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Let’s explore why.",3,5,[22,147,219,310],{"id":23,"data":24,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":27,"introPage":36,"pages":43},"42250958-2fb4-499e-a392-05cf6fd31374",{"type":25,"title":26},2,"The Shift in Ottoman Leadership",{"id":28,"data":29,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"a110905a-f86c-40a8-b537-d7a6d8f81918",{"type":19,"summary":30},[31,32,33,34],"Ottoman Sultans led battles directly until Suleiman The Magnificent's death","Selim II's reign marked the start of Sultans staying away from the battlefield","Suleiman's marriage to Roxelana brought women into Ottoman politics","Fratricide was a brutal succession method, but Suleiman and some successors didn't follow it",1,{"id":37,"data":38,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"79ead2b7-ed78-4b6a-b593-59204ad09404",{"type":39,"intro":40},10,[41,42],"How did the sedentarization of Sultans impact the Ottoman army?","What role did Roxelana play in changing Ottoman politics?",[44,83,98],{"id":45,"data":46,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":49,"reviews":50},"19c3198f-7ee2-4365-9980-55984f0925dc",{"type":35,"markdownContent":47,"audioMediaId":48},"The Ottoman Empire's success in campaigns was traditionally attributed to the direct presence of their Sultans on the battlefield. Major victories at Constantinople, Chaldiran, and Mohacs were achieved under the direct command of the Sultan, enhancing their status as a gazi warrior and ensuring unity among the troops.\n\nHowever, this changed after the death of Suleiman The Magnificent. His successor, Selim II, marked a shift in leadership style, with the Sultan's direct involvement in campaigns becoming less frequent. This led to a weakening of the Ottoman army due to internal disagreements among commanders.\n\n![Graph](image://26baaac1-1318-4d48-b5fd-0c9d4d92b09a \"Sultan Selim II. Image: Haydar Reis, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","d28ffc35-6de1-408f-a627-4d8463972762",4,[51,72],{"id":52,"data":53,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"fd4b8b40-7f38-4ad1-9277-8a79f04f56f9",{"type":54,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":55,"multiChoiceQuestion":59,"multiChoiceCorrect":61,"multiChoiceIncorrect":63,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":67,"matchPairsPairs":69},11,[56,57,58],"3026f58e-dacc-41ef-a7c9-4e0351038932","c0aadacb-e9f1-4b3e-a9a4-88f4bdf133ff","78f8db68-8e7d-40ed-b675-7529b969ed52",[60],"Which of the following most closely applies to Selim II?",[62],"Successor of Suleiman The Magnificent",[64,65,66],"Made fratricide the official legal mechanism for dynastic succession","Committed bloody fratricide in 1595","Established custom of pay rise for Janissary Corps",[68],"Match the pairs below:",[70],{"left":71,"right":62,"direction":19},"Selim II",{"id":73,"data":74,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"4d3decc4-b174-430b-b57b-feddcbd5f4e9",{"type":54,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":75,"multiChoiceCorrect":77,"multiChoiceIncorrect":79,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[76],"The Ottomans' military might was often attributed to what?",[78],"Their Sultans being on the battlefield",[80,81,82],"Their superior wealth","The training processes of the janissaries","The fact that they had gunpowder",{"id":84,"data":85,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":88},"d7e28f0d-ffbd-44b1-9736-e73c61abdf06",{"type":35,"markdownContent":86,"audioMediaId":87},"This process is known as the sedentarization of the Sultans. The shift in leadership style also had implications for the role of women in politics. Prior to Suleiman The Magnificent's reign, the Sultan's consorts were kept away from the center of politics.\n\nHowever, Suleiman's marriage to Roxelana in 1530 brought her into the political fold, setting a precedent for other consorts. This allowed advisors to influence the Sultan through his wife, leading to lobbying behind closed doors and a decrease in transparency.","e9088f67-51d4-4469-a6a0-6357308e1142",[89],{"id":90,"data":91,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"199d38e6-43e3-433b-a7ef-1cba3f3a090f",{"type":54,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":92,"binaryCorrect":94,"binaryIncorrect":96},[93],"Who became the first wife of a Sultan when she married Suleiman the Magnificent?",[95],"Roxelana",[97],"Nur Banu",{"id":99,"data":100,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":49,"reviews":103},"76d23eaa-4b2c-494d-89ec-273b6b1241b9",{"type":35,"markdownContent":101,"audioMediaId":102},"Another significant change in Ottoman governance was the method of succession. After Mehmed II made fratricide the official legal mechanism for dynastic succession in 1453, all Sultans up to Suleiman killed their brothers.\n\nHowever, this practice was not followed by Suleiman I, Selim II, Ahmed I, and Murad III. This undermined the meritocracy at the top of the Ottoman state. Despite this, the practice was not completely eradicated, as evidenced by Mehmed III's bloody fratricide in 1595, where he slaughtered his 17 brothers.","42aaaf69-71f3-4318-9cdf-c9938b32587d",[104,117,127,136],{"id":56,"data":105,"type":54,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":54,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":106,"multiChoiceQuestion":107,"multiChoiceCorrect":109,"multiChoiceIncorrect":111,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":114,"matchPairsPairs":115},[52,57,58],[108],"Who officially established fratricide as the legal mechanism for dynastic succession?",[110],"Mehmed I",[71,112,113],"Mehmed III","Mehmed II",[68],[116],{"left":110,"right":64,"direction":19},{"id":57,"data":118,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":54,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":119,"multiChoiceQuestion":120,"multiChoiceCorrect":122,"multiChoiceIncorrect":123,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":124,"matchPairsPairs":125},[52,56,58],[121],"Who was the individual responsible for committing bloody fratricide in 1595?",[112],[71,110,113],[68],[126],{"left":112,"right":65,"direction":19},{"id":128,"data":129,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"ea1a5633-16cf-4051-a234-f538bb62a540",{"type":54,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":130,"multiChoiceCorrect":132,"multiChoiceIncorrect":133,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[131],"Which of these Sultans was the only one after 1519 to commit a fratricide?",[112],[134,71,135],"Suleiman I","Ahmed I",{"id":137,"data":138,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"a6c93cdb-12a1-401e-9729-43f4fbcacf64",{"type":54,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":139,"multiChoiceCorrect":141,"multiChoiceIncorrect":143,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[140],"How many brothers did Mehmed III kill during his own fratricide?",[142],"17",[144,145,146],"3","9","12",{"id":148,"data":149,"type":25,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":151,"introPage":159,"pages":165},"f76a01d6-2262-41e4-bb8d-a518cc6e7d65",{"type":25,"title":150},"The Erosion of Ottoman Meritocracy",{"id":152,"data":153,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"fe67144f-7e30-4ea4-8263-8ca488f3dff5",{"type":19,"summary":154},[155,156,157,158],"The Janissaries blocked Selim II from entering Topkapi Palace until he met their demands.","Selim II allowed Janissaries to marry and enroll their sons, inflating state pensions.","Selim II's policies led to fewer merit-based promotions in the Ottoman administration.","The Habsburgs built forts and fielded elite troops, making it harder for the Ottomans to defend their territory.",{"id":160,"data":161,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"b684cfab-124a-41f7-be4e-3b0d67fbb29a",{"type":39,"intro":162},[163,164],"What did the Janissaries demand from Selim II before allowing him to enter Topkapi palace?","How did the returkification of the Ottoman administration impact meritocratic promotion by 1610?",[166,191,206],{"id":167,"data":168,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":171},"9e14647c-c419-4360-801f-4cca2a74bd7d",{"type":35,"markdownContent":169,"audioMediaId":170},"Another key change to Ottoman governance was how the empire was run internally. Typically, it had been customary since the reign of Mehmed II for the Sultan to afford the Janissary Corps a pay rise when gaining the throne – think of it almost as an inflation adjustment.\n\nHowever, in 1566, upon the death of Suleiman, the elite troops took it upon themselves to go a step further, blocking Selim II’s entrance to Topkapi palace, the seat of the Ottoman government, until he granted their wishes.\n\nIn the end, Selim II was forced to yield, allowing the Janissaries to marry and enroll their sons in the Corps, leading state pensions to balloon and undermining the meritocracy upon which the Corps was supposed to be founded.","b1cce44f-5482-448a-9826-ba042ccd3d57",[172,182],{"id":58,"data":173,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":54,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"collapsingSiblings":174,"multiChoiceQuestion":175,"multiChoiceCorrect":177,"multiChoiceIncorrect":178,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":179,"matchPairsPairs":180},[52,56,57],[176],"Who established the custom of a pay rise for the Janissary Corps?",[113],[71,110,112],[68],[181],{"left":113,"right":66,"direction":19},{"id":183,"data":184,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"77d97385-98a1-4426-9abd-f03f993f64ba",{"type":54,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":185,"binaryCorrect":187,"binaryIncorrect":189},[186],"What did the Janissaries demand upon Selim II's accession to the throne?",[188],"The right to marry and to enroll their sons",[190],"The right to hold political offices",{"id":192,"data":193,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":196},"62f3be9d-bd3a-489b-8a7a-4c31aad82218",{"type":35,"markdownContent":194,"audioMediaId":195},"However, it didn’t stop there. According to Mustafa Ali, a court advisor and historian, Selim II undermined state meritocracy at all levels by returkifying the Ottoman administration.\n\nAlthough modern historians dispute Ali’s account, labeling him as a disgruntled civil servant, there is certainly evidence of some erosion of meritocracy. While in 1560, two-thirds of Sanjak Beys had served in more junior roles, that number decreased to only one-quarter by 1610, showing a decrease in meritocratic promotion.","e643ed47-8807-48a4-a0bd-e9532240c925",[197],{"id":198,"data":199,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"6e88680f-7a70-427c-9d5c-7e3f37881d45",{"type":54,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":200,"binaryCorrect":202,"binaryIncorrect":204},[201],"In 1560, two thirds of sanjak beys were provincial. What was the fraction by the early 17th century?",[203],"One Quarter",[205],"One Half",{"id":207,"data":208,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":211},"ba9a8731-ea5b-4849-8fa8-e04f973ba7da",{"type":35,"markdownContent":209,"audioMediaId":210},"Perhaps the most obvious change to the Ottomans was one that was immediately ostensible because of its territorial nature. Along the Habsburg frontier, the fortifications of the Viennese Aulic War Council after the threat to Vienna in 1532 made it far more difficult for the Ottomans to defend its territory.\n\n![Graph](image://c6873ef8-b3fb-4c3f-be75-b74d1956dd57 \"Vienna in the 16th century. Image: See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe Europeans built forts along their 117-mile border in the new trace Italian style and manned them with a new type of soldier: the tercio. This marked the first time the Austrian Habsburgs could field professional elite troops against the Ottomans. This process of gradual militaristic improvement is more broadly known as the ‘European Military Revolution.’","21e4abea-852c-4634-a8fe-e76eb54a90c9",[212],{"id":213,"data":214,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"cc73d316-e638-4848-a2ea-359986e56344",{"type":54,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":35,"activeRecallQuestion":215,"activeRecallAnswers":217},[216],"When it came to the Habsburg frontier, what reduced the Ottoman threat to Europe after the death of Suleiman I?",[218],"The fortification of the Viennese Aulic War Council",{"id":220,"data":221,"type":25,"version":49,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":223,"introPage":231,"pages":237},"ae52b59d-aa02-4b83-a4bc-f24546e637df",{"type":25,"title":222},"The Shift in Ottoman Diplomacy",{"id":224,"data":225,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"919b34fb-c9aa-49b8-a0be-09c3bd2e8b39",{"type":19,"summary":226},[227,228,229,230],"The Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606 marked the ceremonial equality between the Habsburgs and Ottomans","Mustafa I's unusual succession in 1617 led to questions about his legitimacy and sanity","Osman II's inexperience led to a major defeat at the Battle of Khotyn in 1621","Rapid changes in leadership highlighted the Ottoman Empire's growing instability",{"id":232,"data":233,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"f8480086-8953-43eb-bc3c-b3c106248bf7",{"type":39,"intro":234},[235,236],"Why was Mustafa I's succession controversial?","How did Osman II's inexperience impact the Ottoman Empire?",[238,253,274,287],{"id":239,"data":240,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":243},"6c8279a0-ce1f-4fd3-badb-fa5a900f6058",{"type":35,"markdownContent":241,"audioMediaId":242},"The Ottoman Sultans valued titles and recognition to consolidate and showcase their authority. After seizing Constantinople in 1453, they assumed the title of 'Caesar' or 'Kayser' in Turkish. By subjugating the Mamluks in 1517, they adopted the title 'Caliph,' positioning the Ottoman ruler as the spiritual leader of the Sunni Muslim world.\n\nIn their diplomatic dealings, especially with the Austrian Habsburgs, various treaties like the Treaty of Constantinople in 1533 and the Treaty of Adrianople in 1547 were signed. These agreements primarily set peace terms and borders, not necessarily establishing a hierarchy between the two powers.\n\n![Graph](image://fb3720c0-74c9-4ecb-9700-1be7046922ea \"Text of the Truce of Adrianople. Image: Taken from here., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","f1ee5108-011e-4c65-ae6b-0534f7554987",[244],{"id":245,"data":246,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"5921c7ae-285d-4515-984d-b3a504b56862",{"type":54,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":247,"binaryCorrect":249,"binaryIncorrect":251},[248],"What title did the Ottomans take after conquering the Mamluks?",[250],"Caliph",[252],"Caesar",{"id":254,"data":255,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":49,"reviews":258},"bf6e3075-0223-4d44-a0cd-f3ee5b728ea9",{"type":35,"markdownContent":256,"audioMediaId":257},"However, the relationship between the Habsburgs and Ottomans underwent a noticeable change during the Long War from 1593 to 1606. This prolonged conflict saw no decisive victor and inflicted heavy losses on both sides. The war's aftermath was the Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606, which notably acknowledged the ceremonial equality between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans, representing a shift from any perceived superiority the Ottomans might have held in earlier decades.\n\n![Graph](image://6f5ff157-d274-4971-9630-57adf9c9439a \"Painting of the Long War. Image: Vienna Museum, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nWhile this treaty hinted at a shift in the balance of power, it's crucial to understand that the Ottoman Empire remained a formidable force and continued to play a significant role in global politics for centuries thereafter.","c82a7e4b-a361-418c-a74a-91db2c465a89",[259,266],{"id":260,"data":261,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"c5dd80d0-56f1-4e13-a2ea-fb3219997e89",{"type":54,"reviewType":49,"spacingBehaviour":35,"clozeQuestion":262,"clozeWords":264},[263],"In 1606, after The Long War, the Ottomans agreed titular equality with the Habsburgs at the Treaty of Zsitvatorok",[265],"Long War",{"id":267,"data":268,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"2ef09fd7-fcb6-45ba-8ab1-d36cb885de88",{"type":54,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":35,"activeRecallQuestion":269,"activeRecallAnswers":271},[270],"Within which two treaties did the Ottomans gain titular authority over the Habsburgs before 1606?",[272,273],"Treaty of Constantinople (1533)","Treaty of Adrianople (1547)",{"id":275,"data":276,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":279},"a71f1b52-c342-41d0-9d18-cd43775a0f10",{"type":35,"markdownContent":277,"audioMediaId":278},"To add trouble to an already failing empire, the accession of Mustafa I to the throne in 1617 posed particular problems to the empire. After the death of Ahmed I, there were two contenders for the throne. The obvious choice was Osman The Young, who was Ahmed’s son. However, without a living mother to petition for him at court, he could not lobby influential Viziers and Janissaries to support his bid for the throne. As a result, Mustafa I convinced the Viziers that he, Ahmed’s brother, should take the throne.\n\n![Graph](image://bba651da-9a93-4491-abb4-032a7f45ef38 \"Mustafa I. Image: Unknown painter, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHowever, it was not a happy ascendancy. First, questions were raised about Mustafa’s credentials due to the unusual nature of his succession and the fact that he didn’t commit fratricide. Additionally, those closest to the Sultan claimed that he was mad and that his advisors were using him as a puppet soldier. Since historians fiercely debate these claims, we may never know the truth about Mustafa. Nevertheless, it was a clear contributor to Ottoman instability.","f2f6db15-e325-4423-8283-519ea5da5282",[280],{"id":281,"data":282,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"bbf069a4-aa37-4f7a-9724-a2c270aa90c2",{"type":54,"reviewType":49,"spacingBehaviour":35,"clozeQuestion":283,"clozeWords":285},[284],"In 1617, Ahmed I was succeeded by his brother Mustafa I instead of his son Osman, marking a departure from Ottoman succession traditions",[286],"Mustafa I",{"id":288,"data":289,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":292},"6488cae4-9c99-453d-bd2f-e071a0d3e384",{"type":35,"markdownContent":290,"audioMediaId":291},"To compound the difficulty brought about by Mustafa the Mad, after upsetting the Janissary Corps less than a year into his reign, he was deposed in favor of his nephew, Osman II.\n\n![Graph](image://4990bff2-3183-4bef-91ca-ae72313a42c9 \"Osman the Young. Image: See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis further proved to cause problems, with Osman the Young’s inexperience costing the Ottomans their chance of victory at the Battle of Khotyn in 1621, losing to a Polish-Lithuanian force with significantly inferior numbers. This further undermined the influence of Osman, leading to him being deposed again in favor of Mustafa in 1622.\n\nThe overall impact of these sudden changes in Ottoman power showed how vulnerable the Ottoman state was, further cementing its decline.","09c78fbb-b134-4672-8ab1-c85bb8db407e",[293,301],{"id":294,"data":295,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"ce48d0ce-10e9-4817-8aec-f94ef42c94e8",{"type":54,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":296,"binaryCorrect":298,"binaryIncorrect":299},[297],"Which Sultan was deposed after showing symptoms of madness?",[286],[300],"Osman II",{"id":302,"data":303,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"b827c8bf-9421-4e2e-a538-7ad68a48e12b",{"type":54,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":35,"binaryQuestion":304,"binaryCorrect":306,"binaryIncorrect":308},[305],"Which battle did Osman the Young lose, eventually catalysing his deposition from the throne?",[307],"Battle of Khotyn",[309],"Battle of Lepanto",{"id":311,"data":312,"type":25,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":314,"introPage":322,"pages":328},"34102bbb-2d06-45de-8a41-e717a6465764",{"type":25,"title":313},"Ottoman Military Endeavors",{"id":315,"data":316,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"2918cf39-624b-49cd-90c4-f7701d748195",{"type":19,"summary":317},[318,319,320,321],"The Ottomans rebuilt their military after losing at Khotyn to try again at Vienna","The Ottomans ignored a relief force of 74,000 troops at Vienna, leading to their loss","The humiliating loss at Vienna undermined Ottoman power","The Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 marked the Ottoman decline",{"id":323,"data":324,"type":39,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":35},"8a9eae95-cef4-45ad-98f8-d9e82567eca8",{"type":39,"intro":325},[326,327],"What was the significance of the Treaty of Karlowitz for the Ottoman Empire?","How did the loss at Vienna change the Ottomans' diplomatic stance with the Austrian Habsburgs?",[329,334,347],{"id":330,"data":331,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25},"70529b6a-178c-4dc2-b666-bd7e5f977b52",{"type":35,"markdownContent":332,"audioMediaId":333},"Meanwhile, increased Christian unity because of the influence of the Holy League meant that the Ottomans could not gain other victories toward their military objectives.\n\n![Graph](image://2195b147-9f93-464b-b34d-6f2b1593c528 \"The Last Siege of Vienna. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nHowever, the Ottomans made one last attempt at European domination. After losing at Khotyn, the Ottomans rebuilt their military infrastructure to make another attempt at Vienna. This included rebuilding key roads and restructuring the army.","9196f638-ad6c-401c-8af9-4a98d18b52f5",{"id":335,"data":336,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":339},"41a16797-7641-4de4-bb01-aa31ca62e0c7",{"type":35,"markdownContent":337,"audioMediaId":338},"Even this couldn’t lead to an Ottoman victory. Upon leaving Constantinople, the Ottomans had 170,000 men. This was reduced to 150,000 through disease and attritional attacks by the time the Ottomans reached the gates of the city.\n\nThis force initially couldn’t believe its luck when it met a force of less than 20,000 at the city gates. However, the Ottomans largely ignored a relief force of 74,000 troops and single-mindedly focused on taking the city, leading to their eventual loss.","e8afaec6-4cb1-4e5f-82e0-1fde50c43ce4",[340],{"id":341,"data":342,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"ab9e1d9a-df1b-4ed9-bb61-d922d0e096b3",{"type":54,"reviewType":49,"spacingBehaviour":35,"clozeQuestion":343,"clozeWords":345},[344],"In 1683, the Ottoman Empire besieged Vienna for the last time, losing in a bloody battle after refusing to concentrate on the relief army of their opponents",[346],"Vienna",{"id":348,"data":349,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":352},"550d2bd5-4587-4b29-acfc-db750eac7e9f",{"type":35,"markdownContent":350,"audioMediaId":351},"Despite again possessing another significant material advantage, the humiliating loss at Vienna proved to majorly undermine Ottoman power. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz with the Austrian Habsburgs in 1699 after another loss for the Ottomans at the hands of the Holy League during the Battle of Zenta.\n\n![Graph](image://2fb647f9-4cd5-411b-b995-3c72c0f0e6cc \"The Treaty of Karlowitz. Image: unknown person from Low Countries, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe treaty acknowledged Austrian territorial gains and cemented public knowledge of the Ottoman decline. The overall impact was that the Ottomans had ceased to be 'the present terror of the world'.","a497503a-7d64-4ee0-aa36-b5fc1c1b3438",[353,364],{"id":354,"data":355,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"17a0f065-ec51-4fdb-978d-9ead0a366ede",{"type":54,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":35,"multiChoiceQuestion":356,"multiChoiceCorrect":358,"multiChoiceIncorrect":360,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[357],"Which cohesive Christian League beat the Ottomans at the Battle of Zenta?",[359],"The Holy League",[361,362,363],"The Premier League","The League of Nations","The League of Legends",{"id":365,"data":366,"type":54,"version":35,"maxContentLevel":19},"778d6d07-6a91-48db-b578-5e55a65a9692",{"type":54,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":35,"activeRecallQuestion":367,"activeRecallAnswers":369},[368],"Which Treaty saw the Habsburgs become the dominant power in Europe because of Ottoman cessation of territory?",[370],"Treaty of Karlowitz",[372,440,506,613],{"id":23,"data":24,"type":25,"version":20,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":27,"introPage":36,"pages":373},[374,406,423],{"id":45,"data":46,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":49,"reviews":50,"parsed":375},{"data":376,"body":379,"toc":404},{"title":377,"description":378},"","The Ottoman Empire's success in campaigns was traditionally attributed to the direct presence of their Sultans on the battlefield. Major victories at Constantinople, Chaldiran, and Mohacs were achieved under the direct command of the Sultan, enhancing their status as a gazi warrior and ensuring unity among the troops.",{"type":380,"children":381},"root",[382,389,394],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":385,"children":386},"element","p",{},[387],{"type":388,"value":378},"text",{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":390,"children":391},{},[392],{"type":388,"value":393},"However, this changed after the death of Suleiman The Magnificent. His successor, Selim II, marked a shift in leadership style, with the Sultan's direct involvement in campaigns becoming less frequent. This led to a weakening of the Ottoman army due to internal disagreements among commanders.",{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":395,"children":396},{},[397],{"type":383,"tag":398,"props":399,"children":403},"img",{"alt":400,"src":401,"title":402},"Graph","image://26baaac1-1318-4d48-b5fd-0c9d4d92b09a","Sultan Selim II. Image: Haydar Reis, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":377,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":405},[],{"id":84,"data":85,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":88,"parsed":407},{"data":408,"body":410,"toc":421},{"title":377,"description":409},"This process is known as the sedentarization of the Sultans. The shift in leadership style also had implications for the role of women in politics. Prior to Suleiman The Magnificent's reign, the Sultan's consorts were kept away from the center of politics.",{"type":380,"children":411},[412,416],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":413,"children":414},{},[415],{"type":388,"value":409},{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":417,"children":418},{},[419],{"type":388,"value":420},"However, Suleiman's marriage to Roxelana in 1530 brought her into the political fold, setting a precedent for other consorts. This allowed advisors to influence the Sultan through his wife, leading to lobbying behind closed doors and a decrease in transparency.",{"title":377,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":422},[],{"id":99,"data":100,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":49,"reviews":103,"parsed":424},{"data":425,"body":427,"toc":438},{"title":377,"description":426},"Another significant change in Ottoman governance was the method of succession. After Mehmed II made fratricide the official legal mechanism for dynastic succession in 1453, all Sultans up to Suleiman killed their brothers.",{"type":380,"children":428},[429,433],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":430,"children":431},{},[432],{"type":388,"value":426},{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":434,"children":435},{},[436],{"type":388,"value":437},"However, this practice was not followed by Suleiman I, Selim II, Ahmed I, and Murad III. This undermined the meritocracy at the top of the Ottoman state. Despite this, the practice was not completely eradicated, as evidenced by Mehmed III's bloody fratricide in 1595, where he slaughtered his 17 brothers.",{"title":377,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":439},[],{"id":148,"data":149,"type":25,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":151,"introPage":159,"pages":441},[442,464,481],{"id":167,"data":168,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":171,"parsed":443},{"data":444,"body":446,"toc":462},{"title":377,"description":445},"Another key change to Ottoman governance was how the empire was run internally. Typically, it had been customary since the reign of Mehmed II for the Sultan to afford the Janissary Corps a pay rise when gaining the throne – think of it almost as an inflation adjustment.",{"type":380,"children":447},[448,452,457],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":449,"children":450},{},[451],{"type":388,"value":445},{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":453,"children":454},{},[455],{"type":388,"value":456},"However, in 1566, upon the death of Suleiman, the elite troops took it upon themselves to go a step further, blocking Selim II’s entrance to Topkapi palace, the seat of the Ottoman government, until he granted their wishes.",{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":458,"children":459},{},[460],{"type":388,"value":461},"In the end, Selim II was forced to yield, allowing the Janissaries to marry and enroll their sons in the Corps, leading state pensions to balloon and undermining the meritocracy upon which the Corps was supposed to be founded.",{"title":377,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":463},[],{"id":192,"data":193,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":196,"parsed":465},{"data":466,"body":468,"toc":479},{"title":377,"description":467},"However, it didn’t stop there. According to Mustafa Ali, a court advisor and historian, Selim II undermined state meritocracy at all levels by returkifying the Ottoman administration.",{"type":380,"children":469},[470,474],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":471,"children":472},{},[473],{"type":388,"value":467},{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":475,"children":476},{},[477],{"type":388,"value":478},"Although modern historians dispute Ali’s account, labeling him as a disgruntled civil servant, there is certainly evidence of some erosion of meritocracy. While in 1560, two-thirds of Sanjak Beys had served in more junior roles, that number decreased to only one-quarter by 1610, showing a decrease in meritocratic promotion.",{"title":377,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":480},[],{"id":207,"data":208,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":211,"parsed":482},{"data":483,"body":485,"toc":504},{"title":377,"description":484},"Perhaps the most obvious change to the Ottomans was one that was immediately ostensible because of its territorial nature. Along the Habsburg frontier, the fortifications of the Viennese Aulic War Council after the threat to Vienna in 1532 made it far more difficult for the Ottomans to defend its territory.",{"type":380,"children":486},[487,491,499],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":488,"children":489},{},[490],{"type":388,"value":484},{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":492,"children":493},{},[494],{"type":383,"tag":398,"props":495,"children":498},{"alt":400,"src":496,"title":497},"image://c6873ef8-b3fb-4c3f-be75-b74d1956dd57","Vienna in the 16th century. Image: See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":500,"children":501},{},[502],{"type":388,"value":503},"The Europeans built forts along their 117-mile border in the new trace Italian style and manned them with a new type of soldier: the tercio. This marked the first time the Austrian Habsburgs could field professional elite troops against the Ottomans. This process of gradual militaristic improvement is more broadly known as the ‘European Military Revolution.’",{"title":377,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":505},[],{"id":220,"data":221,"type":25,"version":49,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":223,"introPage":231,"pages":507},[508,533,558,583],{"id":239,"data":240,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":243,"parsed":509},{"data":510,"body":512,"toc":531},{"title":377,"description":511},"The Ottoman Sultans valued titles and recognition to consolidate and showcase their authority. After seizing Constantinople in 1453, they assumed the title of 'Caesar' or 'Kayser' in Turkish. By subjugating the Mamluks in 1517, they adopted the title 'Caliph,' positioning the Ottoman ruler as the spiritual leader of the Sunni Muslim world.",{"type":380,"children":513},[514,518,523],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":515,"children":516},{},[517],{"type":388,"value":511},{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":519,"children":520},{},[521],{"type":388,"value":522},"In their diplomatic dealings, especially with the Austrian Habsburgs, various treaties like the Treaty of Constantinople in 1533 and the Treaty of Adrianople in 1547 were signed. These agreements primarily set peace terms and borders, not necessarily establishing a hierarchy between the two powers.",{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":524,"children":525},{},[526],{"type":383,"tag":398,"props":527,"children":530},{"alt":400,"src":528,"title":529},"image://fb3720c0-74c9-4ecb-9700-1be7046922ea","Text of the Truce of Adrianople. Image: Taken from here., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":377,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":532},[],{"id":254,"data":255,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":49,"reviews":258,"parsed":534},{"data":535,"body":537,"toc":556},{"title":377,"description":536},"However, the relationship between the Habsburgs and Ottomans underwent a noticeable change during the Long War from 1593 to 1606. This prolonged conflict saw no decisive victor and inflicted heavy losses on both sides. The war's aftermath was the Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606, which notably acknowledged the ceremonial equality between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans, representing a shift from any perceived superiority the Ottomans might have held in earlier decades.",{"type":380,"children":538},[539,543,551],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":540,"children":541},{},[542],{"type":388,"value":536},{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":544,"children":545},{},[546],{"type":383,"tag":398,"props":547,"children":550},{"alt":400,"src":548,"title":549},"image://6f5ff157-d274-4971-9630-57adf9c9439a","Painting of the Long War. Image: Vienna Museum, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":552,"children":553},{},[554],{"type":388,"value":555},"While this treaty hinted at a shift in the balance of power, it's crucial to understand that the Ottoman Empire remained a formidable force and continued to play a significant role in global politics for centuries thereafter.",{"title":377,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":557},[],{"id":275,"data":276,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":279,"parsed":559},{"data":560,"body":562,"toc":581},{"title":377,"description":561},"To add trouble to an already failing empire, the accession of Mustafa I to the throne in 1617 posed particular problems to the empire. After the death of Ahmed I, there were two contenders for the throne. The obvious choice was Osman The Young, who was Ahmed’s son. However, without a living mother to petition for him at court, he could not lobby influential Viziers and Janissaries to support his bid for the throne. As a result, Mustafa I convinced the Viziers that he, Ahmed’s brother, should take the throne.",{"type":380,"children":563},[564,568,576],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":565,"children":566},{},[567],{"type":388,"value":561},{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":569,"children":570},{},[571],{"type":383,"tag":398,"props":572,"children":575},{"alt":400,"src":573,"title":574},"image://bba651da-9a93-4491-abb4-032a7f45ef38","Mustafa I. Image: Unknown painter, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":577,"children":578},{},[579],{"type":388,"value":580},"However, it was not a happy ascendancy. First, questions were raised about Mustafa’s credentials due to the unusual nature of his succession and the fact that he didn’t commit fratricide. Additionally, those closest to the Sultan claimed that he was mad and that his advisors were using him as a puppet soldier. Since historians fiercely debate these claims, we may never know the truth about Mustafa. Nevertheless, it was a clear contributor to Ottoman instability.",{"title":377,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":582},[],{"id":288,"data":289,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":292,"parsed":584},{"data":585,"body":587,"toc":611},{"title":377,"description":586},"To compound the difficulty brought about by Mustafa the Mad, after upsetting the Janissary Corps less than a year into his reign, he was deposed in favor of his nephew, Osman II.",{"type":380,"children":588},[589,593,601,606],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":590,"children":591},{},[592],{"type":388,"value":586},{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":594,"children":595},{},[596],{"type":383,"tag":398,"props":597,"children":600},{"alt":400,"src":598,"title":599},"image://4990bff2-3183-4bef-91ca-ae72313a42c9","Osman the Young. Image: See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":602,"children":603},{},[604],{"type":388,"value":605},"This further proved to cause problems, with Osman the Young’s inexperience costing the Ottomans their chance of victory at the Battle of Khotyn in 1621, losing to a Polish-Lithuanian force with significantly inferior numbers. This further undermined the influence of Osman, leading to him being deposed again in favor of Mustafa in 1622.",{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":607,"children":608},{},[609],{"type":388,"value":610},"The overall impact of these sudden changes in Ottoman power showed how vulnerable the Ottoman state was, further cementing its decline.",{"title":377,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":612},[],{"id":311,"data":312,"type":25,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":314,"introPage":322,"pages":614},[615,640,657],{"id":330,"data":331,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"parsed":616},{"data":617,"body":619,"toc":638},{"title":377,"description":618},"Meanwhile, increased Christian unity because of the influence of the Holy League meant that the Ottomans could not gain other victories toward their military objectives.",{"type":380,"children":620},[621,625,633],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":622,"children":623},{},[624],{"type":388,"value":618},{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":626,"children":627},{},[628],{"type":383,"tag":398,"props":629,"children":632},{"alt":400,"src":630,"title":631},"image://2195b147-9f93-464b-b34d-6f2b1593c528","The Last Siege of Vienna. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia",[],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":634,"children":635},{},[636],{"type":388,"value":637},"However, the Ottomans made one last attempt at European domination. After losing at Khotyn, the Ottomans rebuilt their military infrastructure to make another attempt at Vienna. This included rebuilding key roads and restructuring the army.",{"title":377,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":639},[],{"id":335,"data":336,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":339,"parsed":641},{"data":642,"body":644,"toc":655},{"title":377,"description":643},"Even this couldn’t lead to an Ottoman victory. Upon leaving Constantinople, the Ottomans had 170,000 men. This was reduced to 150,000 through disease and attritional attacks by the time the Ottomans reached the gates of the city.",{"type":380,"children":645},[646,650],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":647,"children":648},{},[649],{"type":388,"value":643},{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":651,"children":652},{},[653],{"type":388,"value":654},"This force initially couldn’t believe its luck when it met a force of less than 20,000 at the city gates. However, the Ottomans largely ignored a relief force of 74,000 troops and single-mindedly focused on taking the city, leading to their eventual loss.",{"title":377,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":656},[],{"id":348,"data":349,"type":35,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":25,"reviews":352,"parsed":658},{"data":659,"body":661,"toc":680},{"title":377,"description":660},"Despite again possessing another significant material advantage, the humiliating loss at Vienna proved to majorly undermine Ottoman power. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz with the Austrian Habsburgs in 1699 after another loss for the Ottomans at the hands of the Holy League during the Battle of Zenta.",{"type":380,"children":662},[663,667,675],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":664,"children":665},{},[666],{"type":388,"value":660},{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":668,"children":669},{},[670],{"type":383,"tag":398,"props":671,"children":674},{"alt":400,"src":672,"title":673},"image://2fb647f9-4cd5-411b-b995-3c72c0f0e6cc","The Treaty of Karlowitz. Image: unknown person from Low Countries, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":383,"tag":384,"props":676,"children":677},{},[678],{"type":388,"value":679},"The treaty acknowledged Austrian territorial gains and cemented public knowledge of the Ottoman decline. The overall impact was that the Ottomans had ceased to be 'the present terror of the world'.",{"title":377,"searchDepth":25,"depth":25,"links":681},[],{"left":4,"top":4,"width":683,"height":683,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":684},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":683,"height":683,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":686},"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"M4 5h16M4 12h16M4 19h16\"/>",1778179265523]