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outnumbered by Ottoman forces.","The Treaty of Passarowitz forced the Ottomans to give up northern Serbia to Austria.","Ottoman economic struggles reversed their power balance in Europe.",1,{"id":37,"data":38,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"263b9100-eef8-415f-aa38-561effac7521",{"type":39,"intro":40},10,[41,42],"Why did the Ottomans refuse to hand over the Swedish King to the Russians?","What was the impact of the Treaty of Passarowitz on the Ottoman Empire?",[44,69,97],{"id":45,"data":46,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":49},"7dfe10c4-3702-4f9a-8b33-4745e14bfffe",{"type":35,"markdownContent":47,"audioMediaId":48},"After the last attempt at besieging Vienna, the Ottoman emperors were badly in need of a victory. They were soon given the perfect opportunity through what is known as The Pruth River Campaign.\n\nIn 1710, the Swedish King, fleeing from Russian troops after losing the Battle of Poltava during the Great Northern War, decided to claim sanctuary at Bender, an Ottoman fort in modern-day Moldova. Despite overtures from the Russian troops to give him up, Sultan Ahmed III refused all requests as a show of strength. This led to the Russian Tsar declaring war on the Ottomans.\n\n![Graph](image://747fc4c2-6c3f-453a-8d18-09218230fbb6 \"King Charles XII of Sweden at Bender. Image: From the Library of Congress, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nImmediately, the Sultan sent his troops out on a campaign. The two armies were expected to meet alongside the Danube river, which the Tsar had instructed his troops to stop the Ottomans from crossing. However, a lack of food prevented the Russians from mounting a strong resistance, and the Danube was crossed almost without resistance, leading to the signing of a treaty favorable to the Ottoman Sultans.","6a1050e8-f85c-4d28-87b3-d8f523a187df",[50,58],{"id":51,"data":52,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"9e8d96cf-c16b-4d2c-8ddf-560c7a26a4ff",{"type":53,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":35,"clozeQuestion":54,"clozeWords":56},11,[55],"During the Pruth River campaign of 1710, the Ottomans fought with Russia, crossing the Danube.",[57],"Pruth River",{"id":59,"data":60,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"b8bdc997-0abf-4383-b3a0-1a41c8cf4885",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":61,"multiChoiceCorrect":63,"multiChoiceIncorrect":65,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[62],"Why did Russia declare war on the Ottomans in 1710?",[64],"The Ottomans gave sanctuary to the King of Sweden",[66,67,68],"The Ottomans attacked the Russians in Crimea","The Ottomans insulted the Orthodox church","The Tsar sought to expand his territories",{"id":70,"data":71,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":74},"2dc740a0-fe86-4cfa-9241-0b018eefe9a7",{"type":35,"markdownContent":72,"audioMediaId":73},"Although the Pruth River campaign had proved that the Ottomans still had a high level of geopolitical relevance on the European stage, it was not long before they were dealt another blow to their expansionary ambitions. In 1717, the Austrian Habsburgs attempted to strike a significant blow to the Ottomans by attacking Belgrade, a key city alongside the Danube which the Ottomans had held since 1521.\n\n![Graph](image://241571dc-6aac-4e2e-aa5e-2c7c78d81b17 \"The Pruth River campaign, depicted on an 18th-century screen. Image: Circle of Gonzalez Family, No restrictions, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nInitially, the Austrians appeared to have the upper hand, with a fighting force of 100,000 men combating an Ottoman garrison with only 30,000 soldiers. However, an Ottoman relief force containing another 180,000 men soon arrived, leaving the Austrians at a disadvantage both in terms of infrastructure – with the Ottomans possessing the city walls – and in terms of manpower.\n\nHowever, strong mortar attacks from the Austrians, combined with a brave offensive from the Austrian relief cavalry led directly by Prince Eugene, enabled the Austrians to take Belgrade.","76072ed8-e081-4fda-a602-d8990778e29f",[75,86],{"id":76,"data":77,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"e3b271bb-341f-493f-a66a-7209eebc0247",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":78,"multiChoiceCorrect":80,"multiChoiceIncorrect":82,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[79],"The Austrian Habsburgs attacked the Ottomans in 1717 in which city?",[81],"Belgrade",[83,84,85],"Vienna","Budapest","Constantinople",{"id":87,"data":88,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"8f3dfde8-ae73-43db-90dc-b32b0cc2e58d",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":89,"multiChoiceCorrect":91,"multiChoiceIncorrect":93,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[90],"When did the Ottoman Empire lose Belgrade?",[92],"1717",[94,95,96],"1621","1572","1815",{"id":98,"data":99,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":102},"d9e65a4a-0434-4119-ac7f-b39d6cb66fbd",{"type":35,"markdownContent":100,"audioMediaId":101},"Although the Ottomans had largely been winning the war against Europe before the Battle of Belgrade, with key victories in much of Ottoman controlled Greece repelling Venetian and Austrian advances, Belgrade dealt a significant blow to Ottoman hopes of victory. This was compounded by the fact that Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, who were now key trading partners for the Ottomans, were keen to see a peace to alleviate the Venetian blockade of their goods.\n\n![Graph](image://d2ec1a34-5da5-49e4-bbbd-6022dfdcbd16 \"A modern-day reconstruction of the Treaty of Passarowitz. Image: Peca.Jo12, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAs a result, the Ottomans were forced to sign the Treaty of Passarowitz, which contained damaging terms, including the cessation of the northern half of Serbia to Austrian Habsburg control. This marked a significant departure in Ottoman policy.\n\nFor much of their ascendancy, they could leverage their trading relationships to sue for favorable peace. Now that the Ottoman economy had been ruined by state pay increases, with the state lying in deficit since 1592, the power balance had been reversed.","37afe3f0-930b-4428-b016-7d6cce385ac1",[103],{"id":104,"data":105,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"6db4f7ff-78a9-4ff4-b6e2-c3558b734b1c",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":106,"multiChoiceCorrect":108,"multiChoiceIncorrect":110,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[107],"The Ottomans conceded the northern half of which territory at the Treaty of Passarowitz?",[109],"Serbia",[111,112,113],"Bosnia","Greece","Moldavia",{"id":115,"data":116,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":118,"introPage":126,"pages":132},"2f0c4c95-7e77-4e43-aeb7-a3ddb6b63092",{"type":25,"title":117},"Religious Interference and Its Impact",{"id":119,"data":120,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"0bedd87a-d458-4943-964d-c4781f336f76",{"type":19,"summary":121},[122,123,124,125],"The Ulema shut down the Ottoman artillery school, calling it 'offensive to the will of Allah'","The Ulema destroyed the Sultan’s observatory in 1580, fearing it meddled with divine will","Austrian occupation introduced rationalism and new military tactics to Serbia","The Serbian Revolution in 1809 led to Serbia's independence from the Ottomans by 1815",{"id":127,"data":128,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"8670f444-6a79-4e97-b4e0-a5b04ffddbd9",{"type":39,"intro":129},[130,131],"Why did the Ulema oppose the artillery school in 1734?","How did the destruction of Taqi Ad-Din's observatory impact Ottoman military campaigns?",[133,150,183],{"id":134,"data":135,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":138},"d6e6004b-d6b9-4a3f-a3d5-e4380f355dc6",{"type":35,"markdownContent":136,"audioMediaId":137},"Ottoman power was further undermined by restrictions placed on attempts to modernize their army. In 1734, the Sultan established an artillery school in Istanbul to teach his troops about advancements in tactics and strategy made during the European Military Revolution. It appeared for a moment that the Ottomans were finally done playing catch up. However, it wasn’t to be.\n\n![Graph](image://93a487bb-8656-4e9e-a1e8-01250afd0624 \"The Ulema religious class restricted the Ottomans' scientific development. Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nIn reaction, the Ulema religious class called the school 'offensive to the will of Allah'. They believed that meddling with artillery was against the religious mission of the Ottomans and ordered the closing of the school.","7be1d76e-9988-4557-b7f0-e96920a40831",[139],{"id":140,"data":141,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"5e13e247-49a6-4acc-a9da-b16fdf161439",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":142,"multiChoiceCorrect":144,"multiChoiceIncorrect":146,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[143],"Who ordered the closing of the Ottoman artillery school as soon as it was established in 1734?",[145],"The Ulema Religious Class",[147,148,149],"The Sultanate of Women","The Austrian Habsburgs","The Sultan's Political Advisors",{"id":151,"data":152,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":155},"637da7a2-8288-4961-b2cc-82330146891a",{"type":35,"markdownContent":153,"audioMediaId":154},"This was not the first time that the religious class undermined the scientific and military efforts of the Ottoman. Over a century earlier, in 1577, the Sultan’s chief astronomer Taqi Ad-Din requested permission to build a grand observatory in Constantinople to study planetary and weather patterns.\n\n![Graph](image://abd171ee-12e9-49fb-b40e-d636b6b6bb5f \"Work in the observatory of Taqi ad-Din. Image: Ala ad-Din Mansur-Shirazi, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHowever, the Ulema later objected to the observatory and destroyed it in 1580. In part due to their poor understanding of climatological science, the Ottomans were hit by fog and poor weather during many of their campaigns, including at Belgrade.","23bad18e-2d12-475f-a7dd-ca6754382fa8",[156,176],{"id":157,"data":158,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"3d721215-be12-43e7-a76e-6345805d1ed8",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":159,"multiChoiceQuestion":163,"multiChoiceCorrect":165,"multiChoiceIncorrect":167,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":171,"matchPairsPairs":173},[160,161,162],"67ba9e04-5991-4a7c-92de-1bddf5c227aa","1a1f3f8f-a4ac-4332-a792-753949645411","675ab1ec-bd48-45c4-9c57-e7dc866cafb3",[164],"Which of the following most closely applies to Taqi Ad-Din?",[166],"Sultan’s chief astronomer",[168,169,170],"Governor of Egypt, military leader","Turkish Ottoman, father of modern Turkey","Last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire",[172],"Match the pairs below:",[174],{"left":175,"right":166,"direction":19},"Taqi Ad-Din",{"id":177,"data":178,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"2e8c4a51-3363-4593-80f3-560294fd21c8",{"type":53,"reviewType":20,"spacingBehaviour":35,"clozeQuestion":179,"clozeWords":181},[180],"The destruction of Taqi ad-Din's observatory in 1580 was a significant backwards step for Islamic science and restricted Ottoman understanding of the weather",[182],"observatory",{"id":184,"data":185,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":188},"efb41e09-eb17-4ce7-8ab9-7df864c43407",{"type":35,"markdownContent":186,"audioMediaId":187},"Although the Austrian occupation of Serbia after the Treaty of Passarowitz only lasted for three years, it planted significant seeds in the country through the opening of the country intellectually, with rationalism, romanticism, and enlightenment philosophy being introduced in Belgrade. In addition, many Serbians served in the Austrian army during this era, learning new military tactics.\n\n![Graph](image://ed77fe81-ce11-4af1-b53b-21ca176e47ae \"The Serbian Revolution. Image: Afanasij Scheloumoff, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis was all compounded when Napoleonic gains in the Balkans fueled fires of wanting independence from the Turks, leading to the Serbian Revolution. The revolution climaxed in 1809 when Karadorde made a proclamation in Belgrade. The document called on Serbians to stop paying tax to Istanbul as well as establishing the concept of a Pan-Slavic racial group and tying it to the claimed right to self-determination.\n\nIntense fighting ensued. By 1815, the Ottomans had lost Serbia, and the empire was clearly in decline.","42f8dc5b-b7d7-49c5-8b88-03bc543c2480",[189],{"id":190,"data":191,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"d2d2a0b8-fa5c-4f10-a35b-76e15baeccdb",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":192,"multiChoiceCorrect":194,"multiChoiceIncorrect":196,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[193],"Who led the Serbian independence movement by giving the proclamation of 1809?",[195],"Karadorde",[175,197,198],"Barbarossa","Gavril Princip",{"id":200,"data":201,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":203,"introPage":211,"pages":217},"f734b965-0c22-4efa-8908-831530b8deb9",{"type":25,"title":202},"Independence Movements",{"id":204,"data":205,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"ddebc479-fdf6-4392-b079-de93556bd273",{"type":19,"summary":206},[207,208,209,210],"The Greeks declared independence from the Ottomans in 1821, inspired by the Serbian revolution.","The Filiki Eteria, a secret society, played a key role in the Greek independence movement.","The Ottomans lost control of the Hejaz to the Emirate of Diriyah in 1803.","Muhammad Ali Pasha secured hereditary control over Egypt in 1839, breaking away from the Ottoman Empire.",{"id":212,"data":213,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"d6ce8236-b5ea-48fe-9e04-dc8fb908eb94",{"type":39,"intro":214},[215,216],"What sparked the Greek War of Independence in 1821?","How did Muhammad Ali Pasha challenge Ottoman control in Egypt?",[218,243,258],{"id":219,"data":220,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":223},"adc7a832-f484-4e1f-a9d7-8c7848bfcd60",{"type":35,"markdownContent":221,"audioMediaId":222},"Another part of the Ottoman Empire that was endangered was its Greek possessions. After seeing the success of the Serbian revolution and emboldened by the support of the British and the Russian Tsar, the Greek people attempted to capitalize on Ottoman weakness to gain their own nation state.\n\n![Graph](image://2c3f12a3-886f-4eae-98cc-93d50adfc21c \"The Greeks declare independence, 1821. Image: Public domain via Picryl\")\n\nIn 1821, three young Greeks founded the Filiki Eteria, a society designed to secure Greek independence. Through lobbying, they quickly got the support of wealthy American and British donors, including Lord Byron.\n\nAlthough they had initially intended to spend time planning, their discovery by Ottoman authorities forced them to bring forward their plans. As a result, in March 1821, they attempted to declare independence, and the Ottomans hanged the patriarch of the Greek Orthodox church in response. A revolution had begun.\n\nAided by a Russian invasion of the Ottoman Empire and the ability of a quickly assembled Greek navy to stop the Ottomans from reinforcing from the sea, the Greeks were able to secure their independence in the 1829 Treaty of Adrianople.","36515082-f635-4cb0-a3c1-b11fb55ae857",[224,233],{"id":225,"data":226,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"656cd682-b80e-403f-a362-c03de56e7daa",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":227,"binaryCorrect":229,"binaryIncorrect":231},[228],"What was the Greek society, founded by three people in 1821, which started the Greek independence movement?",[230],"Filiki Eteria",[232],"Filik Spanakopita",{"id":234,"data":235,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"e295eedf-5b27-4470-8033-f840e91c15ba",{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":236,"multiChoiceCorrect":238,"multiChoiceIncorrect":240,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[237],"In what year did the Greek people secure their independence from the Ottomans?",[239],"1829",[241,92,242],"1817","1846",{"id":244,"data":245,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":248},"55207fad-8aae-4a4d-89ac-10e56b30abaf",{"type":35,"markdownContent":246,"audioMediaId":247},"During the 19th century, many of the Ottoman European possessions were endangered. However, it wasn’t just the European possessions that were endangered. In 1803, the Emirate of Diriyah in Saudi Arabia successfully captured the Hejaz, Islam’s holy land, from the Ottomans. This posed a significant challenge to the authority of the Sultan, who had previously claimed his credibility from his status as the defender of the Islamic holy land.\n\n![Graph](image://5f583e36-41a1-49ca-8399-3d11f858b205 \"Abdullah Bin Saud. Image: Félix Mengin ‏, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nUnfortunately for the Emirate, keeping Mecca and Medina was a bridge too far. Between 1811 and 1818, the Ottomans engaged in the Wahhabi War against the Saudis, which eventually led to the near eradication of the Emirate and the execution of the Emirate’s leader, Abdullah bin Saud in 1818. Although the Ottomans were undeniably in decline in Europe, their control of the Middle East remained strong.","005adcf8-d1c8-4a7b-b248-1f57403a375e",[249],{"id":250,"data":251,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"5f7a4dea-a2b0-408c-9012-0ed39814d04c",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":252,"binaryCorrect":254,"binaryIncorrect":256},[253],"Who attempted to seize the Islamic Holy Land from the Ottomans in 1803?",[255],"The Emirate of Diriyah",[257],"Safavid Persia",{"id":259,"data":260,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":263},"5c3f058d-6629-473d-acfe-b5c856591f9b",{"type":35,"markdownContent":261,"audioMediaId":262},"Since its conquest by Selim I in the 1510s, Egypt had become a key part of the Ottoman Empire. However, the invasion of Napoleon towards the end of the 18th century threw it into chaos. Although the Ottomans quickly regained control over the territory, the additional powers that needed to be given to the Ottoman Governor served to be problematic.\n\nIn 1831, Muhammad Ali Pasha, the governor at the time, demanded that he be given personal control of Syria and Egypt. When the Sultan refused his request, he raised an army and marched it toward Constantinople, threatening the Sultan himself. However, he was stopped from doing so by the threats of other European powers who sought to preserve stability on the continent.\n\n![Graph](image://90e332c6-b56b-482d-a0d4-735f8c930c72 \"Part of the campaigns of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, 1831-1833. Image: Henry Warren, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nIn 1839, he attempted to do so again. Both the Europeans and the Ottomans recognized the need to appease him and granted him hereditary control over Egypt. The Ottoman Empire’s most important colony was lost.","e7f7c2b4-d652-46c2-854a-b1daef35b627",[264,275],{"id":160,"data":265,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":53,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":266,"multiChoiceQuestion":267,"multiChoiceCorrect":269,"multiChoiceIncorrect":270,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":271,"matchPairsPairs":272},[157,161,162],[268],"Which of the following most closely applies to Muhammad Ali Pasha?",[168],[166,169,170],[172],[273],{"left":274,"right":168,"direction":19},"Muhammad Ali Pasha",{"id":276,"data":277,"type":53,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"7df66275-7817-4215-904a-1b5d0f01bb60",{"type":53,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":35,"activeRecallQuestion":278,"activeRecallAnswers":280},[279],"Who gained control of Egypt from the Ottomans to rule as a hereditary state?",[274],[282,381,463],{"id":23,"data":24,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":27,"introPage":36,"pages":283},[284,321,351],{"id":45,"data":46,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":49,"parsed":285},{"data":286,"body":289,"toc":319},{"title":287,"description":288},"","After the last attempt at besieging Vienna, the Ottoman emperors were badly in need of a victory. They were soon given the perfect opportunity through what is known as The Pruth River Campaign.",{"type":290,"children":291},"root",[292,299,304,314],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":295,"children":296},"element","p",{},[297],{"type":298,"value":288},"text",{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":300,"children":301},{},[302],{"type":298,"value":303},"In 1710, the Swedish King, fleeing from Russian troops after losing the Battle of Poltava during the Great Northern War, decided to claim sanctuary at Bender, an Ottoman fort in modern-day Moldova. Despite overtures from the Russian troops to give him up, Sultan Ahmed III refused all requests as a show of strength. This led to the Russian Tsar declaring war on the Ottomans.",{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":305,"children":306},{},[307],{"type":293,"tag":308,"props":309,"children":313},"img",{"alt":310,"src":311,"title":312},"Graph","image://747fc4c2-6c3f-453a-8d18-09218230fbb6","King Charles XII of Sweden at Bender. Image: From the Library of Congress, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":315,"children":316},{},[317],{"type":298,"value":318},"Immediately, the Sultan sent his troops out on a campaign. The two armies were expected to meet alongside the Danube river, which the Tsar had instructed his troops to stop the Ottomans from crossing. However, a lack of food prevented the Russians from mounting a strong resistance, and the Danube was crossed almost without resistance, leading to the signing of a treaty favorable to the Ottoman Sultans.",{"title":287,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":320},[],{"id":70,"data":71,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":74,"parsed":322},{"data":323,"body":325,"toc":349},{"title":287,"description":324},"Although the Pruth River campaign had proved that the Ottomans still had a high level of geopolitical relevance on the European stage, it was not long before they were dealt another blow to their expansionary ambitions. In 1717, the Austrian Habsburgs attempted to strike a significant blow to the Ottomans by attacking Belgrade, a key city alongside the Danube which the Ottomans had held since 1521.",{"type":290,"children":326},[327,331,339,344],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":328,"children":329},{},[330],{"type":298,"value":324},{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":332,"children":333},{},[334],{"type":293,"tag":308,"props":335,"children":338},{"alt":310,"src":336,"title":337},"image://241571dc-6aac-4e2e-aa5e-2c7c78d81b17","The Pruth River campaign, depicted on an 18th-century screen. Image: Circle of Gonzalez Family, No restrictions, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":340,"children":341},{},[342],{"type":298,"value":343},"Initially, the Austrians appeared to have the upper hand, with a fighting force of 100,000 men combating an Ottoman garrison with only 30,000 soldiers. However, an Ottoman relief force containing another 180,000 men soon arrived, leaving the Austrians at a disadvantage both in terms of infrastructure – with the Ottomans possessing the city walls – and in terms of manpower.",{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":345,"children":346},{},[347],{"type":298,"value":348},"However, strong mortar attacks from the Austrians, combined with a brave offensive from the Austrian relief cavalry led directly by Prince Eugene, enabled the Austrians to take Belgrade.",{"title":287,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":350},[],{"id":98,"data":99,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":102,"parsed":352},{"data":353,"body":355,"toc":379},{"title":287,"description":354},"Although the Ottomans had largely been winning the war against Europe before the Battle of Belgrade, with key victories in much of Ottoman controlled Greece repelling Venetian and Austrian advances, Belgrade dealt a significant blow to Ottoman hopes of victory. This was compounded by the fact that Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, who were now key trading partners for the Ottomans, were keen to see a peace to alleviate the Venetian blockade of their goods.",{"type":290,"children":356},[357,361,369,374],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":358,"children":359},{},[360],{"type":298,"value":354},{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":362,"children":363},{},[364],{"type":293,"tag":308,"props":365,"children":368},{"alt":310,"src":366,"title":367},"image://d2ec1a34-5da5-49e4-bbbd-6022dfdcbd16","A modern-day reconstruction of the Treaty of Passarowitz. Image: Peca.Jo12, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":370,"children":371},{},[372],{"type":298,"value":373},"As a result, the Ottomans were forced to sign the Treaty of Passarowitz, which contained damaging terms, including the cessation of the northern half of Serbia to Austrian Habsburg control. This marked a significant departure in Ottoman policy.",{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":375,"children":376},{},[377],{"type":298,"value":378},"For much of their ascendancy, they could leverage their trading relationships to sue for favorable peace. Now that the Ottoman economy had been ruined by state pay increases, with the state lying in deficit since 1592, the power balance had been reversed.",{"title":287,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":380},[],{"id":115,"data":116,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":118,"introPage":126,"pages":382},[383,408,433],{"id":134,"data":135,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":138,"parsed":384},{"data":385,"body":387,"toc":406},{"title":287,"description":386},"Ottoman power was further undermined by restrictions placed on attempts to modernize their army. In 1734, the Sultan established an artillery school in Istanbul to teach his troops about advancements in tactics and strategy made during the European Military Revolution. It appeared for a moment that the Ottomans were finally done playing catch up. However, it wasn’t to be.",{"type":290,"children":388},[389,393,401],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":390,"children":391},{},[392],{"type":298,"value":386},{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":394,"children":395},{},[396],{"type":293,"tag":308,"props":397,"children":400},{"alt":310,"src":398,"title":399},"image://93a487bb-8656-4e9e-a1e8-01250afd0624","The Ulema religious class restricted the Ottomans' scientific development. Public domain via Wikimedia",[],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":402,"children":403},{},[404],{"type":298,"value":405},"In reaction, the Ulema religious class called the school 'offensive to the will of Allah'. They believed that meddling with artillery was against the religious mission of the Ottomans and ordered the closing of the school.",{"title":287,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":407},[],{"id":151,"data":152,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":155,"parsed":409},{"data":410,"body":412,"toc":431},{"title":287,"description":411},"This was not the first time that the religious class undermined the scientific and military efforts of the Ottoman. Over a century earlier, in 1577, the Sultan’s chief astronomer Taqi Ad-Din requested permission to build a grand observatory in Constantinople to study planetary and weather patterns.",{"type":290,"children":413},[414,418,426],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":415,"children":416},{},[417],{"type":298,"value":411},{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":419,"children":420},{},[421],{"type":293,"tag":308,"props":422,"children":425},{"alt":310,"src":423,"title":424},"image://abd171ee-12e9-49fb-b40e-d636b6b6bb5f","Work in the observatory of Taqi ad-Din. Image: Ala ad-Din Mansur-Shirazi, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":427,"children":428},{},[429],{"type":298,"value":430},"However, the Ulema later objected to the observatory and destroyed it in 1580. In part due to their poor understanding of climatological science, the Ottomans were hit by fog and poor weather during many of their campaigns, including at Belgrade.",{"title":287,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":432},[],{"id":184,"data":185,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":188,"parsed":434},{"data":435,"body":437,"toc":461},{"title":287,"description":436},"Although the Austrian occupation of Serbia after the Treaty of Passarowitz only lasted for three years, it planted significant seeds in the country through the opening of the country intellectually, with rationalism, romanticism, and enlightenment philosophy being introduced in Belgrade. In addition, many Serbians served in the Austrian army during this era, learning new military tactics.",{"type":290,"children":438},[439,443,451,456],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":440,"children":441},{},[442],{"type":298,"value":436},{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":444,"children":445},{},[446],{"type":293,"tag":308,"props":447,"children":450},{"alt":310,"src":448,"title":449},"image://ed77fe81-ce11-4af1-b53b-21ca176e47ae","The Serbian Revolution. Image: Afanasij Scheloumoff, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":452,"children":453},{},[454],{"type":298,"value":455},"This was all compounded when Napoleonic gains in the Balkans fueled fires of wanting independence from the Turks, leading to the Serbian Revolution. The revolution climaxed in 1809 when Karadorde made a proclamation in Belgrade. The document called on Serbians to stop paying tax to Istanbul as well as establishing the concept of a Pan-Slavic racial group and tying it to the claimed right to self-determination.",{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":457,"children":458},{},[459],{"type":298,"value":460},"Intense fighting ensued. By 1815, the Ottomans had lost Serbia, and the empire was clearly in decline.",{"title":287,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":462},[],{"id":200,"data":201,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":203,"introPage":211,"pages":464},[465,500,525],{"id":219,"data":220,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":223,"parsed":466},{"data":467,"body":469,"toc":498},{"title":287,"description":468},"Another part of the Ottoman Empire that was endangered was its Greek possessions. After seeing the success of the Serbian revolution and emboldened by the support of the British and the Russian Tsar, the Greek people attempted to capitalize on Ottoman weakness to gain their own nation state.",{"type":290,"children":470},[471,475,483,488,493],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":472,"children":473},{},[474],{"type":298,"value":468},{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":476,"children":477},{},[478],{"type":293,"tag":308,"props":479,"children":482},{"alt":310,"src":480,"title":481},"image://2c3f12a3-886f-4eae-98cc-93d50adfc21c","The Greeks declare independence, 1821. Image: Public domain via Picryl",[],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":484,"children":485},{},[486],{"type":298,"value":487},"In 1821, three young Greeks founded the Filiki Eteria, a society designed to secure Greek independence. Through lobbying, they quickly got the support of wealthy American and British donors, including Lord Byron.",{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":489,"children":490},{},[491],{"type":298,"value":492},"Although they had initially intended to spend time planning, their discovery by Ottoman authorities forced them to bring forward their plans. As a result, in March 1821, they attempted to declare independence, and the Ottomans hanged the patriarch of the Greek Orthodox church in response. A revolution had begun.",{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":494,"children":495},{},[496],{"type":298,"value":497},"Aided by a Russian invasion of the Ottoman Empire and the ability of a quickly assembled Greek navy to stop the Ottomans from reinforcing from the sea, the Greeks were able to secure their independence in the 1829 Treaty of Adrianople.",{"title":287,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":499},[],{"id":244,"data":245,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":248,"parsed":501},{"data":502,"body":504,"toc":523},{"title":287,"description":503},"During the 19th century, many of the Ottoman European possessions were endangered. However, it wasn’t just the European possessions that were endangered. In 1803, the Emirate of Diriyah in Saudi Arabia successfully captured the Hejaz, Islam’s holy land, from the Ottomans. This posed a significant challenge to the authority of the Sultan, who had previously claimed his credibility from his status as the defender of the Islamic holy land.",{"type":290,"children":505},[506,510,518],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":507,"children":508},{},[509],{"type":298,"value":503},{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":511,"children":512},{},[513],{"type":293,"tag":308,"props":514,"children":517},{"alt":310,"src":515,"title":516},"image://5f583e36-41a1-49ca-8399-3d11f858b205","Abdullah Bin Saud. Image: Félix Mengin ‏, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":519,"children":520},{},[521],{"type":298,"value":522},"Unfortunately for the Emirate, keeping Mecca and Medina was a bridge too far. Between 1811 and 1818, the Ottomans engaged in the Wahhabi War against the Saudis, which eventually led to the near eradication of the Emirate and the execution of the Emirate’s leader, Abdullah bin Saud in 1818. Although the Ottomans were undeniably in decline in Europe, their control of the Middle East remained strong.",{"title":287,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":524},[],{"id":259,"data":260,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":20,"reviews":263,"parsed":526},{"data":527,"body":529,"toc":553},{"title":287,"description":528},"Since its conquest by Selim I in the 1510s, Egypt had become a key part of the Ottoman Empire. However, the invasion of Napoleon towards the end of the 18th century threw it into chaos. Although the Ottomans quickly regained control over the territory, the additional powers that needed to be given to the Ottoman Governor served to be problematic.",{"type":290,"children":530},[531,535,540,548],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":532,"children":533},{},[534],{"type":298,"value":528},{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":536,"children":537},{},[538],{"type":298,"value":539},"In 1831, Muhammad Ali Pasha, the governor at the time, demanded that he be given personal control of Syria and Egypt. When the Sultan refused his request, he raised an army and marched it toward Constantinople, threatening the Sultan himself. However, he was stopped from doing so by the threats of other European powers who sought to preserve stability on the continent.",{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":541,"children":542},{},[543],{"type":293,"tag":308,"props":544,"children":547},{"alt":310,"src":545,"title":546},"image://90e332c6-b56b-482d-a0d4-735f8c930c72","Part of the campaigns of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, 1831-1833. Image: Henry Warren, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":293,"tag":294,"props":549,"children":550},{},[551],{"type":298,"value":552},"In 1839, he attempted to do so again. Both the Europeans and the Ottomans recognized the need to appease him and granted him hereditary control over Egypt. The Ottoman Empire’s most important colony was lost.",{"title":287,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":554},[],{"left":4,"top":4,"width":556,"height":556,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":557},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":556,"height":556,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":559},"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"M4 5h16M4 12h16M4 19h16\"/>",1778228239350]