between the former enemies, helping the two grow into some of the world’s largest economies.\n\n ![Graph](image://ec20bde1-57b7-4b67-a56e-d2eb5433df61 \"General Douglas MacArthur\")\n\nIn 1973, an oil crisis led Japan to convert its gas-dependent industrial economy into one focused on high technology industries. Japan has been one of the world leaders in technology, standards of living, and life expectancy ever since.\n\n","70257ac2-7bbe-47f3-be37-9b906eef2bd0",[1833],{"id":1834,"data":1835,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"4e76bae8-b520-438d-9a97-c9191166baa1",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1836,"activeRecallAnswers":1838},[1837],"Which U.S. general governed Japan in the period 1945-1952",[1839],"Douglas MacArthur\n",{"id":1841,"data":1842,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"orbs":1845},"5d579716-bf54-4182-be32-126fe80c90e8",{"type":26,"title":1843,"tagline":1844},"Russia: From Tsars Great and Terrible to Soviet Powerhouse","Gain an understanding of the major figures, events, and periods of Russian History.",[1846,1905,1955,2018],{"id":1847,"data":1848,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1850},"ad33da20-361e-4b2c-ae09-a7df457cea07",{"type":21,"title":1849},"Early Russian History",[1851,1869,1887],{"id":1852,"data":1853,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1857},"517e64d2-9f30-4320-bfbf-d8a9476abf57",{"type":25,"title":1854,"markdownContent":1855,"audioMediaId":1856},"Ancient Russia (Pre-862 CE)","\nAncient nomadic Iranian and Asian peoples occupied what is now Russia for millennia before the arrival of the Kievan Rus and the beginning of Russian history as we know it. The most well-known were the Scythians, legendary warriors who fought primarily on horseback, controlling modern-day Ukraine from 600 - 200 BCE. \n\nFor the next thousand years, Slavic peoples would settle and become the dominant ethnic group of the region but see frequent invasions by various groups such as the Huns and Goths, coming under the control of the Turkish Khazars in the 8th and 9th centuries. \n\nThe native peoples that would eventually come under the control of today’s more expansive Russia are the Finno-Ugric. These indigenous Russian tribes are still a minority in Russia and serve as a reminder of its diverse history. These tribes inhabit many of their ancestral lands, making them some of the oldest continuous cultures on the planet, some estimates placing them at 42,000 years old. \n\n","0d2d1544-24e2-4bfa-b8c5-801202de182b",[1858],{"id":1859,"data":1860,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"9927056b-bcb9-4ad1-98c5-4d8bf2f8d02b",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1861,"multiChoiceCorrect":1863,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1865},[1862],"Who are the native peoples that would eventually come under the control of today’s more expansive Russia?",[1864],"The Finno-Ugric",[1866,1867,1868],"The Scythians","The Huns","The Goths",{"id":1870,"data":1871,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1875},"34ea65f3-bdf2-43a7-8d70-378619749cab",{"type":25,"title":1872,"markdownContent":1873,"audioMediaId":1874},"The Kievan Rus (862- 1242)","\nThe Kievan Rus, for whom Russia would be named, were actually Scandinavian Vikings, also known as ‘Varangians.’ They made the trip down to Novgorod and Kyiv to seize power and start a reign that would last almost 700 years. Although some historians believe they might have had Slavic roots, the uncovering of Nordic artifacts in Kyiv and Novgorod during this time has pushed most academics into believing the myths of Viking conquerors founding Russia to be based in truth. \n\n ![Graph](image://b535b190-b9b8-4b66-ae45-64ec3457d903 \"AI-generated image: 'The Varangians'\")\n\nThe Kievan Rus were a string of warrior kings who would carve out larger and larger surrounding territories to increase their empire. In 987 CE, Vladimir the Great granted military aid to the Byzantine Emperor and ended up marrying his sister on the condition that he convert to Christianity. The result was the entry of Eastern Orthodox Christianity into Russia, and a fabled group of 6,000 Varangians being sent to be the elite bodyguard of the Byzantine emperor in Constantinople. \n\nIn later years, the Kievan Rus would splinter as brothers went to war with one another, so by the time the Mongols invaded in the 1230s CE, there was little to stop them from conquering the former kingdom.\n\n","733664ec-4f49-4bf7-b1f5-b7752c752bb9",[1876],{"id":1877,"data":1878,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"a966d44a-a5c4-42b5-83a4-e26e7e11f0f9",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1879,"multiChoiceCorrect":1881,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1883},[1880],"What is the name of the group of warrior kings who founded Russia?",[1882],"The Varingians",[1884,1885,1886],"The Eastern Celts","The Martial Macedonians","The Carolingans",{"id":1888,"data":1889,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1893},"099d85be-d9fc-47aa-8a74-d87cfa9feebb",{"type":25,"title":1890,"markdownContent":1891,"audioMediaId":1892},"Mongol rule: The Golden Horde (1242 CE - 1480 CE)","\nA huge Mongol army of around 100,000 destroyed much of the Kievan Rus empire, even burning Kyiv to the ground as they dominated any opposition in a campaign that lasted from 1237 CE until 1242 CE. They held sway for the next two centuries and even continued receiving tribute all the way into the late 1600s when Peter the Great ended the practice.\n\nWhen Genghis Khan’s empire split apart, Russia became part of the Golden Horde’s territory. The Mongols were not interested in ruling, just receiving regular tribute, so Russia’s princes soon became autonomous as long as they sent regular payments to the Khan’s capital in Saray. However, they learned important lessons in governance, such as using written contracts and laws, and a system of ‘yams,’ or road stations, to keep large territories well connected to the Mongols that would later serve them as Russia grew into the world’s largest country.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://f9040aab-3888-49cf-a1dc-f078f8038770 \"Ivan the Great of Moscow\")\n\nMongol rule officially ended in 1480 when Ivan the Great of Moscow fought the Khan’s army to a stalemate at the Ugra River. The Mongol army turned back but continued to gain tribute from Russia for another two centuries.\n\n","1478652a-2cd5-49a4-89ec-a4b14e9cb430",[1894],{"id":1895,"data":1896,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"5fd11c1c-53b5-4853-93dc-e224fb101ec2",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1897,"multiChoiceCorrect":1899,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1901},[1898],"When did Mongol rule officially end in Russia?",[1900],"In 1480",[1902,1903,1904],"In 1237","In 1242","In 1600s",{"id":1906,"data":1907,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1909},"33bcc0c7-4861-43a9-b634-21f1d14bc5b4",{"type":21,"title":1908},"The Rise of the Tsars",[1910,1924,1941],{"id":1911,"data":1912,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1916},"62b0f74d-8275-45da-bd29-7b912e3d04c8",{"type":25,"title":1913,"markdownContent":1914,"audioMediaId":1915},"The Ivans Great and Terrible (1480 CE - 1613 CE)","\nIvan the Great started out as Grand Prince of Moscow but ended up tripling the size of his holdings and repelling the Mongol Golden Horde to establish an autonomous rule. After the death of his first wife, he remarried a Byzantine princess who greatly opened him up to European influence, even inspiring him to inherit the legacy of the Romans. He hired Italian architects to rebuild Moscow, took the Byzantine Double Headed Eagle as his own symbol, and wrote down Russian law for the first time in the Sudebnik, in 1497.\n\n ![Graph](image://c7d9513f-61ef-47f7-a4db-8d951df77c2f \"Ivan the Terrible\")\n\nIvan’s grandson, Ivan the Terrible, was the first to use the title of ‘Tsar,' or ‘Caesar,’ in honor of his grandfather’s vision of Moscow becoming the next Rome. His reign started off successful and benign until his beautiful young wife Anastasia Romanov died mysteriously. He became convinced that Russian nobles had poisoned his wife and, succumbing to paranoia, he used secret police to torture and kill thousands of people. The violence culminated in the sacking of Novgorod by Ivan after he became convinced the city's nobles were plotting against him. \n\nAfter killing thousands, including his own son in an argument, Ivan the Terrible died without a strong heir, sending Russia into 30 years of chaos dubbed ‘The Time of Troubles.’\n\n","d538130c-abd5-4775-b8e0-3a5d90bffffc",[1917],{"id":1918,"data":1919,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"1a903a8b-7ca2-45e1-a6e3-323f91fa2098",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1920,"activeRecallAnswers":1922},[1921],"Who was the first Russian leader to use the title of 'Tsar' or 'Caesar'?",[1923],"Ivan the Terrible",{"id":1925,"data":1926,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1930},"6a00d0ca-605e-4b5a-a15d-661312da2e5f",{"type":25,"title":1927,"markdownContent":1928,"audioMediaId":1929},"The Romanovs and Peter the Great (1613 CE - 1762 CE)","\nThe Time of Troubles ended in 1613 when nobles came together to name Michael Romanov, grand nephew of Ivan the Terrible’s beloved wife, Anastasia, the first Tsar of the Romanov dynasty. The Romanovs would slowly expand their power until Michael’s grandson, Peter the Great, modernized Russia and transformed it into a great European power. \n\nPeter the Great looms as a giant in Russian history both figuratively and literally, at 6 feet and 8 inches tall. As a teenager, he made a fateful trip touring Western Europe, marveling at the wealth and advances on display. When be became Tsar in 1682, he decided his mission would be to turn Russia into a westernized modern power. \n\nTo do this, he established St. Petersburg as Russia’s first warm weather port so it could start engaging in maritime trade, and instituted a ‘beard tax’ to get Russian Boyars nobles to shave like westerners and wear suits. He also started the first Russian newspapers and schools, insisting noble Russian sons be educated. By the end of his reign, Russia had reached new heights in power and prestige. \n","3c26df1e-276c-43e2-bbdf-66e59cca8cd5",[1931],{"id":1932,"data":1933,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"a3cdf965-35d2-4034-aed7-37a1ab32f84e",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1934,"multiChoiceCorrect":1936,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1938},[1935],"Who was the first Tsar of the Romanov dynasty?",[1937],"Michael Romanov",[1923,1939,1940],"Peter the Great","Anastasia",{"id":1942,"data":1943,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1947},"2d209445-89e3-45a5-9ee8-73e75a45ad6e",{"type":25,"title":1944,"markdownContent":1945,"audioMediaId":1946},"Catherine the Great and the Late Romanovs (1762 CE - 1900 CE)","\nThe next major ruler was Catherine the Great, a German baroness who married Peter the Great’s grandson, overthrew him with the help of a military lover, and became Russia's longest-tenured female ruler. She became famous for embracing the Enlightenment, corresponding with philosophers, and patronizing the arts. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://295868dc-ff49-408d-a74c-92bf6afccb59 \"Catherine the Great\")\n\nRussia won yet more territory, expanding to become the largest contiguous empire on earth. She also talked about ending serfdom, an almost slave-like state for Russia’s poor similar to the feudalism seen in other parts of Europe, during the middle ages. However, when she started to broach ending the system, strong pushback from Russian nobles stopped her from following through on her pledge. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://b7eb0c37-5875-4937-95e4-57894e6b0e58 \"The Romanov Dynasty in the late 19th century\")\n\nIt was not until 1861 that Tsar Alexander II officially ended serfdom in Russia, hundreds of years after other European nations. Alexander also sold Alaska to the United States in 1867 and instituted mandatory military service. Despite these reforms, entrenched extreme inequality saw rebellion slowly building despite later Tsars’ best attempts to destroy any possible political threats before they could gain momentum. \n\n","d047edca-bcb8-4c9d-b1c4-fb476bc4d91b",[1948],{"id":1949,"data":1950,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"a6d7ede0-f017-4247-b0fb-a4e3ed31b7d6",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1951,"activeRecallAnswers":1953},[1952],"Who was the longest-tenured female ruler of Russia?",[1954],"Catherine the Great",{"id":1956,"data":1957,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1959},"1be2267a-d7e9-4953-bdd7-01b29389e2de",{"type":21,"title":1958},"Revolution and Reform",[1960,1977,1995],{"id":1961,"data":1962,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1966},"91483daa-9f42-4be9-b453-2236ef14f086",{"type":25,"title":1963,"markdownContent":1964,"audioMediaId":1965},"The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Lenin (1900 CE - 1924 CE)","\nThe Industrial Revolution saw both a massive population boom in Russia and soaring economic inequality. Tsar Nicholas II proved unable to share power with a parliament, and the combination of suffering defeat at the hands of the Japanese in 1905, and the unprecedented slaughter of Russian troops on the German front during the first World War, was enough for rebellion to finally overthrow the Romanov dynasty. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://21b072b5-fdd0-48c6-aef7-e6eef9d1183b \"Lenin\")\n\nTsar Nicolas left Moscow to command his own army in support of his Serbian, British, and French allies on the battlefields of the first World War. At home, his wife’s mysterious advisor Rasputin took more and more power until he was murdered by Russian nobles in 1916, fomenting even more chaos. The February Revolution toppled the government in the form of a more moderate republic, but this was quickly followed by the Bolshevik October Revolution, led by socialist Vladimir Lenin. Russia left the first World War amid the ensuing Civil War.\n\nThe Russian Civil War saw the Bolshevik, ‘Red,’ Army defeat the moderate, ‘White,’ Army, and then Vladimir Lenin founded the Soviet Union, establishing socialist systems, recruiting secret police to murder political dissidents, and cementing his communist regime. \n\n","03739022-293b-406c-b589-574b85039c2f",[1967],{"id":1968,"data":1969,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"5067467d-95b3-4ac2-94d2-5ac1ef718431",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1970,"multiChoiceCorrect":1972,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1974},[1971],"When did the October Revolution take place in Russia?",[1973],"1917",[1975,1976,1317],"1915","1905",{"id":1978,"data":1979,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1983},"183198d2-b13a-4ec4-8e17-b3c8d0ac0139",{"type":25,"title":1980,"markdownContent":1981,"audioMediaId":1982},"Stalin (1924 CE - 1953 CE)","\nIn the early 1920s, Vladimir Lenin began having a series of strokes that left him weakened and in need of a successor. He favored his Red Army general, Leon Trotsky, but powerful Communist Party bureaucrat, Joseph Stalin, ruthlessly outmaneuvered him. He would eventually have Trotsky murdered in Mexico, as well as being responsible for the deaths of around 20 million of his own people, making him one of history’s most prolific killers.\n\n ![Graph](image://9e71a280-6bfc-4243-a362-be3c41596e95 \"Joseph Stalin\")\n\nStalin purged his enemies and imprisoned political opponents on his way to expanding the Soviet Union’s power, famously signing the Molotov-Ribbentrop non-aggression pact with Adolf Hitler so he could take the eastern portion of Poland. In June 1941, Hitler betrayed Stalin with a massive invasion, penetrating hundreds of miles into Soviet territory. The Soviet war machine industrialized quickly, handing the Nazis their first major defeat at Stalingrad, and slowly pressing their way to Berlin.\n\nStalin continued to terrorize his own people, sending millions to be worked to death in labor camps, even into his death in 1953. He ruled with paranoia and ruthlessness, seeing the Soviet Union become a nuclear power and start a worldwide competition with the West in the form of the Cold War. \n\n","45cb5903-96a9-47f9-9fbd-5708d70a3592",[1984],{"id":1985,"data":1986,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"bbd87324-8ab2-4656-a8d3-f4a1923f8c5e",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1987,"multiChoiceCorrect":1989,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1991},[1988],"Who was the powerful Communist Party bureaucrat who ruthlessly outmaneuvered Trotsky and eventually had him murdered?",[1990],"Joseph Stalin",[1992,1993,1994],"Vladimir Lenin","Leon Trotsky","Adolf Hitler",{"id":1996,"data":1997,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2001},"eb6ea65d-eb01-42ca-b7de-16c7b564b448",{"type":25,"title":1998,"markdownContent":1999,"audioMediaId":2000},"The Cold War (1945 CE - 1985 CE)","\nNikita Kruschev took power after Stalin’s death and continued his work, leading the Soviet Union to be one of the world’s 2 major superpowers, and the world’s only communist one. The Soviets had particular success in the ‘space race,’ as the first country to launch a satellite in the form of ‘Sputnik’ and the first to send a man into space. The Soviets engaged the West covertly all over the world, in addition to founding the ‘Warsaw Pact’ as a response to the formation of ‘NATO.’ \n\n ![Graph](image://ba3be020-3caf-4134-83b0-559d78f742fb \"Sputnik 1 - the world's first satellite\")\n\nNuclear war nearly broke out during the ‘Cuban Missile Crisis’ when the Soviets attempted to send nuclear missiles to Cuba in the wake of the U.S.-backed invasion, the ’Bay of Pigs.’ However, despite their growth of power, the centrally planned economy of the USSR could never quite keep pace with the surging growth of the more capitalist West. \n\n","72e8ab89-a3dc-46d0-84b9-c4eedc693f7f",[2002,2011],{"id":2003,"data":2004,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"7e08f6b7-ac19-45aa-ae56-d6be4786a0a8",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":2005,"binaryCorrect":2007,"binaryIncorrect":2009},[2006],"What was the name of the first satellite launched by the Soviet Union?",[2008],"Sputnik",[2010],"Apollo",{"id":2012,"data":2013,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"bd13b88e-aac8-4761-bbac-793c8c352929",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":2014,"activeRecallAnswers":2016},[2015],"Which country was the first to launch a satellite and send a man into space?",[2017],"The Soviet Union",{"id":2019,"data":2020,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":2022},"cd106b12-b0d8-4d83-8f98-1c9ffc64a83b",{"type":21,"title":2021},"Modern Russia",[2023,2041],{"id":2024,"data":2025,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2029},"82bc6fa0-7453-400e-85ac-355bc14a2cc1",{"type":25,"title":2026,"markdownContent":2027,"audioMediaId":2028},"The End of the Soviet Union (1985 CE - 1991 CE)","\nThe ‘beginning of the end’ of the Soviet Union came when Mikhail Gorbachev rose to power in 1985. His goal was to reform and modernize the Soviet Union. These reforms were twofold. Firstly, Gorbachev pursued glasnost, which translates to ‘openness,’ where trade was opened up and more free speech was granted to journalists and citizens. Secondly, Gorbachev pursued perestroika, which translates to ‘reconstruction,’ a policy that saw more capitalist and progressive political reforms put into place. \n\n ![Graph](image://d35b5d98-5725-4371-8403-a1989ed6371c \"Mikhail Gorbachev. Image: Vladimir Vyatkin, CC BY SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nGorbachev harshly put down a peaceful protest in Lithuania in 1991, killing unarmed civilians, and was later criticized by political moderate, Boris Yeltsin. On August 18th, 1991, the Soviet old guard decided it had to act to regain control and reinstate more conservative policies, ordering the military to take parliament and arrest Yeltsin after placing Gorbachev on house arrest. The military refused to follow through with the ‘August Coup,’ and Boris Yeltsin ended up proclaiming the end of an era. Within a year, the Soviet Union had split apart and Boris Yeltsin was the first President of the Post-Soviet Russian Federation.\n\n","fde56d64-8185-417f-8510-e14bdbcb38fb",[2030],{"id":2031,"data":2032,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"bf30cef1-a308-4540-a671-2c3f36f7658d",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":2033,"multiChoiceCorrect":2035,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2037},[2034],"What was the goal of Mikhail Gorbachev when he rose to power in 1985?",[2036],"To reform and modernize the Soviet Union",[2038,2039,2040],"To dissolve the Soviet Union","To start a new war","To restore conservative policies",{"id":2042,"data":2043,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2047},"a021cbee-e8c7-4e1f-99e6-2d0dbe4c3824",{"type":25,"title":2044,"markdownContent":2045,"audioMediaId":2046},"Post-Soviet Russia","\nBoris Yeltsin, Russia’s first post-Soviet President, attempted to turn the country into a fully-capitalist state. The reforms proved to be too much too quickly, and rampant inflation and economic troubles haunted his tenure. When he struggled to put down a rebellion in Chechnya, and began facing mounting health issues, he issued a surprise resignation from power on December 31st, 1999, appointing former FSB (the KGB’s successor) boss, Vladimir Putin, to the presidency. \n\n ![Graph](image://3e509d73-b06a-4945-abaf-5e950ac3ab93 \"Vladimir Putin\")\n\nSince taking power, Putin has pursued an aggressively nationalist agenda, increasingly cutting the ties with the Western world that had been formed in the 1990s. A new era in the history of Russia, and its relationship with the rest of the world, was marked with its invasion of Ukraine in February 2022.\n\n","59e9fea7-2c7a-4bf4-a770-b9095edff067",[2048],{"id":2049,"data":2050,"type":51,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"be6ea1e4-14cb-4bb8-9c12-53a6cc70eac3",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":2051,"multiChoiceCorrect":2053,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2055},[2052],"Who was appointed to the presidency after Boris Yeltsin's surprise resignation in 1999?",[2054],"Vladimir Putin",[2056,2057,2058],"Mikhail Gorbachev","Sergey Abisov","Boris Becker",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":2060,"height":2060,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":2061},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":2060,"height":2060,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":2063},"\u003Cg fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\">\u003Cpath d=\"M12.586 2.586A2 2 0 0 0 11.172 2H4a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v7.172a2 2 0 0 0 .586 1.414l8.704 8.704a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 3.42 0l6.58-6.58a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 0-3.42z\"/>\u003Ccircle cx=\"7.5\" cy=\"7.5\" r=\".5\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",1778228388279]