[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":2639},["ShallowReactive",2],{"i-kinnu:logo":3,"i-kinnu:origami-folding":8,"pathway-history-the-ottoman-empire":12,"i-lucide:chevron-right":2634,"i-lucide:tag":2637},{"left":4,"top":4,"width":5,"height":5,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":7},0,27,false,"\u003Cg fill=\"none\">\u003Cpath d=\"M0.046875 1.05555C0.046875 1.03541 0.048197 1.01579 0.0507438 0.996728C0.0987149 0.438619 0.586845 0 1.18194 0H25.4398C26.451 0 26.9575 1.171 26.2424 1.85585L15.7301 11.9243L1.31574 0.903476C1.17475 0.79568 1.01137 0.761884 0.859586 0.784111L26.2936 25.1441C27.0086 25.829 26.5022 27 25.4909 27H1.18194C0.555061 27 0.046875 26.5133 0.046875 25.9129V1.05555Z\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":9,"height":10,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":11},1000,236,"\u003Cg fill=\"none\">\u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M193.68 38.2238C195.994 38.2238 197.87 40.0989 197.87 42.412V231.812C197.87 234.125 195.994 236 193.68 236H4.19013C1.87603 236 2.02305e-07 234.125 0 231.812V42.412C-2.02305e-07 40.0989 1.87603 38.2238 4.19013 38.2238H193.68ZM111.76 89.0072C111.685 87.9474 110.572 87.2905 109.608 87.7376L96.8872 93.641C95.7786 94.1554 95.702 95.7016 96.7545 96.3225L101.579 99.167C94.7045 109.365 90.5733 122.892 90.5732 137.642C90.5733 154.323 95.8569 169.439 104.416 179.945C105.301 181.032 106.9 181.196 107.987 180.311C109.075 179.426 109.238 177.828 108.353 176.741C100.621 167.25 95.6522 153.305 95.6521 137.642C95.6522 123.661 99.6138 111.051 105.963 101.754L110.456 104.403C111.508 105.024 112.826 104.21 112.74 102.991L111.76 89.0072ZM9.63194 136.286C9.14864 136.286 8.75684 136.678 8.75684 137.161C8.7569 137.644 9.14868 138.035 9.63194 138.035H17.2161C17.6993 138.035 18.0912 137.644 18.0912 137.161C18.0912 136.678 17.6994 136.286 17.2161 136.286H9.63194ZM22.6813 136.286C22.198 136.286 21.8062 136.678 21.8062 137.161C21.8063 137.644 22.1981 138.035 22.6813 138.035H30.2655C30.7487 138.035 31.1406 137.644 31.1406 137.161C31.1406 136.678 30.7488 136.286 30.2655 136.286H22.6813ZM35.7464 136.286C35.2631 136.286 34.8713 136.678 34.8713 137.161C34.8713 137.644 35.2631 138.035 35.7464 138.035H44.4973C44.9805 138.035 45.3724 137.644 45.3724 137.161C45.3724 136.678 44.9806 136.286 44.4973 136.286H35.7464ZM49.9977 136.286C49.5144 136.286 49.1226 136.678 49.1226 137.161C49.1226 137.644 49.5144 138.035 49.9977 138.035H57.5819C58.0651 138.035 58.4569 137.644 58.457 137.161C58.457 136.678 58.0651 136.286 57.5819 136.286H49.9977ZM63.0783 136.286C62.595 136.286 62.2032 136.678 62.2032 137.161C62.2033 137.644 62.5951 138.035 63.0783 138.035H70.6625C71.1457 138.035 71.5375 137.644 71.5376 137.161C71.5376 136.678 71.1457 136.286 70.6625 136.286H63.0783ZM76.1277 136.286C75.6444 136.286 75.2526 136.678 75.2526 137.161C75.2527 137.644 75.6445 138.035 76.1277 138.035H83.7119C84.1951 138.035 84.5869 137.644 84.587 137.161C84.587 136.678 84.1951 136.286 83.7119 136.286H76.1277ZM102.266 136.286C101.782 136.286 101.39 136.678 101.39 137.161C101.391 137.644 101.782 138.035 102.266 138.035H109.85C110.333 138.035 110.725 137.644 110.725 137.161C110.725 136.678 110.333 136.286 109.85 136.286H102.266ZM115.338 136.286C114.855 136.286 114.463 136.678 114.463 137.161C114.463 137.644 114.855 138.035 115.338 138.035H122.923C123.406 138.035 123.798 137.644 123.798 137.161C123.798 136.678 123.406 136.286 122.923 136.286H115.338ZM128.403 136.286C127.92 136.286 127.528 136.678 127.528 137.161C127.528 137.644 127.92 138.035 128.403 138.035H135.988C136.471 138.035 136.863 137.644 136.863 137.161C136.863 136.678 136.471 136.286 135.988 136.286H128.403ZM141.468 136.286C140.985 136.286 140.593 136.678 140.593 137.161C140.593 137.644 140.985 138.035 141.468 138.035H149.053C149.536 138.035 149.928 137.644 149.928 137.161C149.928 136.678 149.536 136.286 149.053 136.286H141.468ZM154.541 136.286C154.058 136.286 153.666 136.678 153.666 137.161C153.666 137.644 154.058 138.035 154.541 138.035H162.125C162.609 138.035 163 137.644 163.001 137.161C163.001 136.678 162.609 136.286 162.125 136.286H154.541ZM167.614 136.286C167.131 136.286 166.739 136.678 166.739 137.161C166.739 137.644 167.131 138.035 167.614 138.035H175.198C175.681 138.035 176.073 137.644 176.073 137.161C176.073 136.678 175.681 136.286 175.198 136.286H167.614ZM180.671 136.286C180.188 136.286 179.796 136.678 179.796 137.161C179.796 137.644 180.188 138.035 180.671 138.035H188.255C188.739 138.035 189.13 137.644 189.131 137.161C189.131 136.678 188.739 136.286 188.255 136.286H180.671Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M444.85 38.2277C447.164 38.2277 449.04 40.1028 449.04 42.4159V132.928C449.04 135.241 447.164 137.116 444.85 137.116H255.36C253.046 137.116 251.17 135.241 251.17 132.928V42.4159C251.17 40.1028 253.046 38.2277 255.36 38.2277H444.85ZM361.96 125.388C361.618 125.046 361.064 125.046 360.722 125.388L354.534 131.572C354.192 131.914 354.192 132.468 354.534 132.81C354.876 133.151 355.43 133.151 355.772 132.81L361.96 126.624C362.301 126.283 362.301 125.73 361.96 125.388ZM371.047 116.311C370.705 115.969 370.15 115.969 369.809 116.311L364.446 121.671C364.104 122.012 364.104 122.567 364.446 122.908C364.788 123.249 365.342 123.25 365.684 122.908L371.047 117.548C371.388 117.207 371.388 116.652 371.047 116.311ZM380.124 107.246C379.782 106.904 379.227 106.904 378.885 107.246L373.523 112.606C373.181 112.948 373.181 113.502 373.523 113.844C373.864 114.185 374.419 114.185 374.761 113.844L380.124 108.483C380.465 108.142 380.465 107.587 380.124 107.246ZM385.736 65.8841C385.891 64.6727 384.622 63.7845 383.536 64.3434L371.069 70.7636C370.124 71.2504 369.96 72.5334 370.752 73.2424L381.2 82.5938C382.11 83.4081 383.561 82.8672 383.717 81.6557L384.393 76.3725C391.143 77.1933 398.567 80.7709 404.771 86.9711C411.124 93.3213 414.726 100.952 415.43 107.827C415.573 109.221 416.819 110.236 418.214 110.093C419.609 109.95 420.624 108.703 420.481 107.309C419.644 99.1317 415.435 90.4514 408.362 83.3817C401.466 76.489 393.038 72.3185 385.038 71.338L385.736 65.8841ZM389.2 98.1733C388.859 97.8319 388.304 97.8318 387.962 98.1733L382.6 103.534C382.258 103.875 382.258 104.429 382.6 104.771C382.941 105.112 383.496 105.112 383.838 104.771L389.2 99.4108C389.542 99.0693 389.542 98.5149 389.2 98.1733ZM398.262 89.1047C397.92 88.7633 397.365 88.7632 397.024 89.1047L391.661 94.4649C391.319 94.8065 391.319 95.3608 391.661 95.7024C392.002 96.0436 392.557 96.0438 392.899 95.7024L398.262 90.3421C398.603 90.0007 398.603 89.4463 398.262 89.1047ZM416.431 70.9616C416.089 70.6202 415.534 70.6201 415.193 70.9616L409.83 76.3218C409.488 76.6634 409.488 77.2177 409.83 77.5592C410.172 77.9005 410.726 77.9007 411.068 77.5592L416.431 72.199C416.772 71.8575 416.772 71.3032 416.431 70.9616ZM425.508 61.891C425.166 61.5496 424.611 61.5495 424.27 61.891L418.907 67.2512C418.565 67.5928 418.565 68.1471 418.907 68.4887C419.249 68.8299 419.803 68.8301 420.145 68.4887L425.508 63.1284C425.849 62.787 425.849 62.2326 425.508 61.891ZM434.569 52.8146C434.227 52.4731 433.673 52.4731 433.331 52.8146L427.968 58.1748C427.626 58.5163 427.627 59.0706 427.968 59.4122C428.31 59.7534 428.864 59.7537 429.206 59.4122L434.569 54.052C434.91 53.7105 434.91 53.1562 434.569 52.8146ZM443.638 43.7479C443.296 43.4065 442.742 43.4064 442.4 43.7479L437.037 49.1081C436.695 49.4496 436.696 50.004 437.037 50.3455C437.379 50.6868 437.933 50.687 438.275 50.3455L443.638 44.9853C443.98 44.6438 443.979 44.0895 443.638 43.7479Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M684.066 38.2277C687.798 38.2281 689.667 42.7391 687.027 45.3773L596.473 135.889C595.687 136.675 594.621 137.116 593.51 137.116H506.335C504.021 137.116 502.145 135.241 502.145 132.928V42.4159C502.145 40.1028 504.021 38.2277 506.335 38.2277H684.066ZM514.603 124.566C514.261 124.224 513.707 124.224 513.365 124.566L507.178 130.751C506.836 131.093 506.836 131.646 507.178 131.988C507.519 132.329 508.073 132.329 508.415 131.988L514.603 125.803C514.945 125.462 514.945 124.908 514.603 124.566ZM523.689 115.491C523.348 115.15 522.794 115.15 522.452 115.491L517.09 120.852C516.748 121.193 516.748 121.747 517.09 122.088C517.431 122.43 517.985 122.43 518.327 122.088L523.689 116.728C524.031 116.386 524.031 115.833 523.689 115.491ZM532.102 65.8295C530.707 65.6872 529.46 66.7017 529.318 68.0957C529.175 69.4896 530.189 70.7355 531.584 70.8787C538.463 71.5825 546.096 75.1826 552.45 81.5329C558.723 87.8037 562.312 95.3226 563.079 102.13L557.738 102.392C556.518 102.452 555.865 103.855 556.607 104.827L565.115 115.969C565.76 116.814 567.051 116.751 567.611 115.847L574.992 103.928C575.635 102.889 574.848 101.555 573.628 101.615L568.161 101.882C568.161 101.878 568.162 101.874 568.161 101.871C567.324 93.6931 563.114 85.0124 556.041 77.9425C548.968 70.873 540.283 66.6668 532.102 65.8295ZM532.766 106.421C532.425 106.079 531.871 106.079 531.529 106.421L526.166 111.781C525.825 112.123 525.825 112.676 526.166 113.018C526.508 113.359 527.062 113.359 527.403 113.018L532.766 107.657C533.108 107.316 533.108 106.762 532.766 106.421ZM541.843 97.3445C541.501 97.003 540.948 97.003 540.606 97.3445L535.243 102.705C534.901 103.046 534.902 103.6 535.243 103.941C535.585 104.283 536.139 104.283 536.48 103.941L541.843 98.5809C542.185 98.2393 542.185 97.686 541.843 97.3445ZM550.92 88.2778C550.578 87.9363 550.025 87.9363 549.683 88.2778L544.32 93.638C543.978 93.9796 543.978 94.5329 544.32 94.8745C544.662 95.2161 545.215 95.2161 545.557 94.8745L550.92 89.5142C551.262 89.1727 551.262 88.6193 550.92 88.2778ZM569.066 70.1405C568.724 69.799 568.17 69.7991 567.829 70.1405L562.466 75.5008C562.124 75.8423 562.124 76.3956 562.466 76.7372C562.808 77.0788 563.361 77.0788 563.703 76.7372L569.066 71.377C569.407 71.0354 569.407 70.4821 569.066 70.1405ZM578.143 61.0699C577.801 60.7284 577.247 60.7285 576.906 61.0699L571.543 66.4302C571.201 66.7717 571.201 67.3251 571.543 67.6666C571.885 68.0082 572.438 68.0082 572.78 67.6666L578.143 62.3064C578.484 61.9648 578.484 61.4115 578.143 61.0699ZM587.219 51.9896C586.878 51.6481 586.324 51.6481 585.982 51.9896L580.62 57.3498C580.278 57.6914 580.278 58.2447 580.62 58.5863C580.961 58.9279 581.515 58.9279 581.857 58.5863L587.219 53.2261C587.561 52.8845 587.561 52.3312 587.219 51.9896ZM596.288 42.9249C595.947 42.5833 595.392 42.5833 595.05 42.9249L589.689 48.2851C589.347 48.6267 589.347 49.18 589.689 49.5216C590.03 49.863 590.584 49.8631 590.926 49.5216L596.288 44.1613C596.63 43.8198 596.63 43.2664 596.288 42.9249Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M850.814 38.2277C854.547 38.2281 856.416 42.739 853.777 45.3773L763.223 135.889C762.437 136.674 761.371 137.116 760.26 137.116H673.176C669.443 137.116 667.574 132.605 670.213 129.966L760.768 39.4544C761.554 38.6692 762.62 38.2277 763.731 38.2277H850.814ZM761.338 121.8C760.855 121.8 760.463 122.191 760.463 122.674V131.13H762.213V122.674C762.213 122.191 761.821 121.8 761.338 121.8ZM761.338 108.971C760.855 108.971 760.463 109.363 760.463 109.846V118.301H762.213V109.846C762.213 109.363 761.821 108.971 761.338 108.971ZM761.338 96.1402C760.855 96.1406 760.463 96.5321 760.463 97.0149V105.47H762.213V97.0149C762.213 96.532 761.821 96.1404 761.338 96.1402ZM782.263 71.887C781.043 71.951 780.395 73.3571 781.139 74.3257L784.474 78.6631C779.115 82.951 771.242 85.7443 762.35 85.7444C753.366 85.7442 745.421 82.8944 740.059 78.5305C738.972 77.6461 737.373 77.8099 736.488 78.8961C735.602 79.983 735.766 81.582 736.853 82.467C743.231 87.6574 752.348 90.8207 762.35 90.8209C772.209 90.8208 781.205 87.746 787.568 82.6884L790.833 86.9341C791.577 87.9025 793.103 87.6391 793.479 86.4767L797.791 73.138C798.118 72.127 797.33 71.1017 796.268 71.1566L782.263 71.887ZM761.338 70.4847C760.855 70.4851 760.463 70.8767 760.463 71.3594V79.8147H762.213V71.3594C762.213 70.8766 761.821 70.485 761.338 70.4847ZM761.338 57.656C760.855 57.6564 760.463 58.048 760.463 58.5307V66.986H762.213V58.5307C762.213 58.0479 761.821 57.6563 761.338 57.656ZM761.338 44.8293C760.855 44.8297 760.463 45.2212 760.463 45.704V54.1592H762.213V45.704C762.213 45.2211 761.821 44.8295 761.338 44.8293Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath\n    d=\"M995.759 38.2277C999.53 38.228 1001.42 42.5171 998.752 45.0253L959.55 81.9005L905.796 41.5363C905.271 41.1418 904.662 41.0182 904.096 41.0994L997.485 130.319C1000.15 132.828 998.262 137.116 994.491 137.116H905.298C902.96 137.116 901.065 135.333 901.065 133.134V42.0941C901.065 42.0204 901.07 41.9483 901.079 41.8786C901.258 39.8345 903.079 38.2277 905.298 38.2277H995.759Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath\n    d=\"M505.873 0C506.657 4.57042e-05 507.307 0.195499 507.823 0.587023C508.338 0.969046 508.596 1.53802 508.596 2.29251C508.596 2.76034 508.467 3.19015 508.209 3.58162C507.951 3.96344 507.497 4.26401 506.848 4.48361V4.54114C507.65 4.67487 508.205 4.96191 508.51 5.4012C508.816 5.83087 508.969 6.31772 508.969 6.86193C508.969 7.74056 508.672 8.41851 508.08 8.89604C507.497 9.38304 506.733 9.62731 505.787 9.62738C504.861 9.62738 504.158 9.42172 503.68 9.0111C503.212 8.60054 502.935 8.08005 502.849 7.44993L503.881 7.10571L503.924 7.24028C504.035 7.54934 504.211 7.82925 504.454 8.07986C504.731 8.36635 505.166 8.50986 505.758 8.50989C506.465 8.50989 506.943 8.32772 507.191 7.9648C507.449 7.6019 507.579 7.20078 507.579 6.7615C507.579 6.2173 507.378 5.80683 506.977 5.52992C506.585 5.25295 505.93 5.10026 505.013 5.07161V4.15402C505.901 4.12537 506.489 3.92484 506.776 3.55237C507.062 3.18009 507.206 2.82242 507.206 2.47876C507.206 1.62801 506.752 1.17539 505.845 1.12237L505.658 1.11749C505.467 1.11752 505.242 1.14605 504.985 1.2033C504.736 1.25105 504.511 1.3274 504.31 1.43245L504.081 2.56457L503.05 2.44951L503.322 0.687461C503.666 0.49653 504.068 0.33454 504.526 0.200875C504.985 0.0671945 505.434 0 505.873 0Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath\n    d=\"M905.727 2.30616L904.638 2.4066L904.466 1.26083H901.428V3.72497C901.533 3.71544 901.643 3.71034 901.757 3.71034H902.086C902.755 3.71034 903.386 3.78668 903.979 3.93949C904.58 4.09229 905.068 4.38363 905.44 4.8132C905.822 5.23335 906.014 5.84949 906.014 6.66106C906.014 7.64468 905.722 8.38068 905.14 8.86776C904.557 9.36434 903.783 9.6127 902.818 9.61275C901.91 9.61275 901.213 9.40711 900.725 8.99648C900.248 8.59544 899.96 8.08007 899.865 7.44993L900.911 7.10571C901.007 7.49723 901.203 7.8271 901.499 8.09449C901.795 8.37131 902.211 8.50985 902.746 8.50989C903.395 8.50989 903.869 8.33787 904.165 7.99405C904.461 7.65981 904.609 7.22507 904.609 6.69031C904.609 5.87861 904.337 5.3625 903.792 5.14279C903.248 4.91361 902.612 4.79958 901.886 4.79955C901.695 4.79955 901.489 4.80365 901.27 4.8132C901.059 4.82275 900.854 4.83701 900.653 4.85611L900.224 4.44071V0.143343H905.569L905.727 2.30616Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M765.49 6.04576H766.966L766.837 7.14862H765.49V9.48404H764.185V7.14862H759.857L759.713 6.04576L762.909 0.143343H765.49V6.04576ZM760.96 6.04576H764.185V1.26083H763.541L760.96 6.04576Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath d=\"M4.80573 6.47481H6.41154V7.60693H1.81068V6.47481H3.50235V1.27546H1.81068V0.143343H4.80573V6.47481Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath\n    d=\"M254.359 0C255.353 0 256.055 0.239186 256.466 0.716715C256.877 1.18447 257.083 1.68072 257.083 2.20573C257.083 2.85516 256.849 3.44346 256.38 3.96875C255.912 4.49397 255.348 4.96638 254.689 5.38657C254.039 5.79717 253.437 6.15968 252.883 6.47481H256.423L256.538 5.42948L257.599 5.51529L257.426 7.60693H251.407L251.292 6.58987C252.582 5.73032 253.638 4.98523 254.46 4.35489C255.281 3.71509 255.693 3.05632 255.693 2.37832C255.693 1.53787 255.166 1.11749 254.115 1.12237L254.115 1.11749C253.924 1.11754 253.695 1.14604 253.427 1.2033C253.16 1.25104 252.916 1.32238 252.697 1.41783L252.467 2.47876L251.45 2.3637L251.707 0.60165C252.118 0.401088 252.563 0.253475 253.041 0.15797C253.519 0.0529708 253.958 1.99446e-05 254.359 0Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\u003C/g>",{"id":13,"data":14,"type":15,"maxContentLevel":26,"version":26,"tiles":27},"55b866dc-3b3e-42bf-9d5f-4375dee51e49",{"type":15,"title":16,"tagline":17,"description":17,"featureImageSquare":18,"baseColor":19,"emoji":20,"shapePreference":4,"allowContentSuspension":21,"allowContentEdits":21,"editorsChoice":21,"accreditations":22,"certificatePriceLevel":25,"certificationTitle":16},8,"The Ottoman Empire","The rise and fall of one of the greatest empires the world has ever seen","24cf616d-92a8-4e37-ad53-1bf9b5837594","#D3425F","🇹🇷",true,[23],{"authority":24},1,2,9,[28,351,743,1085,1360,1695,2034,2290],{"id":29,"data":30,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":34,"orbs":35},"8cd017fe-f534-4cfb-98f8-8d798a815f44",{"type":26,"title":31,"tagline":32},"The Founding of the Ottoman Empire","What was the Ottoman Empire, and why should we care about it?",3,6,[36,128,255],{"id":37,"data":38,"type":25,"version":40,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":41,"introPage":49,"pages":56},"c012fe47-983c-42f6-b4e9-b807d1288325",{"type":25,"title":39},"The Genesis and Expansion of the Ottoman Empire",5,{"id":42,"data":43,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"3cca114e-3418-4a8f-b98e-289598393e22",{"type":33,"summary":44},[45,46,47,48],"The Ottoman Empire started as a small state on the Anatolian Peninsula.","The Ottomans conquered Constantinople in 1453, renaming it Istanbul.","By the 16th century, the Ottomans were known as 'the present terror of the world.'","The Ottoman Empire declined by the late 19th century, earning the nickname 'the sick man of Europe.'",{"id":50,"data":51,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"48dca3e4-3351-4232-b6a2-df21d6b46f52",{"type":52,"intro":53},10,[54,55],"How did the Ottomans transform from nomadic herdsmen to a world power?","Why was the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 a game-changer for the Ottomans?",[57,73,111],{"id":58,"data":59,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":62},"25746c03-118a-40c5-acac-13167d801077",{"type":24,"markdownContent":60,"audioMediaId":61},"One of the greatest empires to ever exist was the Ottoman Empire. Spanning over 7.6 million square miles (around 19.7 million square kilometers) over its rich 600-year history, the Ottomans ruled from the Danube to the Middle East, conquering cities such as Belgrade, Constantinople, Mecca, and Cairo in the process.\n\n![Graph](image://905b0001-94a0-4062-ad6c-a8692f7f1021 \"The court of Sultan Selim III. Image: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAs the heirs to the great titles of Caesar, Caliph, and Khan, the Ottomans controlled the European terminus of the silk road, monitoring the supply of vital goods and information.\n\nBut how did these nomadic herdsmen end up dominating the world order? Was it really true that they could fire six arrows with pinpoint accuracy while riding backward on their horses? And how did this true superpower come to decline?\n\nThis is the story of the Ottoman Empire - a true historical superpower.","6471bffa-80e0-4eb0-be49-ab06f60331fd",[63],{"id":64,"data":65,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"222ead38-6aab-45dd-ac77-c54939820f42",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":67,"binaryCorrect":69,"binaryIncorrect":71},11,[68],"How long did the Ottoman Empire last?",[70],"600 years",[72],"300 years",{"id":74,"data":75,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":79},"e3abc01c-a647-4c54-8f99-02f2d9ca2cc4",{"type":24,"markdownContent":76,"audioMediaId":77},"While the Ottoman Empire at its peak was an expansive realm, its origins were far more modest. Starting as a small state on the Anatolian Peninsula, the empire's initial capital was Edirne, now part of modern-day Turkey.\n\n![Graph](image://c4d1e456-ee88-4d32-9a36-aa657d5ad92a \"Edirne in modern-day Turkey\")\n\nIt was only later, with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, that the empire shifted its capital to this strategic city, renamed Istanbul, and solidified its status as a world power.\n\nThis move not only gave the Ottomans a gateway between Europe and Asia but also marked a defining moment in the empire's long history, setting the stage for its future expansion and influence.","084b704f-ff52-401b-bbf4-b9bff4caa248",4,[80,100],{"id":81,"data":82,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},"1fad5199-8edf-4930-8a8f-110efee5ab0c",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":83,"multiChoiceQuestion":87,"multiChoiceCorrect":89,"multiChoiceIncorrect":91,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":95,"orderItems":97},[84,85,86],"ccc6202e-8b6d-48ae-b318-cd41561efaa4","387fdfd2-e252-48a4-af18-c9de3200b2bc","0f872f32-2a21-4d45-94bd-88e585802945",[88],"In what year was the Conquest of Constantinople?",[90],"1453",[92,93,94],"1514","1326","1444",[96],"Select the following events in chronological order:",[98],{"label":99,"reveal":90,"sortOrder":25},"Conquest of Constantinople",{"id":101,"data":102,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},"7584e61d-3ca2-4cbe-95cf-26956632ec83",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":103,"multiChoiceCorrect":105,"multiChoiceIncorrect":107,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[104],"Where did the Ottomans Empire originate?",[106],"The Anatolian Peninsula",[108,109,110],"Constantinople","The Levant","The Caucasus",{"id":112,"data":113,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":116},"ef611c52-d8c5-4103-b5cb-2a9e52f28147",{"type":24,"markdownContent":114,"audioMediaId":115},"Through the enterprising conquest and innovation of their early Sultans, the Ottomans grew to be described by English historian and schoolteacher Richard Knolles as 'the present terror of the world' in the 16th century.\n\nThis was particularly significant since Knolles resided over 900 miles away from the nearest Ottoman border, showing the acuteness of Ottoman power.\n\nHowever, despite modern movements towards neo-Ottomanism by the Erdogan administration, the country no longer exists on the map today, replaced by its successor state, Türkiye.\n\nIn fact, the decline of the Ottomans was so obvious that Tsar Nicholas I of Russia described the Ottomans as 'the sick man of Europe' by the late 19th century.","b4f2a2ff-82c4-4f71-8f1e-556ff62c7a06",[117],{"id":118,"data":119,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},"48fbc9e8-8ac1-4bf5-b670-9b9b372d71de",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":120,"multiChoiceCorrect":122,"multiChoiceIncorrect":124,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[121],"Who referred to the Ottomans as the Sick Man of Europe?",[123],"Nicholas I of Russia",[125,126,127],"Winston Churchill","Otto von Bismarck","Vladimir Lenin",{"id":129,"data":130,"type":25,"version":40,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":132,"introPage":140,"pages":146},"df0cdfc0-45a3-4ac3-b76e-a1ab506236c5",{"type":25,"title":131},"The Early Ottomans",{"id":133,"data":134,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"fcf0b772-b9ee-4995-9552-11119c5a8dd2",{"type":33,"summary":135},[136,137,138,139],"The Ottomans started as the Kayi tribe, nomadic herdsmen from Central Asia.","Osman I led the Kayi tribe to settle near the crumbling Seljuq dynasty.","Osman's dream of a tree covering ancient lands symbolized his destiny to conquer Constantinople.","Prophet Muhammad's prophecy foretold a great commander would conquer Constantinople, fulfilled by Mehmed II.",{"id":141,"data":142,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"aa2398d8-e4f8-48db-92a7-516946389e86",{"type":52,"intro":143},[144,145],"What was the significance of Osman's dream for the Ottomans?","How did Mehmed II's conquest of Constantinople fulfill a prophecy?",[147,171,195],{"id":148,"data":149,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":152},"5c5ef172-fe5f-4e9a-b124-6137e5d0b52f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":150,"audioMediaId":151},"Before the conquest of Constantinople, the Ottomans were a clan of nomadic herdsmen from Central Asia known as the Kayi tribe, who spent most of their time on horseback. The Kayi was one of the ancient Turkmen tribes originating from modern Turkmenistan. However, the expansion of Ghengis Khan’s Mongolian empire pushed them to migrate Westwards towards modern-day Anatolia.\n\n![Graph](image://f30b5a9e-d7a8-4a32-9c55-2d9ae23bda53 \"Symbol of the Kayi Tribe. Image: SPQR10, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nEventually, under Sultan Osman I in the 13th century, the Kayi tribe settled around the Seljuq dynasty in Iran and Mesopotamia. This left them uniquely placed to expand into the territories of the already crumbling Seljuq dynasty and later the Byzantine Empire, which was itself damaged by the weight of debt and a religious schism by the Roman Catholic Church.\n\n![Graph](image://29d97034-2695-4984-afa6-ff66b0af7b70 \"Painting depicting Sultan Osman I. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia Commons.\")\n\nThe Ottomans take their name after Osman, the founder of the dynasty – the term ‘Ottoman’ translates to ‘follower of Osman.’","7dad5ba4-2700-46fe-8f77-4fbf128c5e77",[153,165],{"id":154,"data":155,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"72c8df3b-154c-40b9-8608-73358f12c3c7",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":156,"multiChoiceCorrect":158,"multiChoiceIncorrect":161,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[157],"Where did the Ottomans establish themselves during the 13th century?",[159,160],"Iran","Mesopotamia",[162,163,164],"Mongolia","Hungary","Turkey",{"id":166,"data":167,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"5dcaec47-081c-48f8-84e9-d884c31a799f",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":168,"clozeWords":170},[169],"Before the conquest of Constantinople, the Ottomans were a clan of nomadic herdsmen from Central Asia.",[108],{"id":172,"data":173,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":176},"58f1dd50-a69d-4395-aeaf-2bdb9f2c6e8c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":174,"audioMediaId":175},"One of the important aspects of a fledgling empire is the need for legitimacy. This often comes from its foundation myth: Britain has its Arthurian legends, Rome cast back to Romulus and Remus, and the ancient Jews attempted to trace their lineage back to King David.\n\nWhile several different foundational myths surround the Ottomans, the historian Caroline Finkel believes the most important among them is Osman's dream.\n\nIn the fable, Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman Empire, was staying at the home of Sheik Edebali, an important Islamic figure, out of respect for his religious purity. Suddenly, he lapsed into a dream.\n\nIn Osman’s dream, the full moon, a symbol of power, rose out of the bosom of Edebali and into Osman. Following that, a great tree sprang forth and covered the Caucasus, Atlas, Taurus, and Haemus, the four mountains of the ancient world. The Tigris, the Euphrates, the Danube, and the Nile flowed into the tree's roots.\n\nAn almighty wind blew the sword-shaped branches of the tree toward the greatest city of them all: Constantinople. The city appeared like the most precious stone in a beautiful ring, which was placed on Osman’s finger. Sheikh Edebali was so impressed with Osman’s prophecy that he married off his daughter to the Sultan.\n\n![Graph](image://cf1be672-2401-49f9-8452-0f54f730283d \"Map of Constantinople. Image: Cplakidas, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nOsman, and his followers, interpreted this as a sign from Allah that he had to conquer Constantinople, giving him a right to universal sovereignty – meaning ‘the ability to rule over.'","e68424a5-4e13-4d26-9d80-0226edd479dc",[177,188],{"id":178,"data":179,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"6bb72662-1c57-4163-8b9e-dc0ed17d8851",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":180,"multiChoiceCorrect":182,"multiChoiceIncorrect":184,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[181],"Whose home was Osman I staying in when he had his dream?",[183],"Sheik Edebali",[185,186,187],"Suleiman the Magnificent","The Sheik of Anatolia","Sheik Selim",{"id":189,"data":190,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"40a995cb-da41-4b14-83a2-fe028eb5b55b",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":191,"activeRecallAnswers":193},[192],"Which Sultan do the Ottomans take their name from?",[194],"Osman I",{"id":196,"data":197,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":200},"7f6bec16-3d58-407f-a730-d26a18db9852",{"type":24,"markdownContent":198,"audioMediaId":199},"Another foundational myth that surrounds the Ottomans is that their legitimacy comes directly from the Prophet Muhammad himself. According to the Ottomans, Prophet Muhammad made a prophecy about the future of the world. This prophecy is recorded in the *hadith* - the term for the collected actions and sayings of the prophet.\n\nHe said, 'Verily, a great commander, will conquer Constantinople.' At the time, Constantinople was at the heart of the Eastern Roman Empire, a paragon of art, culture, economics, and religion.\n\n![Graph](image://903d75f0-06de-4732-8c6e-5fdeb0c60967 \"Painting depicting Mehmed II entering the city of Constantinople. Image: Fausto Zonaro, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAccording to supporters of the Ottoman regime from the 15th century, Mehmed II’s fulfillment of the prophecy in 1453 showed him to be God's chosen Emperor and the Ottomans to be God’s chosen people.","cad98b4a-5594-45eb-b42b-d68fe0e98d14",[201,221,234,244],{"id":202,"data":203,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"1ad93d68-7884-49ba-8801-5fad51161bab",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":204,"multiChoiceQuestion":208,"multiChoiceCorrect":210,"multiChoiceIncorrect":212,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":216,"matchPairsPairs":218},[205,206,207],"5da756dc-dc60-4762-b8ed-1fa470ef95f6","01b0ae7f-3988-4121-8628-3541745efe60","85977911-dd20-4970-8391-b0299a7889e8",[209],"Which of the following most closely applies to Sultan Osman I?",[211],"Founder of Ottoman Empire",[213,214,215],"Fulfilled Prophet Muhammad's prophecy by conquering Constantinople","Invaded Safavid Persia in 1514","Attempted to conquer Constantinople during the 1394–1402 siege, was captured at the Battle of Ankara",[217],"Match the pairs below:",[219],{"left":220,"right":211,"direction":33},"Sultan Osman I",{"id":205,"data":222,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":223,"multiChoiceQuestion":224,"multiChoiceCorrect":226,"multiChoiceIncorrect":228,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":231,"matchPairsPairs":232},[202,206,207],[225],"Who fulfilled Prophet Muhammad's prophecy by conquering Constantinople?",[227],"Mehmed II",[220,229,230],"Sultan Selim I","Bayezid I",[217],[233],{"left":227,"right":213,"direction":33},{"id":235,"data":236,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7d556056-6ee8-49b7-8013-957d4afc077c",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":237,"multiChoiceCorrect":239,"multiChoiceIncorrect":240,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[238],"Which city did Prophet Muhammad allegedly predict that the Ottomans \"verily ... will conquer\"?",[108],[241,242,243],"Alexandria","Rome","Vienna",{"id":245,"data":246,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"602d1039-ba28-4428-9493-ce3e1444abc7",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":247,"multiChoiceCorrect":249,"multiChoiceIncorrect":251,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[248],"What term is used for the collected actions and sayings of the prophet Muhammad?",[250],"Hadith",[252,253,254],"Halal","Sharia","Fiqh",{"id":256,"data":257,"type":25,"version":40,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":259,"introPage":267,"pages":273},"752d273b-ddec-4e47-af87-96e8dbca7abf",{"type":25,"title":258},"The Gazi Thesis",{"id":260,"data":261,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"d61acbef-0de7-40fd-93c3-ac12ce70f663",{"type":33,"summary":262},[263,264,265,266],"The Gazi Thesis says the Ottomans saw themselves as Muslim warriors fighting non-Muslims.","In 1514, the Ottomans fought fellow Muslims in Persia, showing political interests beyond religion.","Osman I's dream of conquering Constantinople lived on through his son Orhan.","The Ottomans' best shot at Constantinople before 1453 was Bayezid I's siege from 1394 to 1402.",{"id":268,"data":269,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"f9aae3df-61a4-4029-9d22-fac1e0b460f2",{"type":52,"intro":270},[271,272],"Why did the Ottomans call themselves gazis?","What changed in Ottoman conquests after 1514?",[274,287,324],{"id":275,"data":276,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":279},"29a53042-32f5-4376-939e-308d4c33332f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":277,"audioMediaId":278},"The Gazi Thesis, proposed by Professor Paul Wittek, is a foundational myth of the Ottoman Empire. According to this theory, the Ottoman's legitimacy and desire for conquest came from their self-perceived status as gazis, a title used in the Islamic world during the medieval period to honor Muslim warriors who fought against non-Muslims.\n\n![Graph](image://39f620c0-fc5e-48b7-ba44-b22f3b74fb58 \"Paul Wittek, orientalist and historian. Image: See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe Gazi Thesis suggests that the Ottomans saw battle as the only way to an honorable life, and their raison d'être was to conquer new lands to expand the 'dar-al-Islam' or 'abode of Islam.'","ae5d31c6-b87b-4876-bc12-213b8ab602bb",[280],{"id":281,"data":282,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"79959787-e02b-43a4-84d6-e332e78fbcae",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":283,"clozeWords":285},[284],"According to the Gazi thesis, the motivation of Ottoman expansion was based on the sultan's self-perceived warrior status",[286],"Gazi thesis",{"id":288,"data":289,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":40,"reviews":292},"ef428834-784c-4aba-a056-1d047350441d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":290,"audioMediaId":291},"However, there is a significant problem with The Gazi Thesis beyond the year 1514. While before 1514 the Ottomans largely focused on battling Christian powers, at the Battle of Chaldiran that year, Sultan Selim I invaded Safavid Persia, putting him in direct conflict against fellow Muslims. In other words - these were not just soldiers for Islam - they had their own political and military interests.\n\n![Graph](image://15fa941d-a01a-4291-991b-0ed92ef62cfa \"Territory of the Ottoman Beylik upon the death of Osman I. Image: DragonTiger23, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nOsman I died in 1326, having failed to take Constantinople. However, despite his death, his ambition to conquer Constantinople outlived him, with his son Orhan establishing an Ottoman capital at Bursa in 1326.\n\nThe sacking of Thessaloniki in 1387 and the capture of Kosovo in 1439 allowed the Ottomans a presence in Europe, which they called Rumeli. Yet, despite surrounding it territorially, Constantinople remained elusive.","e111383b-a61a-4df1-b3da-26b0dd016fca",[293,304,315],{"id":84,"data":294,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":295,"multiChoiceQuestion":296,"multiChoiceCorrect":298,"multiChoiceIncorrect":299,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":300,"orderItems":301},[81,85,86],[297],"In which year did the Battle of Chaldiran take place?",[92],[90,93,94],[96],[302],{"label":303,"reveal":92,"sortOrder":33},"Battle of Chaldiran",{"id":85,"data":305,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":306,"multiChoiceQuestion":307,"multiChoiceCorrect":309,"multiChoiceIncorrect":310,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":311,"orderItems":312},[81,84,86],[308],"When was the Ottoman capital established at Bursa?",[93],[90,92,94],[96],[313],{"label":314,"reveal":93,"sortOrder":4},"Establishment of Ottoman capital at Bursa",{"id":316,"data":317,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"31642be9-6c49-4251-bc31-018b5599a2c2",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":318,"binaryCorrect":320,"binaryIncorrect":322},[319],"Who did the Ottomans attack in apparent breach of the principles of the Gazi thesis?",[321],"Safavid Persia",[323],"Habsburg Austria",{"id":325,"data":326,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":329},"438c5f4c-6d9f-4cc8-ba2a-320a2ac8b6a9",{"type":24,"markdownContent":327,"audioMediaId":328},"Perhaps the best attempt at conquering Constantinople came during the 1394–1402 siege under Bayezid I. The Ottomans surrounded the city and cut off overland food routes but struggled to topple the famous Theodosian walls.\n\n![Graph](image://8618c892-d8c4-474e-94ca-a238aa53bfd0 \"Bayezid I. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThen, disaster struck. The Ottomans were attacked from the East by Timur, and Bayezid I was captured at the Battle of Ankara. As a result, Ottoman expansion attempts stalled until Mehmed II's coronation in 1444.","0dc25633-d770-4af0-ad62-ccd3087ea510",[330,340],{"id":206,"data":331,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":332,"multiChoiceQuestion":333,"multiChoiceCorrect":335,"multiChoiceIncorrect":336,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":337,"matchPairsPairs":338},[202,205,207],[334],"Who was the invader of Safavid Persia in 1514?",[229],[220,227,230],[217],[339],{"left":229,"right":214,"direction":33},{"id":207,"data":341,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":342,"multiChoiceQuestion":343,"multiChoiceCorrect":345,"multiChoiceIncorrect":346,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":347,"matchPairsPairs":348},[202,205,206],[344],"Who was the leader that attempted to conquer Constantinople during the 1394–1402 siege and was captured at the Battle of Ankara?",[230],[220,227,229],[217],[349],{"left":230,"right":350,"direction":33},"Attempted to conquer Constantinople during the 1394–1402 siege",{"id":352,"data":353,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":34,"orbs":356},"021ba75c-be93-4ea1-8def-01b004581eba",{"type":26,"title":354,"tagline":355},"The Ottoman Ascendancy","An introduction to the coming of ‘The Conqueror’ and the reforms that built the foundations of Ottoman ascendancy.",[357,477,543,671],{"id":358,"data":359,"type":25,"version":40,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":361,"introPage":369,"pages":375},"6dca60bc-42ba-4a9f-a47b-17d21340cf06",{"type":25,"title":360},"The Rise of Mehmed II",{"id":362,"data":363,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"98c5fb11-4773-4d59-8dd1-fdd7517e2dbf",{"type":33,"summary":364},[365,366,367,368],"Murad II abdicated the throne in 1444, leaving 12-year-old Mehmed II as Sultan.","Mehmed II ordered his father to return and lead the army, resulting in victory at the Battle of Varna.","The Byzantines split from the Roman Catholic Church in 1054, leading to isolation.","Mehmed II used the massive Imperial Basilica cannon to breach Constantinople's Theodosian Walls.",{"id":370,"data":371,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"2740b9a5-ba7e-401d-8714-4aefcbb28b31",{"type":52,"intro":372},[373,374],"Why did Mehmed II target Constantinople?","How did Mehmed II overcome the Theodosian Walls?",[376,401,406,449],{"id":377,"data":378,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":381},"a2688d6c-410e-407d-9834-8c4ddeb7f4b8",{"type":24,"markdownContent":379,"audioMediaId":380},"Before the reign of Mehmed II, the Ottoman Empire was ruled by Murad II, his father. However, after Murad II made peace with Hungary in 1444, he took the unusual step of abdicating the throne and retiring to the countryside.\n\n![Graph](image://06b2bb90-815b-41eb-ac55-493b2c7d0b0f \"Mehmed II. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nHowever, as soon as Mehmed took the throne, the Hungarians, led by John Hunyadi, smelled weakness. After all, when would they get another opportunity to face a 12-year-old Sultan?\n\nIn response, Mehmed asked his father to take the throne back. Initially, his father refused. However, Mehmed told his father, 'if you are the Sultan, come and lead your armies. But if I am the Sultan, I hereby order you to come and lead my armies'. Murad returned and destroyed the Hungarian threat at the Battle of Varna in 1444.\n\nHowever, this undermined Mehmed’s credibility with his court. The world smelled his weakness, and Mehmed had to prove his strength. The obvious target was Constantinople.","6617ea60-a2ff-4b7a-9814-5edebe8633c7",[382,393],{"id":383,"data":384,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"a4602541-f62c-449b-a928-5e8bbf875c3f",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":385,"multiChoiceCorrect":387,"multiChoiceIncorrect":389,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[386],"Who did Mehmed II fight during his first campaign?",[388],"John Hunyadi",[390,391,392],"Ferdinand of Austria","Shah Ismail","Charles of Spain",{"id":394,"data":395,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"4eef2123-a970-4a7e-aaac-c42378148e45",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":396,"binaryCorrect":398,"binaryIncorrect":400},[397],"Who preceded Mehmed II?",[399],"Murad II",[194],{"id":402,"data":403,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78},"0dc6a169-b197-45de-b103-8d008cef723d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":404,"audioMediaId":405},"Constantinople was largely viewed at the time to be the greatest city in the world. It was made the capital of the Roman Empire, which became known by historians as the Byzantine Empire from 324 CE, under the rule of Constantine I.\n\nInitially, Byzantium was one of the world’s largest superpowers, ruling over much of modern-day Greece and the Balkans. However, over time, the debts the Byzantine Emperors accrued buying loyalty from their nobility began to mount.\n\nA religious disagreement with the Roman Catholic church exacerbated this problem. At this time, there were five great bishops: the Bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.\n\nWhile Western Europeans believed that the Pope had the power to rule over the other bishops, Eastern European Christians believed that the Pope’s primacy was merely symbolic.\n\nMoreover, disagreements over church practices around whether leavened or unleavened bread should be used in the Eucharist exacerbated religious tensions.","6028e590-76a3-4fd5-8229-942da9fb1a66",{"id":407,"data":408,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":411},"e37273e0-7d87-447d-ab1c-df1d1d14923b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":409,"audioMediaId":410},"In 1054, the Byzantines left the Roman Catholic Church to establish Eastern Orthodoxy in what is known as The Great Schism. As a result, when the Ottomans attacked with 100,000 men, the Pope only sent 300 papal archers to help defend the city.\n\nThe impact of this is that by the time of Constantine XI, the last Byzantine Emperor, the Byzantines were isolated from allies and teetering on the verge of bankruptcy.\n\nWhen Mehmed II came to besiege a weakened Byzantine empire in 1453, it would be easy to argue that he was pushing against an open door. However, he still faced one of the most powerful physical defenses ever built: the Theodosian Walls surrounding Constantinople.\n\n![Graph](image://b243a584-d2e4-4b36-8b48-d41eef509e0f \"The Theodosian Walls. Burgert Behr, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nDespite the Theodosian Walls outside Constantinople being attacked 23 times in the 1123 years preceding Mehmed's attack, they had never been breached.","4c04cc71-7dc0-4b4f-a0c1-3dce07bad2b3",[412,423,432,438],{"id":413,"data":414,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"06770e14-c3fe-4d12-97f1-9915e26b9452",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":415,"multiChoiceCorrect":417,"multiChoiceIncorrect":419,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[416],"Who was the last Byzantine emperor?",[418],"Constantine XI",[420,421,422],"Alexios I","Leo III","Diocletian",{"id":424,"data":425,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"ab26d68c-a506-4931-a5dc-a62c95f34266",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":426,"binaryCorrect":428,"binaryIncorrect":430},[427],"What religious denomination did the Byzantines belong to?",[429],"Orthodox Christianity",[431],"Catholicism",{"id":433,"data":434,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7bf6ffed-8e5d-4c73-8847-f7b5d885208b",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":435,"activeRecallAnswers":437},[436],"When was the conquest of Constantinople?",[90],{"id":439,"data":440,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"52390b21-472d-4b1c-80bf-f7e510ff14f1",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":441,"multiChoiceCorrect":443,"multiChoiceIncorrect":445,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[442],"What was the name of the physical defences of Constantinople?",[444],"The Theodosian Walls",[446,447,448],"The Carolingian Walls","The Constantine Walls","The Byzantine Walls",{"id":450,"data":451,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":454},"f8545268-b32d-4d8c-ac0f-15d55bf462f9",{"type":24,"markdownContent":452,"audioMediaId":453},"To solve this problem, Mehmed commissioned the master cannon maker Orban to build him the Imperial Basilica, the largest cannon ever built, and allegedly required 60 oxen to drag it to Constantinople from where it was built at Edirne.\n\nThroughout the battle, the Ottomans gradually overran the city. Upon conquering Constantinople, Mehmed II declared the customary three-day pillaging of the city’s wealth.\n\n![Graph](image://80525414-01ca-4f9e-aee5-3612ec68fd5c \"Mehmed II enters Constantinople. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nHowever, unusually, after the three days had elapsed, Mehmed ordered the remaining Christians to remain unmolested as a recognition that his new grand imperial capital would need laborers.","b26a5801-a916-4c80-92a1-961e77545566",[455,466],{"id":86,"data":456,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":457,"multiChoiceQuestion":458,"multiChoiceCorrect":460,"multiChoiceIncorrect":461,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":462,"orderItems":463},[81,84,85],[459],"In what year did Murad II abdicate?",[94],[90,92,93],[96],[464],{"label":465,"reveal":94,"sortOrder":24},"Abdication of Murad II",{"id":467,"data":468,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"20920a52-b10f-468a-8ea3-8febb6be05e9",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":469,"multiChoiceCorrect":471,"multiChoiceIncorrect":473,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[470],"Which master cannon-maker was hired to destroy the Theodosian Walls?",[472],"Orban",[474,475,476],"Ordan","Orlan","Oran",{"id":478,"data":479,"type":25,"version":40,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":481,"introPage":489,"pages":495},"e96531ff-b5d5-4f9c-91a3-5c610841cde3",{"type":25,"title":480},"The Conquest of Constantinople",{"id":482,"data":483,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"76c5192e-2650-4f82-a774-fc9d063a5510",{"type":33,"summary":484},[485,486,487,488],"Constantinople's capture let the Ottomans claim Rome's former territories","Controlling the Dardanelles and Bosphorus boosted Ottoman trade revenue","Mehmed II's 2% tariff on trade through Constantinople became a major revenue source","Mehmed II's conquests and naval wars expanded Ottoman power and prestige",{"id":490,"data":491,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"a760871a-6741-4587-842e-41ae2c74a86c",{"type":52,"intro":492},[493,494],"Why was capturing Constantinople a game-changer for the Ottomans?","How did Mehmed II's actions impact Venetian trade?",[496,501,531],{"id":497,"data":498,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78},"14dd07b2-2766-4be3-a1cf-31553b443c7f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":499,"audioMediaId":500},"The significance of Constantinople was twofold for the Ottoman Empire. First of all, Constantinople was a grand imperial capital and considered one of the greatest cities in the world.\n\n![Graph](image://31c8e12b-acbd-413b-81b1-a2d0255291dd \"15th-century Constantinople\")\n\nNo longer was it possible for the Europeans to brand the followers of Osman as nomadic rural upstarts. Moreover, the successful capture of what had once been Rome’s capital allowed the Ottoman Sultans to lay claim to all the territory that had once been Rome’s, expanding the scale of its ambitions significantly.","fcbbf251-e18b-4590-bee4-8eff6e6ba272",{"id":502,"data":503,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":506},"5a52abc7-cf1e-4921-847e-ab8b4fd36f7e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":504,"audioMediaId":505},"Second, Constantinople’s strategic location around two key bodies of water – the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus – allowed them to control naval trade from the silk road and the Black Sea, which produced a significant percentage of European imports.\n\nWhile the Byzantine Emperor could not tax Genoese and Venetian tradesmen for fear of European invasion, Mehmed II had no such fear since he intended to fight the Europeans, anyway.\n\nAs a result, a 2% tariff, which would later rise to 5% on all trade through Constantinople, was established, allowing the Ottoman Sultan to maintain one of the most lucrative sources of state revenue in the early modern world.","0732bf4d-a83b-47d3-ba9e-d5610cf325b5",[507,519],{"id":508,"data":509,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},"7e2b8c16-e1c1-4f8c-9277-45d600ca9225",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":510,"multiChoiceCorrect":512,"multiChoiceIncorrect":515,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[511],"Who had the Byzantines declined to tax due to fear of European invasion?",[513,514],"The Genoese","The Venetians",[516,517,518],"The Gauls","The Carthaginians","The Romans",{"id":520,"data":521,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"41dad240-c3e9-4c7f-9c71-e1f7f4674adf",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":522,"multiChoiceCorrect":524,"multiChoiceIncorrect":527,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[523],"Which two key bodies of water did Constantinople border?",[525,526],"Dardanelles","Bosphorus",[528,529,530],"Adriatic","Black Sea","Ionian",{"id":532,"data":533,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":536},"fd8c4698-670a-40b8-a89e-dbdaf9d18ab5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":534,"audioMediaId":535},"Mehmed II was given the epithet ‘The Conqueror’ for his conquest of Constantinople, starting a tradition of positive epithets for Ottoman Sultans that would last until 1566.\n\n![Graph](image://5068e1ea-27f1-4d29-af65-18642ac8db9a \"Painting depicting Mehmet II, The Conqueror. Image: Unknown artistUnknown artist, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAnother aspect of the reign of Mehmed II was significant consolidation. In the 1450s and 1460s, Mehmed conquered Athens, Trebizond, and Bosnia.\n\nIn addition, Mehmed II subjugated Wallachia as a vassal state, allowing him to earn a financial tribute from the Wallachian Kings in exchange for their continued independence.\n\nIn addition, Mehmed II built the first Ottoman fleet and began the Ottoman-Venetian war between 1463–1479. Although Venice undoubtedly had a better organized naval force, the war prohibited Venetian traders from traveling through Constantinople, sending Venice, which was heavily reliant on mercantile activity, to the precipice of bankruptcy.\n\n![Graph](image://cc35aa14-d0e2-4d36-8bcf-94819250fd0b \"Image of an Ottoman ship. Image: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAs a result, the Ottomans could emerge victorious and secure peace on favorable terms, furthering their imperial prestige on the world stage.","3f156c29-3006-42ab-9775-3bbd13f37562",[537],{"id":538,"data":539,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"9ea23508-de4b-4cf7-ac98-73b14bdb754f",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":540,"clozeWords":542},[541],"In the 1450s, Mehmed II conquered Athens, Trebizond and Bosnia.",[227],{"id":544,"data":545,"type":25,"version":78,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":547,"introPage":555,"pages":561},"1c421552-551a-4174-8dc4-20dad920ccf7",{"type":25,"title":546},"The Ottoman Governance",{"id":548,"data":549,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"d0b7b663-28f3-4ae7-9f8b-5955c0d8fd41",{"type":33,"summary":550},[551,552,553,554],"Mehmed II's imperial fratricide made his sons fight for the throne","The Janissary Corps were elite soldiers taken as babies from Christian families","Timar Holders ruled local lands and were reassigned based on merit","Sanjak Beys were promoted Timar Holders who led troops and reported to the Sultan",{"id":556,"data":557,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"84d20bfa-3f12-4256-9e24-503369dc68e9",{"type":52,"intro":558},[559,560],"What was the purpose of the imperial fratricide system?","How did the Timar system prevent local abuse of power?",[562,586,603,616],{"id":563,"data":564,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":567},"13334cbb-6e6d-4aba-90ab-1132755c903b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":565,"audioMediaId":566},"The method of dynastic succession was a key innovation made by Mehmed II. In most of the early modern world, the status of being the ruler was automatically inherited by the eldest son in a system known as primogeniture. However, Mehmed II believed this system wasn’t the best way to select a ruler. As a result, he proposed a new method of succession designed to pick the most suitable possible successor.\n\nIn assessing the needs of his empire, Mehmed II was looking for the most ruthless and tactically intelligent among his sons. As a result, he outlined a system known as the imperial fratricide, where, upon his death, his sons would have to battle between them for the throne.\n\n![Graph](image://d2f7c51b-4872-4f8d-905b-930e6f9de2eb \"Brothers fight it out for succession. Image: Michael Wening, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe last son left alive would be proclaimed the Sultan. This law was outlined in 1477 in a document called the Kannuname, which served as the constitutional law of the Empire.","e1e9faf2-9404-4d18-9d14-7f4eb0d4014b",[568,577],{"id":569,"data":570,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"a7da60f5-030d-42e6-978f-9b9b362717ef",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":571,"binaryCorrect":573,"binaryIncorrect":575},[572],"What did Mehmed publish in 1477 to set down the law of imperial fratricide?",[574],"The Kanunname",[576],"The Hadith",{"id":578,"data":579,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"9f367621-13ee-4d8a-bca0-9a4958a46d8f",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":580,"binaryCorrect":582,"binaryIncorrect":584},[581],"What system did the Ottoman Empire employ for dynastic succession?",[583],"Fratricide",[585],"Primogeniture",{"id":587,"data":588,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":591},"c125f210-8340-478b-a2c8-dedfcf66bc44",{"type":24,"markdownContent":589,"audioMediaId":590},"Another manifestation of Mehmed II’s quest for efficiency came with the recruitment of his elite Janissary Corps. Most early modern rulers had very small, full-time professional armies because of the high expense of paying their wages. However, Mehmed II found a cheaper way of maintaining his army: using slaves.\n\nUnder a policy known as the *devshirme*, Mehmed II sent out recruitment officers to all his Christian subjects and had them take the strongest and largest babies away from their families to live at the imperial palace. They were then trained in tactical understanding and fighting skills from a young age: bred to be the warriors of the Empire.\n\n![Graph](image://45dfc3e5-51dc-4199-955e-cc5b476a7182 \"Children are led away for devshirme. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nAs a result of this early indoctrination and extensive training, the Janissary Corps were among the most loyal and able troops in the early modern world.","4f395648-7bc3-458f-b3af-22c667c3b262",[592],{"id":593,"data":594,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"8ed96372-583f-455c-ad28-a9917445599f",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":595,"multiChoiceCorrect":597,"multiChoiceIncorrect":599,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[596],"What was the system of slave recruitment for the Janissary corps?",[598],"Devshirme",[600,601,602],"Devishmina","Dervishmin","Shirvedime",{"id":604,"data":605,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":608},"31a7232f-c94d-44ac-9531-fc071cfe1da2",{"type":24,"markdownContent":606,"audioMediaId":607},"Locally, Mehmed II also implemented a system founded on meritocracy. He appointed cavalrymen, known as Timar Holders, to administer a small localized patch of land called a Timar. This had two main advantages: the cavalrymen were strong enough to rule powerfully on a local level, and second, the Sultan had a large cavalry army to call on when he went to war.\n\n![Graph](image://012585b1-e2c1-4e2f-a91a-ec6d7dd6cfef \"Painting depicting Ottoman cavalrymen. Image: I Turchi. Codex Vindobonensis 8626, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nMoreover, several key differences existed between the Ottoman Timar system and much of the feudal systems that governed life in early modern Europe. In Europe, Lords owned their land and passed it to their sons. This meant that the land could end up in the hands of ill-equipped noblemen incapable of governing properly. However, in the Ottoman Empire, Timars were non-heritable. In fact, Timars were frequently reassigned based on which Timar Holders the Sultan perceived to be more or less capable.\n\nFinally, in Europe, the noblemen took their income from whatever they could earn from the land, incentivizing them to abusively tax the peasants, which often led to civil unrest and rebellion. However, Timar Holders took their income as a fixed sum from the Emperor, meaning they had no incentive to abuse the locals, fostering stability.","8999b940-8acb-4204-99ed-7051b8199147",[609],{"id":610,"data":611,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"978e50fd-9aa3-475c-8d03-f970d1aa42e6",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":612,"activeRecallAnswers":614},[613],"What was the name for land holding horsemen who had fixed regular wages?",[615],"Timar Holders",{"id":617,"data":618,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":621},"d91fa2c7-1dd8-4f76-bf8f-e5a2b12067ee",{"type":24,"markdownContent":619,"audioMediaId":620},"On a localized level, Timars were grouped into larger administrative regions known as Beys. These would be governed by a Sanjak Bey, who oversaw the Timar Holders and reported to the Sultan. Before Mehmed II’s conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Sanjaks were heritable by noblemen. However, Mehmed II removed these figures in what was known as the Turkification of the Ottoman State.\n\nThis meant that Sanjak Beys were then appointed meritocratically. This typically stemmed from either success on the battlefield or successful service as a Timar Holder. As a result, this gave Timar Holders the opportunity for promotion, incentivizing them to work hard and remain loyal to the Sultan. Moreover, Sanjak Beys served to lead the Timar Holders on the battlefield. This allowed the Sultan to draw upon a ready-made military and civilian hierarchy.\n\n![Graph](image://8e113e2f-daab-41a9-b733-e1accef6c7fe \"An 18th-century depiction of a Sanjak Bey on a visit to China. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThe only exception to this meritocratic appointment was that the sons of the Sultan were typically appointed as Sanjak Beys to give them experience in governing, ahead of them ascending to the throne. Unlike many European nations, this allowed the Ottomans to ensure that their rulers always had experience and were capable of ruling.","ef11fcd2-d760-4326-bc92-249d84c9eb9c",[622,641,651,662],{"id":623,"data":624,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"4d52c089-be8a-4e39-be6e-9192b6bd5bfd",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":625,"multiChoiceQuestion":629,"multiChoiceCorrect":631,"multiChoiceIncorrect":633,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":637,"matchPairsPairs":638},[626,627,628],"1a499b04-fd15-4560-81ca-4574c4efda9d","e2f406bf-1630-4aee-b26d-341ff223a006","cc4b14c1-1eb5-4a9e-87be-21e0f6ae2ee6",[630],"Which of the following most closely applies to the Janissary Corps?",[632],"Served as Mehmed II's elite troops",[634,635,636],"Non-heritable landholders","Led worship, served as judges and prosecutors","Handled local legal cases",[217],[639],{"left":640,"right":632,"direction":33},"Janissary Corps",{"id":626,"data":642,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":643,"multiChoiceQuestion":644,"multiChoiceCorrect":646,"multiChoiceIncorrect":647,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":648,"matchPairsPairs":649},[623,627,628],[645],"Which of the following most closely applies to Timar Holders?",[634],[632,635,636],[217],[650],{"left":615,"right":634,"direction":33},{"id":652,"data":653,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"c8cb4192-7723-4a36-91ef-207d10a6644c",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":654,"multiChoiceCorrect":656,"multiChoiceIncorrect":658,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[655],"What term was used for the process by which Mehmed eliminated hereditary nobility?",[657],"Turkification",[659,660,661],"Mehmedification","Ottomanification","Islamification",{"id":663,"data":664,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7551c104-18cb-458b-b75e-999a521e6ff8",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":665,"binaryCorrect":667,"binaryIncorrect":669},[666],"Who ruled over Timar holders?",[668],"Sanjak Beys",[670],"Janissaries",{"id":672,"data":673,"type":25,"version":78,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":675,"introPage":683,"pages":689},"6eea8f50-422f-4da5-94e8-5598ccfb46ca",{"type":25,"title":674},"The Ottoman Administration",{"id":676,"data":677,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"0457b16c-7827-4b38-b01d-685f22ecfa88",{"type":33,"summary":678},[679,680,681,682],"The Ottoman State was governed by the Divan, a council of 9-10 key advisors to the Sultan","The Grand Vizier, often from the Janissary Corps, chaired the Divan and could be dismissed by the Sultan","Topkapi Palace in Istanbul was the central hub of Ottoman administration","Mehmed II boosted the economy by creating the Bedesten market and encouraging trade guilds",{"id":684,"data":685,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"db32f05f-2f08-4c33-ab18-253d99d5f277",{"type":52,"intro":686},[687,688],"What was the Bedesten, and why was it significant?","How did Mehmed II's guild system impact trade quality?",[690,712,728],{"id":691,"data":692,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":695},"ac98ec12-a1a3-4af2-b74d-c393b279333b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":693,"audioMediaId":694},"On a national level, the Ottoman State was governed by the Divan, a small council of advisors to the Sultan. Typically, the Divan consisted of about 9 or 10 key advisors of the Sultan from the military, administrative, religious, and treasury branches of Ottoman governance. The Divan chair shares a name with the Sultan’s advisory board because it was what the Divan sat on while deliberating key decisions.\n\n![Graph](image://5b1bf38a-6a89-4c2a-bd72-8d7d85eb18d5 \"A meeting of the Divan. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThe Divan was chaired by the Grand Vizier, appointed by the Ottoman Sultan, and could be dismissed at will. Originally, the Grand Vizier tended to be a Turkman. However, when Mehmed II wanted to conquer Constantinople in 1451, his powerful Grand Vizier Chandali told him that he couldn’t do it and attempted to undermine the siege. As a result, Mehmed II had him beheaded and decreed that the future Grand Vizier would be picked from the Janissary Corps.","4d9a5735-6576-47f7-9996-709bd15e7780",[696,705],{"id":697,"data":698,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"45a9eb43-3e5c-49fd-8a69-0d2e337de2b4",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":699,"binaryCorrect":701,"binaryIncorrect":703},[700],"Who could become Grand Vizier?",[702],"A member of the Janissary Corps",[704],"A member of the Religious Class",{"id":706,"data":707,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"c08995e8-5abf-4f6e-8b3c-3e3362419196",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":708,"clozeWords":710},[709],"The Sultan took his advice at Topkapi palace from the imperial Divan, after whom a special type of chair is named",[711],"Divan",{"id":713,"data":714,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":717},"50304d5c-6015-4919-8cd4-5a0edb143fb1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":715,"audioMediaId":716},"The central location of administration for the Ottoman Empire was Topkapi Palace in Istanbul.\n\n![Graph](image://1c60f6cf-760c-4294-81cf-2454a6bbe604 \"Topkapi Palace today. Image: A.Savin, FAL, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nMuch as we use ‘The White House’ as a metonym for the American government and ‘10 Downing Street’ to mean the Prime Minister of England, Topkapi Palace is often used to refer to the office of the Sultan. Topkapi palace has a series of courtyards, which can be accessed by different people based on their status. While the outer courtyards were open to all Ottoman citizens, the inner courtyards were reserved solely for the Sultan and the Divan.\n\nTypically, it was customary for the Sultan not to attend meetings of the Imperial Divan – he would instead be briefed on their discussions by the Grand Vizier afterward. However, Mehmed II had a high window built from his bedchamber to the Divan room. This had two important impacts. First, it allowed him to listen in on the Divan chamber. Second, since the Divan didn’t know when he was listening, it forced them to fear disregarding the Sultan’s orders.","f57ec014-8d84-4b71-9bba-0b6760ad5416",[718],{"id":719,"data":720,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"a64482f6-eed9-4a45-a191-4619df51125d",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":721,"multiChoiceCorrect":723,"multiChoiceIncorrect":725,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[722],"What is used as a metonym to refer to the Ottoman state?",[724],"Topkapi Palace",[108,726,727],"Sheik Edebali's house","The Hagia Sophia",{"id":729,"data":730,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":733},"4646d392-7213-46d1-8a75-fd0eb696027d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":731,"audioMediaId":732},"Upon conquering Constantinople in 1453, Mehmed II was aware that he needed the empire to be economically prosperous in order for it to be able to maintain his economic aims. To do this, he implemented two key reforms.\n\nFirst, Mehmed II established the Bedesten, a large shopping market in Istanbul, which was the largest in the world at the time.\n\n![Graph](image://d9d7f01c-e838-41de-a8ca-607133ca6f46 \"Inside of the Bedesten, modern day. Image: Robert Prazeres, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe Bedesten included a militarized presence to ensure the punishment of thieves and was built to incorporate facilities for washing animals to stop the spread of disease. This incentivized tradesmen to use Constantinople as the base of their operations, even though it carried higher taxation than other Christian-held ports.\n\nSecond, Mehmed II encouraged the formation of guilds of tradesmen to regulate the control of the quality of products produced. This allowed tradesmen to be assured of the quality of products bought within the empire, further incentivizing trade.","bc47f226-28c2-414e-8600-e6b0635eb605",[734],{"id":735,"data":736,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"c1ecd010-e22e-4caf-b706-7d90e93cc331",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":737,"multiChoiceCorrect":739,"multiChoiceIncorrect":741,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[738],"Which shopping market was built by Mehmed II?",[740],"Bedesten",[742,598,711],"Anatol",{"id":744,"data":745,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":40,"orbs":748},"7f7658e4-1db9-4c47-ab0c-ceb2b43283c6",{"type":26,"title":746,"tagline":747},"Rapid Expansion to 1520","The Ottoman consolidation of power and expansion to take the Holy Lands of Islam.",[749,851,950],{"id":750,"data":751,"type":25,"version":40,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":753,"introPage":761,"pages":767},"d482fbbc-646c-4df6-a808-bb3eccc50e96",{"type":25,"title":752},"Bayezid II's Reign",{"id":754,"data":755,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"fe4ece83-73f5-4ed0-bebc-19c0d6238001",{"type":33,"summary":756},[757,758,759,760],"Bayezid II ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1481 to 1512, consolidating the state.","He harmonized Sharia and Kanun laws, earning the title 'The Lawgiver.'","Bayezid welcomed Spanish Jews expelled in 1492, boosting the empire's wealth and tech.","His brother Cem's escape to Europe limited Bayezid's military expansion.",{"id":762,"data":763,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"5b520fd9-47b5-40c8-97d2-cd07173b51b0",{"type":52,"intro":764},[765,766],"Why was Bayezid II called 'The Lawgiver'?","How did Bayezid II benefit from the expulsion of Jews from Spain?",[768,804,827],{"id":769,"data":770,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":773},"8d7e16bc-8931-429c-8780-3ba6ad179617",{"type":24,"markdownContent":771,"audioMediaId":772},"After the death of Mehmed II, Bayezid II took the throne and ruled from 1481 until 1512. He largely used this time to consolidate the Ottoman state, further expanding the Ottoman legal frameworks. Under the Ottomans, there were two codes of law.\n\n![Graph](image://f0ebdf98-1c08-48d7-b776-3423bc27c2cd \"Bayezid II. Image: Levni, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe first was Sharia law, which was the religious law from the Qur’an. The second type of law was the Kanun law, which was the constitutional and customary law of the empire, created through the proclamation of the Sultan. Bayezid II was the first Sultan to remove contradictions between the two types of Ottoman law. As a result, he is often given the epithet of ‘The Lawgiver.’\n\nMoreover, the capture of Kilia and Akkerman around the Black Sea in 1484 allowed the Ottomans to further consolidate their control over key trade routes for the European powers.","bbf48b33-9c86-4ee9-9fe1-e81cc708a1cb",[774,784,795],{"id":775,"data":776,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7615b463-7ea0-4b70-b8c6-8fbfc20844e0",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":777,"multiChoiceCorrect":779,"multiChoiceIncorrect":781,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[778],"Which emperor came after Mehmed II?",[780],"Bayezid II",[782,185,783],"Selim I","Osman II",{"id":785,"data":786,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"5cabd504-b3d0-4f1c-8355-3b8371c53016",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":787,"multiChoiceCorrect":789,"multiChoiceIncorrect":791,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[788],"When did Bayezid II reign from?",[790],"1481",[792,793,794],"1521","1405","1496",{"id":796,"data":797,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},"3b6d55e9-1e4c-4639-9ac8-5616f2a0d01c",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":798,"binaryCorrect":800,"binaryIncorrect":802},[799],"Where did Bayezid II conquer in 1484?",[801],"Moldavia",[803],"Venice",{"id":805,"data":806,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":809},"501f8e24-6aff-4947-92d2-b8fc92934449",{"type":24,"markdownContent":807,"audioMediaId":808},"Although Bayezid II did have some significant military victories, which provided the springboard for further expansion, his territorial gains don’t appear as large as those of the other Sultans around him. This is largely because his brother, Cem, hamstrung him.\n\n![Graph](image://5610610f-5c75-4975-a501-fd4cc2ec0a16 \"Bayezid II was not as militarily succesful as predecessors at first. Image: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAlthough Mehmed II prescribed in his original Kannuname that fratricide was the only way of becoming Sultan, Cem escaped from his brother’s attempts to assassinate him in Europe. This posed a significant problem for Bayezid.\n\nWhile ordinarily, the Ottoman Sultans were relatively secure against the threat of rebellion because the strength of the dynastic legitimacy was so high, having a living brother created a rallying point for dissenters.\n\nMoreover, since Cem was living under house arrest in Europe, any attack against a major European power could lead to his release, destabilizing the Empire and endangering Beyezid’s own position.","4b404320-be6a-4f9a-88a8-22c01624379c",[810,821],{"id":811,"data":812,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"f4eb7fe0-9caf-40e7-aa6c-bb9b501816a4",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":813,"multiChoiceCorrect":815,"multiChoiceIncorrect":817,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[814],"What was the name of Bayezid II's brother?",[816],"Cem",[818,819,820],"Mehmed","Suleiman","Also Bayezid",{"id":822,"data":823,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"56f97a57-55ee-434b-a5bc-eb6e64493b33",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":824,"clozeWords":826},[825],"Cem's survival past fratricide destabilized the reign of Bayezid II, forcing him to adopt cautious policies and stalling the Ottoman territorial ascendancy",[780],{"id":828,"data":829,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":832},"0304643e-95e8-4a66-b10a-88dcfe5cc472",{"type":24,"markdownContent":830,"audioMediaId":831},"The unification of Spain in 1469 under Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castille created a new powerful Catholic rule on the Iberian peninsula.\n\nAs a show of their power and loyalty to the Pope, in 1492, Spain issued the Alhambra Decree, expelling practising Jews from Spain within a year.\n\n![Graph](image://037a9c6f-0643-46dd-a831-a28ae097cc1d \"Painting depicting the expulsion of the jews. Image: Emilio Sala, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nIn reaction to the Alhambra Decree, Bayezid championed the Spanish Jews, transporting immigrants using the Ottoman navy and allowing them to settle within the empire. This brought two benefits to the Ottomans.\n\nFirst of all, the Spanish Jews brought significant wealth into the empire. This led to Bayezid saying, 'they say Ferdinand is a wise King – he who impoverishes his own Kingdom to enrich mine.'\n\nSecond, the Spanish Jews brought significant technological development, including the installation of the first printing press in Constantinople.\n\nBayezid also permitted Rabbis to rule on internal disputes between Jews in Constantinople and for them to live free of religious persecution. Though they had to pay a higher tax rate than Muslim subjects in what was known as the cizye tax, the tax rate was significantly lower than what they had been paying in Spain before their expulsion.","01293504-af41-4ffd-a1e6-1e7a986cdc45",[833,844],{"id":834,"data":835,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"3a22fa4e-20a4-4df5-9036-5282a3935812",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":836,"multiChoiceCorrect":838,"multiChoiceIncorrect":840,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[837],"What invention did the Spanish Jews bring to the Ottoman Empire?",[839],"Printing Press",[841,842,843],"Weighted scales","Catapult","Telescope",{"id":845,"data":846,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"5e2f480c-66ea-4f2d-9f16-4b397f431b01",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":847,"clozeWords":849},[848],"In reaction to the Alhambra Decree, Bayezid championed the Spanish Jews, transporting immigrants using the Ottoman navy and allowing them to settle within the empire",[850],"Alhambra",{"id":852,"data":853,"type":25,"version":40,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":855,"introPage":863,"pages":869},"5fa8581f-8695-4af5-9e67-dd1d1aaada7e",{"type":25,"title":854},"Selim I's Reign",{"id":856,"data":857,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"96de6fa9-1d94-4773-a6fc-5bfc8d79e00d",{"type":33,"summary":858},[859,860,861,862],"Selim I ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520 and was known as The Grim.","Selim I beheaded five Grand Viziers in eight years, showing his ruthless leadership.","Selim I had the Grand Mufti declare the Safavids as infidels to justify war.","The Ottomans won the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, defeating the Safavids with superior artillery.",{"id":864,"data":865,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"02761cec-17af-4e8d-b2a1-d9935c9a1e09",{"type":52,"intro":866},[867,868],"Why did Selim I behead five Grand Viziers?","How did Selim I justify his war against the Safavids?",[870,887,913],{"id":871,"data":872,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":875},"370f076e-b7b7-448c-a065-cbc1a03a5b49",{"type":24,"markdownContent":873,"audioMediaId":874},"Although he only ruled for eight years, from 1512 to 1520, one of the most successful Ottoman Sultans was Selim I, who conquered the Levant and the Hejaz for the empire.\n\n![Graph](image://9518bc3c-2d60-4d92-ab82-48106b9e1d7e \"Selim the Grim - a brutal leader. Image: Naḳḳāş ʿOs̠mān, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHe was given the epithet The Grim by his people. However, this wasn’t seen as a criticism of his demeanor or outlook toward the world. Instead, it was a commentary on Selim’s ruthlessness with his Grand Vizier. While Grand Viziers could often expect to last through the majority of a reign, with some getting through several Sultans, Selim got through six Grand Viziers in just eight years.\n\nThat means he beheaded five Grand Viziers out of dissatisfaction with their governance when the Empire was growing at its fastest rate. So ruthless was Selim that until this day, a traditional Turkish curse translates to 'may you be the Grand Vizier to the Sultan Selim.'","34fcd210-0862-4a18-a730-678b50da7cc5",[876],{"id":877,"data":878,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"abdeb48a-dee1-4d61-a2b3-301bc2418381",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":879,"multiChoiceCorrect":881,"multiChoiceIncorrect":883,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[880],"How many Grand Viziers did Selim I go through during his 8 year reign?",[882],"6",[884,885,886],"1","2","4",{"id":888,"data":889,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":892},"b13997d6-5356-45ad-aac4-720b1dd5c67d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":890,"audioMediaId":891},"The Ulama were the religio-legal class of the Ottoman Empire, leading worship and serving as the judges and prosecutors for legal cases.\n\nOn a local level, this was done by figures known as *Kadi*. To prevent corruption, the Kadi were regularly rotated from Timar to Timar every 18 months. This stopped them from building a relationship with the local Timar Holder, over whom they held power.\n\nOn a national level, the Ulama reported to the Grand Mufti, who represented the religious class in the Imperial Divan.\n\nUpon ascending to the throne, Selim I wanted to go to war with Safavid Persia on his eastern border. However, Islamic law states that no Islamic ruler can go to war with other Muslims.\n\nSelim had his Grand Mufti declare that the Safavids were infidels and fake Muslims to get around this. Moreover, he requested a fatwa, which is formal permission, stating that Allah supported his desire to go to war.","60025606-7c22-44d4-a4bc-f54bd3b1a159",[893,902],{"id":894,"data":895,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"faa62fad-8b60-44d4-96ae-68bfb1962749",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":896,"multiChoiceCorrect":898,"multiChoiceIncorrect":900,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[897],"What did Selim I receive to give him permission to go to war with other Muslims?",[899],"Fatwa",[253,250,901],"Sunnah",{"id":903,"data":904,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"57633bef-3bbb-4ce5-b803-c2d7eebcb828",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":905,"multiChoiceCorrect":907,"multiChoiceIncorrect":909,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[906],"What purpose did the Ulama serve in the Ottoman Empire?",[908],"Religio-legal class",[910,911,912],"Military administrators","Captains of business and industry","Close advisors to the Sultan",{"id":914,"data":915,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":918},"a7d9c75f-fcec-4c26-b8c7-2c99e6557922",{"type":24,"markdownContent":916,"audioMediaId":917},"In the years leading up to the Ottoman invasion of Persia, a new rival dynasty appeared on their eastern border. Under Shah Ismail's leadership, the Safavids had been hoping to take territory from the Ottomans by orchestrating a series of internal revolts within Ottoman territory. As a result, Selim I felt the need to destroy this emerging threat.\n\nThe Ottoman invasion in 1514 culminated in the Battle of Chaldiran, where Selim I’s 60,000 troops faced up against 40,000 Safavid defenders.\n\n![Graph](image://fffce900-3be1-4b4b-bee6-3490b7f55e90 \"Battle of Chaldiran. Image: Xiquinho Silva from Cacau, CC BY-SA 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe Ottomans won a decisive victory over Shah Ismail, allowing them to occupy and loot the Safavid capital of Tabriz. This was largely achieved because the Ottomans had vastly more developed artillery than the Safavids, with numerous and powerful cannons to draw upon.\n\nAfter the battle, Ismail retreated in disgrace. However, this opened up a border with the declining Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt for the first time, presenting a new opportunity for Ottoman expansion.","3ac7b3cf-d388-438a-ac37-fda61f66f707",[919,931,941],{"id":627,"data":920,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":921,"multiChoiceQuestion":922,"multiChoiceCorrect":924,"multiChoiceIncorrect":926,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":928,"matchPairsPairs":929},[623,626,628],[923],"Who served as leaders of worship, judges, and prosecutors?",[925],"The Ulama",[640,615,927],"Kadi",[217],[930],{"left":925,"right":635,"direction":33},{"id":628,"data":932,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":933,"multiChoiceQuestion":934,"multiChoiceCorrect":936,"multiChoiceIncorrect":937,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":938,"matchPairsPairs":939},[623,626,627],[935],"Who was responsible for handling local legal cases?",[927],[640,615,925],[217],[940],{"left":927,"right":636,"direction":33},{"id":942,"data":943,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"10e6445b-4dcd-4d54-b707-90d8ab5cad02",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":944,"binaryCorrect":946,"binaryIncorrect":948},[945],"What did the Ottomans have that led to their triumph at Chaldiran?",[947],"Better cannons",[949],"Better navy",{"id":951,"data":952,"type":25,"version":40,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":954,"introPage":962,"pages":968},"d40cb2d1-7a56-4f2b-bb6c-f63cce866047",{"type":25,"title":953},"Ottoman Conquests",{"id":955,"data":956,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"7f4ad795-9c09-4843-938a-5c829df0a7c0",{"type":33,"summary":957},[958,959,960,961],"The Ottomans crushed the Mamluks at the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 1516","Egypt's fertile Nile basin made it a goldmine for the Ottomans","Selim I let Egyptians keep their laws to avoid unrest","Conquering Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem made Selim I the Caliph",{"id":963,"data":964,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"53de56c5-1f22-410e-a803-7231d40366a3",{"type":52,"intro":965},[966,967],"Why was the Battle of Marj Dabiq a game-changer for the Ottomans?","How did Selim I keep the peace in newly conquered Egypt?",[969,991,1008,1023],{"id":970,"data":971,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":974},"112f9952-c660-48e1-90d1-c0f8df5d9990",{"type":24,"markdownContent":972,"audioMediaId":973},"The Mamluks were an Islamic caliphate that ruled Egypt and Syria from the 13th century until 1516. As the controllers of the holy cities of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, the Mamluks were the most prestigious rulers in the Islamic world. However, a series of civil wars weakened the military power of the Mamluk state. Selim saw an opportunity.\n\n![Graph](image://be0bb6d5-de20-4bdb-b461-0765de932323 \"A depiction of the Mamluks. Image: See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nDespite having lesser numbers, the Ottomans won a convincing victory over the Mamluks at the Battle of Marj Dabiq in 1516, allowing them to seize Egypt. Although the Mamluks attempted to conduct a last-ditch defense of their heartlands at the Battle of Ridanya in 1517, it was too little, too late.","7b8100b6-055d-4047-ab6f-7faade123d89",[975,984],{"id":976,"data":977,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"e8c0782f-c923-4371-bbb5-057df9bdd3c6",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":978,"binaryCorrect":980,"binaryIncorrect":982},[979],"Which side, despite having lesser numbers, won the Battle of Marj Dabiq?",[981],"The Ottomans under Selim I",[983],"The Mamluks under Al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri",{"id":985,"data":986,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"35cf8032-ea29-4e4a-a984-7b255603ab9e",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":987,"activeRecallAnswers":989},[988],"At which battle did the Ottomans vanquish the Mamluks to gain control of Syria and Egypt?",[990],"Battle of Marj Dabiq",{"id":992,"data":993,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":996},"259b3d93-b7d1-435b-acca-1ca442c420f4",{"type":24,"markdownContent":994,"audioMediaId":995},"The significance of Egypt was twofold for the Ottoman sultans. First, it allowed the Ottomans access to North Africa, which allowed them to open a new naval frontier with the Christian navies of Genoa and Venice, as well as bringing them into direct contact with the Spanish Habsburgs for the first time.\n\nSecond, Egypt was an incredibly lucrative region for the Ottomans. Modern economic historians predict Egypt accounted for about a third of Ottoman state revenue in 1520. This was largely due to the agricultural opportunities afforded by the fertile Nile basin, which was ideal for growing crops. The revenue brought in from Egypt allowed the Ottomans to expand their Janissary Corps as well as invest in new weaponry and the expansion of their naval fleet.","67b409d1-a297-4587-b1de-f78ce5fbe520",[997],{"id":998,"data":999,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"2c66a54c-8eb3-480d-b228-321d4fd29377",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1000,"multiChoiceCorrect":1002,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1004,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1001],"How much of the Ottoman state revenue in 1520 came from Egypt?",[1003],"A Third",[1005,1006,1007],"A Half","A Fifth","A Quarter",{"id":1009,"data":1010,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1013},"e289bbb7-df7a-4f44-8296-80f8157718ad",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1011,"audioMediaId":1012},"After extinguishing the Mamluks, Selim I recognized the possibility of unrest. As a result, he introduced several legal reforms designed to placate his new subjects.\n\n![Graph](image://eaf3228b-4d5e-4830-bea4-42781ac95492 \"Selim I succesfully defeated the Mamluks. Image: Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nCustomarily, when an empire conquered and absorbed a new territory in the 16th century, the laws of that former territory would be invalidated, and the people would be forced to live under the laws of the conquering power.\n\nHowever, Selim proclaimed that the citizens of Damascus could continue to live under the customary law they were used to, including following the taxation dictated by the Mamluks. For example, olive trees remained taxed by age rather than yield.","7fa2a046-34db-4519-9da8-4b57676bc71f",[1014],{"id":1015,"data":1016,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"300ac199-70dc-4372-a234-d7832f778a1a",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1017,"binaryCorrect":1019,"binaryIncorrect":1021},[1018],"How did Selim placate his subjects after conquering the Mamluks?",[1020],"By allowing them limited self-governance",[1022],"By granting them annual stipends",{"id":1024,"data":1025,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":40,"reviews":1028},"e36e73bd-ec6b-47d3-9786-824025c0b9ac",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1026,"audioMediaId":1027},"Moreover, Selim I set up an independent Mamluk Divan in Cairo to allow for continuity of power on a local level and did not institute the Timar system in Egypt. He also allowed local litigants to bring legal cases to the Madrassas rather than the Kardis – it was only when taking legal action against an Ottoman that the Mamluk people had to go through systems that were foreign to them.\n\nThis helped the Ottomans to avoid unrest and ensure a smooth power transition when taking over Egypt.\n\n![Graph](image://53036c9e-fd9a-420a-8fac-cde7a5fd9e78 \"Painting depicting Selim I riding through Egypt. Image: Gloya Borski, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nFrom the beginning of the Ottoman era, the Sultans referred to themselves as Khans, seeing their origins as nomadic herdsmen from Central Asia, leaving them as the natural ideological heir to that empire. This allowed them to lay claim to being the legitimate ruler of all Asiatic peoples.\n\nUpon conquering Constantinople in 1453, the Sultans also lay claim to the title of Caesar, which had previously been held by the Byzantine emperors, stemming from Constantine I’s realignment of the Roman Empire eastward in the 4th century. This allowed them to lay claim to being the legitimate ruler of all European people.\n\nUpon conquering the Holy Cities of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, Selim I lay claim to the title of Caliph, allowing him to lay claim to being the legitimate ruler of all Islamic people. The overall impact of this is that it completed Ottoman claims for universal sovereignty.","ab3944d3-858e-4c06-aa6a-28b674284f8b",[1029,1048,1057,1066,1074],{"id":1030,"data":1031,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"5801614f-928f-42cc-8095-9342006be5da",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1032,"multiChoiceQuestion":1036,"multiChoiceCorrect":1038,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1039,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":1043,"orderItems":1045},[1033,1034,1035],"4dd6c8a7-b306-45b5-98ea-cf7eed8270c7","c69ae1de-2b91-46bb-8ff8-b3fc56f44e85","2f05cecc-9b4b-4c7e-ba09-3b2da45c5cde",[1037],"When was Constantinople conquered by the Ottomans?",[90],[1040,1041,1042],"1517","1566","1571",[1044],"Put the following in order:'",[1046],{"label":1047,"reveal":90,"sortOrder":4},"Conquering of Constantinople",{"id":1049,"data":1050,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"0f698a14-1ae0-487d-aa4e-db89a428e30b",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1051,"binaryCorrect":1053,"binaryIncorrect":1055},[1052],"Selim extended the Timar system into Egypt.",[1054],"FALSE",[1056],"TRUE",{"id":1058,"data":1059,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"2eb2f552-e25d-42a6-98c0-1cd761fe0115",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1060,"activeRecallAnswers":1062},[1061],"What three major titles did the Ottoman Emperors have, furthering their claim to Universal Sovereignty?",[1063,1064,1065],"Caliphs","Caesars","Khans",{"id":1067,"data":1068,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"f2463aeb-5eaf-44c1-8070-37a380faa7a7",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1069,"multiChoiceCorrect":1071,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1072,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1070],"Which title did the conquest of Mecca and Medina allow the Ottomans to lay claim to?",[1063],[1064,1065,1073],"Sultans",{"id":1075,"data":1076,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},"78993166-fd0e-4df3-9240-959da7edf455",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1077,"multiChoiceCorrect":1079,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1081,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1078],"What title did the conquest of Constantinople entitle the Ottoman Emperors to?",[1080],"Caesar",[1082,1083,1084],"Khan","Caliph","Lord of the Sith",{"id":1086,"data":1087,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":40,"orbs":1090},"b2e717b3-bf73-4cc1-93b9-0cad8f9ef666",{"type":26,"title":1088,"tagline":1089},"Establishment Within Europe","An exploration of how the Ottomans established their dominance within Europe under Suleiman ‘The Magnificent’.",[1091,1183,1258],{"id":1092,"data":1093,"type":25,"version":78,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1095,"introPage":1103,"pages":1109},"eeecf636-efcf-466d-b3da-44dd6f8a3182",{"type":25,"title":1094},"Suleiman's Rise to Power",{"id":1096,"data":1097,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"32666349-6cad-49fb-ba41-5790d9263f86",{"type":33,"summary":1098},[1099,1100,1101,1102],"Suleiman became Sultan in 1520 after his father Selim I's sudden death.","Suleiman's victory at Belgrade opened access to the Danube.","The Janissary Corps were elite soldiers who couldn't marry or have second jobs.","Janissaries used volley fire to create a continuous stream of musket shots.",{"id":1104,"data":1105,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"31a66800-d6b5-41f2-b537-baee77211bbf",{"type":52,"intro":1106},[1107,1108],"Why did Christians initially welcome Suleiman's accession to the throne?","How did the Janissaries' use of volley fire give them an advantage in battle?",[1110,1125,1142,1155],{"id":1111,"data":1112,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1115},"107b4b71-900d-4568-90c8-9bfd393ca149",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1113,"audioMediaId":1114},"Although Selim I saw rapid territorial expansion throughout his eight-year reign, it is, in fact, his son Suleiman who was afforded the epithet ‘The Magnificent’. However, this wasn’t always the case.\n\n![Graph](image://035b3cef-1940-4543-b062-f2ecc9aaa244 \"Suleiman the Magnificent, the greatest Ottoman leader of them all. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nHis accession at the sudden death of Selim in 1520 was initially met with joy by Christians who thought he would be a more lenient Sultan. After all, by virtue of being an only son, Suleiman bypassed the need to conduct a fratricide upon inheriting the empire, eliminating his opportunity to provide an immediate show of strength.","043d57d7-b778-45fe-8276-11f599318aa0",[1116],{"id":1117,"data":1118,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"73bb0079-3184-4fc6-907a-ac6f2a61d999",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1119,"binaryCorrect":1121,"binaryIncorrect":1123},[1120],"Why did Suleiman not enact the imperial fratricide?",[1122],"He was an only son",[1124],"He thought the practice was barbaric",{"id":1126,"data":1127,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1130},"02df87c6-0d23-4bf0-9319-af3f35b85f0a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1128,"audioMediaId":1129},"\nThey were soon proved wrong as the new Sultan quickly won a victory at Belgrade that opened access to the Danube. Following up this initial victory was a 46-year reign, ending in 1566, that would terrorize European powers and see the Ottomans become a truly European power, threatening terror on three continents.\n\nAt the center of the Ottoman state power was the Janissary Corps, an elite personal army comprised of slaves of the Sultan who were recruited through the devshirme.\n\nAlthough Janissaries had functions in domestic functions, peacekeeping, and combatting rebellion, their primary purpose was to serve as the elite part of the Ottoman army, being held in reserve and strategically deployed to provide a killer blow on the battlefield.","edbb20e4-0abb-46c1-aaa4-216de9c4f3c1",[1131],{"id":1132,"data":1133,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"e6cad1a4-6e74-437c-8be7-7b55a70a6385",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1134,"multiChoiceCorrect":1136,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1138,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1135],"What are the beginning and end dates of Suleiman the Magnificent's reign?",[1137,1041],"1520",[1139,1140,1141],"1533","1575","1532",{"id":1143,"data":1144,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1147},"cfa9c34a-724a-4eea-84eb-f5ac31fb5e7d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1145,"audioMediaId":1146},"![Graph](image://4ae6c2fb-651d-4cc2-9034-38af08283e31 \"The Jannissaries were great warriors. Image: Lambert Wyts, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAlthough the devshirme was one key factor leading to the power of the Janissaries, it wasn’t just the breeding and training of the Janissary Corps that made them so effective. The Janissaries differed from their European counterparts in discipline and professionalism.\n\nIn 1520, when Suleiman ascended to the throne, Janissaries were not permitted to marry, conduct professional second trades or live outside the Topkapi palace. This meant that, unlike European warriors who were often distracted and often attempted to avoid service, the Janissaries were always ready for combat.\n\nMoreover, given that the only mechanism for Janissary advancement was to prove themselves in combat, the Janissaries often lobbied for military campaigns throughout the Empire's history.","50b40ca1-aada-4cdf-905f-1a76e6968930",[1148],{"id":1149,"data":1150,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"71d92d8b-86a1-4597-80e8-cf473173075b",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1151,"clozeWords":1153},[1152],"The elite soldiers of the Ottoman Empire were the Janissary Corps, a personal standing army of the Sultan recruited through the devshirme",[1154],"Janissary",{"id":1156,"data":1157,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1160},"7a42b0c2-5276-4dab-bbb4-4e63e3c0ffbf",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1158,"audioMediaId":1159},"One of the tools that the Janissary Corps used was volley fire. As an advanced, well-funded infantry army, the Janissaries were equipped with muskets. However, most armies found a significant problem with weapons of this kind because of their slow reload time. The fact that soldiers had to reload after every shot made them vulnerable on the battlefield to enemy fire.\n\nHowever, the Janissary Corps perfected a technique called volley fire, which allowed them to reload while firing. This involved soldiers standing in rows of 9.\n\n![Graph](image://e303b2cf-77e1-4fae-8267-befd9138deca \"Painting depicting Janissary Corps volley fire. Image: Fethullah Çelebi Arifi (historian, poet and painter) and/or Matrakçı Nasuh (painter of landscape) and/or other painters at the court of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nJanissaries would stand up and fire and then duck to reload. This created a continuous stream of fire at the enemy forces, allowing the Janissaries to annihilate armies with a far significant numerical advantage.","1344b17d-cba2-4f03-bdc4-99a1b85085c0",[1161,1172],{"id":1162,"data":1163,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"a1712687-9a3d-456e-97b0-0521f824fa1c",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1164,"multiChoiceCorrect":1166,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1168,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1165],"What weapon was volley fire based around?",[1167],"Musket",[1169,1170,1171],"Bow and Arrow","Cannon","Trebuchet",{"id":1173,"data":1174,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"5fce19d1-ec6c-4b3c-965a-9be8c87dda1e",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1175,"multiChoiceCorrect":1177,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1179,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1176],"How many rows were there as part of Janissary volley fire?",[1178],"9",[1180,1181,1182],"11","15","19",{"id":1184,"data":1185,"type":25,"version":40,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1187,"introPage":1195,"pages":1201},"75051129-7773-4a3c-870d-0a9557ce8897",{"type":25,"title":1186},"Ottoman Expansion",{"id":1188,"data":1189,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"698abf06-4a6f-425c-b438-2a01d4c6982e",{"type":33,"summary":1190},[1191,1192,1193,1194],"Suleiman targeted Hungary after his victory at Belgrade in 1521","Hungary's weak elective monarchy made it an easy target for Suleiman","Suleiman's victory at the Battle of Mohacs in 1526 led to Ottoman control of Hungary","Suleiman's attempts to capture Vienna in 1529 and 1532 failed due to strong defenses",{"id":1196,"data":1197,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"2bf7eedd-cf8b-4145-aeb2-d649b21ef417",{"type":52,"intro":1198},[1199,1200],"How did the disbandment of Hungary's standing army in 1494 impact Suleiman's invasion strategy?","Why did Suleiman's reliance on cavalry fail during the Siege of Vienna?",[1202,1215,1232],{"id":1203,"data":1204,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":1207},"3a873b43-b886-463e-8b7e-2a940ec99fa6",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1205,"audioMediaId":1206},"To follow up on his victory at Belgrade in 1521, Suleiman soon set his sights on Hungary as the next target for his imperial advancement.\n\n![Graph](image://f9075c02-8ca3-44bf-a37b-8458e5c7b3e5 \"Detailed depiction of the Battle of Mohacs. Image: Johann Schreier, EHRENSPIEGEL DES HAUSES ÖSTERREICH (A chronicle written for Johann Jakob Fugger around 1555), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAlthough Hungary had once been a strong European power, the desire of the Hungarian nobility to reduce their taxation burden led to the disbandment of their standing army in 1494. Moreover, Hungary was an elective monarchy, meaning the nobility voted for the King.\n\nIn 1516, the Hungarian nobles elected Louis Jagiellonia II, who was perceived as too weak to threaten their rights to ensure that their privileges weren't encroached upon. As a result, by 1526, Hungary presented a tempting target.","c9abf818-6bc7-4d9b-b114-f6d377dcfc4a",[1208],{"id":1209,"data":1210,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},"f19fa5d7-58e1-4269-8316-ec7f9a87508d",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1211,"clozeWords":1213},[1212],"In 1526, the Ottomans vanquished Louis of Hungary at the Battle of Mohacs to gain access to the Danube river",[1214],"Louis of Hungary",{"id":1216,"data":1217,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":1220},"4ce0c0bf-7d5d-4b04-82d0-258469483627",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1218,"audioMediaId":1219},"In 1526, Suleiman invaded, leading to the Battle of Mohacs. The Hungarian army was outnumbered by 40,000 to 100,000 men and 50 guns to 300 on the battlefield. In addition, the volley fire of the Janissary Corps quickly saw the Hungarians outclassed on the battlefield. After his victory at Mohacs, Suleiman claimed Hungary and attempted to turn it into an Ottoman province. However, the Austro-Hungarian Habsburg dynasty also claimed sovereignty over Hungary, setting them on the path to conflict.\n\n![Graph](image://77d42fb3-c5d1-4c06-b5f5-ee04ec23d5df \"Oil painting depicting the Hungarian army defeat at the Battle of Mohacs. Image: Bertalan Székely, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAfter his victory at Mohacs, Suleiman decided to campaign over Vienna to extinguish his last remaining rival in Eastern Europe. This led to him going on a campaign to Vienna in 1529 with 100,000 men. To defend themselves, the Austrian Habsburgs set up attritional warfare aimed at damaging the artillery of the Ottomans and stalling them.","b7428016-3c39-4d84-a13c-01b8949dd24f",[1221],{"id":1222,"data":1223,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"e55628b3-b5cc-42bc-a885-ed9ef4c9c332",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1224,"multiChoiceCorrect":1226,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1228,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1225],"Which dynasty claimed Hungary after the Battle of Mohacs?",[1227],"Habsburgs",[1229,1230,1231],"Valois","Jagiellonian","Stuart",{"id":1233,"data":1234,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1237},"08bc26e0-adb6-421c-ad4d-1b4244113f4b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1235,"audioMediaId":1236},"![Graph](image://2931a2eb-04d6-4fcd-ac58-df91e3473091 \"The Siege of Vienna. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nBy the time Suleiman’s force got to Vienna, the poor health of his troops meant that the Viennese only had to last for two weeks before he turned back. Despite attempts to take the city quickly, Suleiman found that the Ottoman reliance on cavalry was not suitable for siege warfare against walled cities.\n\nUnperturbed by his initial failure, Suleiman levied a second attempt at Vienna in 1532, leaving Constantinople with an even larger army than before, this time comprising over 120,000 troops. On their way, they were met at the city of Guns, which its 800 defenders had heavily fortified. However, the Ottomans again were met with failure as their vulnerability to physically constructed defenses was laid bare.","442da761-8dd9-45ea-b3b2-72d334f807c6",[1238,1247],{"id":1239,"data":1240,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7ac09907-609d-4ae3-bec9-5c71d40f3936",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1241,"binaryCorrect":1243,"binaryIncorrect":1245},[1242],"What battle stopped the Ottoman advance to Vienna in 1532?",[1244],"Siege at the city of Guns",[1246],"Battle of Belgrade",{"id":1248,"data":1249,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"418e35f8-6ada-4db8-85c4-ced976f151b5",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1250,"multiChoiceCorrect":1252,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1254,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1251],"How many defenders held out against the 100,000 Ottoman troops with minimal cannon at the Siege of Guns?",[1253],"800",[1255,1256,1257],"8000","80000","800000",{"id":1259,"data":1260,"type":25,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1262,"introPage":1270,"pages":1276},"9d24e4f0-f165-4554-8d6a-71645f7110fb",{"type":25,"title":1261},"Ottoman Influence in Europe",{"id":1263,"data":1264,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"f0f64bc9-6dd6-472e-a697-966912a37937",{"type":33,"summary":1265},[1266,1267,1268,1269],"Suleiman's attacks on Europe coincided with major religious conflicts like the Diet of Worms.","Martin Luther initially supported the Ottomans to weaken the Catholic Church.","The Franco-Ottoman alliance was driven by mutual hatred of Spain.","Suleiman's death in 1566 marked the end of the Ottoman classical era.",{"id":1271,"data":1272,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"fa06cf44-33e6-45b2-888e-0c1df22532ca",{"type":52,"intro":1273},[1274,1275],"Why did Martin Luther initially support the Ottomans?","How did the Franco-Ottoman alliance impact the Habsburg-Valois conflict?",[1277,1303,1318],{"id":1278,"data":1279,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1282},"98b597a2-797d-4ae2-98e1-a2818cb46fcd",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1280,"audioMediaId":1281},"Another added dimension to Suleiman’s attacks on Europe was that the continent at the time was attempting to deal with the rise of Protestantism. In 1517, Martin Luther sent out his 95 Theses, catalyzing a conflict within the church.\n\n![Graph](image://27a26b2d-3ef9-4926-ad69-61b64667fa33 \"The door of the 95 theses in Wittenburg. Image: AlterVista, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAlthough it was a position he would later come to reverse as the Ottomans approached Germany, Luther initially suggested support for the Ottomans. In fact, in 1529, in a pamphlet entitled On the War With the Turks, Luther said that it is 'a gentle holiness to abstain…from resisting the Turk'.","3e457235-e34c-4197-8523-6daf8bcf01bf",[1283,1294],{"id":1033,"data":1284,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1285,"multiChoiceQuestion":1286,"multiChoiceCorrect":1288,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1289,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":1290,"orderItems":1291},[1030,1034,1035],[1287],"In what year were Martin Luther's 95 Theses published?",[1040],[90,1041,1042],[1044],[1292],{"label":1293,"reveal":1040,"sortOrder":24},"Martin Luther's 95 Theses",{"id":1295,"data":1296,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"d7e09486-ded1-48b9-84e2-454b0abf5180",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1297,"binaryCorrect":1299,"binaryIncorrect":1301},[1298],"Which Christian religious figure initially supported Ottoman campaigns because of the damage they did to Catholic Christendom?",[1300],"Martin Luther",[1302],"John Calvin",{"id":1304,"data":1305,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1308},"f6d375d9-508e-4634-b98f-cc743653abf5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1306,"audioMediaId":1307},"It is certainly no coincidence that the Ottoman major campaigns against Belgrade in 1521 and against Mohacs in 1526 coincided with the Diet of Worms and the Diet of Speyer – two major religious conferences in Europe. The Ottomans' timing meant that European troops were too distracted to aid their eastern allies, furthering the Ottoman cause.\n\nAnother aid to Suleiman’s campaigns was an alliance with the Valois dynasty, rulers of France. But how did the greatest empire in Islamic history partner with the 'most Christian King' - as the kings of France styled themselves? Well, a mutual hatred of the Spanish led to the Franco-Ottoman alliance. After Francis I of France was captured during the Habsburg-Valois conflict at the Battle of Pavia in 1525, the French sought to enter an alliance to limit Spanish power in Europe.\n\n![Graph](image://92d3534b-80c9-429e-a6d0-628388649856 \"Francis I (left) and Suleiman I (right). Image: Titian, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","0fdfb34a-602c-425b-bf82-0bdfc1b4ffe8",[1309],{"id":1310,"data":1311,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"ae4c0d25-9f07-4760-99a5-36f99701a89f",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1312,"binaryCorrect":1314,"binaryIncorrect":1316},[1313],"What religious event distracted Europe, allowing the Ottomans to besiege Vienna in 1526?",[1315],"Diet of Speyer",[1317],"Diet of Utrecht",{"id":1319,"data":1320,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1323},"f5e8b1c1-cbb7-4ccd-a5b0-33c62d3e81b3",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1321,"audioMediaId":1322},"This alliance led to mutual military help with the Ottoman fleet docking for the winter in Toulon in 1526, a joint military operation in Nice in 1538, and the provision of ammunition leading to the Fleur-de-Lys symbol being found on Ottoman cannonball at Tunis.\n\nHowever, the alliance ended in 1559 after the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis ended the Habsburg-Valois war. Nonetheless, the 23-year alliance enabled the Ottomans to gain influence in the Western Mediterranean.\n\nIn 1566, Suleiman I died on a campaign back to Vienna, bringing the end of ‘The Magnificent’ classical era of the Ottoman ascendancy just before the Siege of Szigetvar, triggering the customary ending of campaigns that followed the death of a Sultan. To avoid projecting weakness, his Grand Vizier, Mehmed Sokollu Pasha, hid the news from the world during the Ottoman retreat back to Constantinople to allow for a stable transition of power.\n\n![Graph](image://2b4560b2-0687-467a-84b7-9fc09817b5ac \"The Mausoleum of Suleiman the Magnificent. Image: Bernard Gagnon, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThroughout the Suleimani era, the Ottomans also underwent significant expansion on the European continent. Suleiman also went to war with Safavid Persia from 1532 until 1555, successfully cementing the Siege of Amasya.","df4f00b8-b4ea-4baf-8a93-49a566a61403",[1324,1335,1344,1353],{"id":1034,"data":1325,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1326,"multiChoiceQuestion":1327,"multiChoiceCorrect":1329,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1330,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":1331,"orderItems":1332},[1030,1033,1035],[1328],"When did Suleiman I die?",[1041],[90,1040,1042],[1044],[1333],{"label":1334,"reveal":1041,"sortOrder":25},"Death of Suleiman I",{"id":1336,"data":1337,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"2b1fcbca-bf0f-4594-8bf3-378e906962f9",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1338,"binaryCorrect":1340,"binaryIncorrect":1342},[1339],"Which alliance led to the Ottomans sheltering at Toulon in 1526?",[1341],"Franco-Ottoman alliance",[1343],"Habsburg-Valois alliance",{"id":1345,"data":1346,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},"ae841c64-afa2-4842-9b4b-c438667ba730",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1347,"binaryCorrect":1349,"binaryIncorrect":1351},[1348],"What ended the Franco-Ottoman alliance?",[1350],"Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis",[1352],"Treaty of the Field of the Cloth of Gold",{"id":1354,"data":1355,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"aab7e007-fe6b-4eb8-bccb-ce8d50e1a3d4",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1356,"activeRecallAnswers":1358},[1357],"What conflict encouraged the French to form an alliance with the Ottomans?",[1359],"Habsburg-Valois Wars",{"id":1361,"data":1362,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":40,"orbs":1365},"7075345d-0de2-40bf-961d-976f98600630",{"type":26,"title":1363,"tagline":1364},"Ottoman Naval Power","How did the Ottomans go from being Lords of the Sea to subordinate on water?",[1366,1459,1564],{"id":1367,"data":1368,"type":25,"version":40,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1370,"introPage":1378,"pages":1384},"713a3e94-f292-4474-bdfb-c437b5eb9738",{"type":25,"title":1369},"Ottoman Naval Power and Expansion",{"id":1371,"data":1372,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"49d4ec12-1263-4ef7-940e-1a141874af11",{"type":33,"summary":1373},[1374,1375,1376,1377],"Mehmed II built 30 ships to conquer Constantinople in 1453","The Ottomans expanded their fleet to 300 ships under Bayezid","Corsairs, like Hayreddin Barbarossa, led the Ottoman navy to victory","The Battle of Preveza in 1538 marked Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean",{"id":1379,"data":1380,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"967e5f30-c42e-4111-b85c-657c653c5ab7",{"type":52,"intro":1381},[1382,1383],"What was the significance of the Battle of Preveza?","How did the Ottomans achieve victory at the Battle of Djerba?",[1385,1405,1446],{"id":1386,"data":1387,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":1390},"3d4d276e-9756-4211-96f2-5b9c7408b405",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1388,"audioMediaId":1389},"Given their status as nomadic horsemen, the Ottoman Empire had not traditionally been interested in naval investment. However, that changed when Mehmed II attempted to conquer Constantinople in 1453. Given that Constantinople was sandwiched between the Dardanelles Strait, the Sea of Marmora, and the Bosphorus, a naval blockade would be needed to stop the besieged Byzantines from resupplying. As a result, Mehmed ordered the construction of 30 ships.\n\n![Graph](image://0a026196-f1c5-4f60-b4a4-ce3fe9d8dd6f \"Naval fleet during the siege of Constantinople. Image: Jean Le Tavernier, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAfter conquering the city, Mehmed II expanded the fleet further from 30 ships to 92 ships, which his son Bayezid built on by expanding the naval fleet to 300 ships. By the time Suleiman the Magnificent came to power, the Ottomans had two fleets: one in the Mediterranean for defense and one in the Indian Ocean under Piri Reis, which allowed them to compete with Portugal for the lucrative spice trade.","9db88558-28f3-41ae-9c25-d40d69caef58",[1391,1398],{"id":1392,"data":1393,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"08351094-f46c-4c7b-b69c-f5f21ab895eb",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1394,"clozeWords":1396},[1395],"Ottoman naval expansion under Piri Reis allowed them to compete with Portugal for the Indian Ocean's lucrative spice trade",[1397],"Piri Reis",{"id":1399,"data":1400,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"17e12b66-fdaf-46a0-a9fc-56d48da7eabd",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1401,"multiChoiceCorrect":1403,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1404,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1402],"Who was the first Ottoman emperor to invest in a navy?",[227],[780,194,185],{"id":1406,"data":1407,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1410},"59032ed7-dbea-4a5a-b3cc-0977841303c5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1408,"audioMediaId":1409},"However, the Ottomans were still faced with the problem of expertise regarding naval strategy and leadership. Although they had successfully created a competent military fighting force on land, the nuances of galley warfare were more complicated to master and required experience. As a result, the Ottomans had to find a new solution for naval leadership.\n\n![Graph](image://c7ee1871-94ae-4017-97d3-a29e7022e3d0 \"Hayreddin Barbarossa. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThat solution was the employment of Corsairs, who were North African pirates. As such, they already had an extensive understanding of naval tactics and a natural hatred for Christians who patrolled the waters. The most famous Ottoman pirate, who led many Corsairs, was Hayreddin Barbarossa, who had conquered Tunis after the collapse of the Mamluk Sultanate.\n\nHowever, under the threat of a Spanish attack, he ceded Tunis to Selim I in 1519, becoming admiral of the fleet in the process. It was an alliance of mutual benefit: while Selim received effective leadership, Barbarossa was lent legitimacy and protection.","c654df93-c38e-4563-a900-f007de812d17",[1411,1429,1439],{"id":1412,"data":1413,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"62ac117a-af48-42d4-a187-1bfc0e5acecd",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1414,"multiChoiceQuestion":1418,"multiChoiceCorrect":1420,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1421,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1425,"matchPairsPairs":1426},[1415,1416,1417],"9f96df27-1f25-413d-88ba-5dfe31146760","9b43c58c-2884-4097-821f-dde68fe91d19","5a29a749-1216-42db-804c-6c712bdbfc08",[1419],"Who gave legitimacy and protection to Barbarossa?",[782],[1422,1423,1424],"Suleiman I","Pope Pius V","Selim II",[217],[1427],{"left":782,"right":1428,"direction":33},"Provided Barbarossa with legitimacy and protection",{"id":1430,"data":1431,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"48cd7453-e51c-4b83-8386-45984195607a",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1432,"multiChoiceCorrect":1434,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1436,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1433],"Which famous corsair became admiral of the fleet by ceding Tunis to the Sultan in 1519?",[1435],"Hayreddin Barbarossa",[1437,1438,1397],"Kemal Reis","Dragut",{"id":1440,"data":1441,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7fbd3c31-a3f8-4d79-b6cd-92ecd33e30dd",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1442,"activeRecallAnswers":1444},[1443],"What was the term for the North African pirates Suleiman hired to run his navy?",[1445],"Corsairs",{"id":1447,"data":1448,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":1451},"0488eec6-0081-4d05-9929-5a4ab078f266",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1449,"audioMediaId":1450},"Under the supervision of the Corsairs, the Ottomans managed a number of notable naval victories, beginning with successfully removing the Knights Hospitallers from Rhodes in 1522.\n\nAt the Battle of Preveza in 1538, in what was one of the largest sea battles of the 16th Century, Barbarossa led the Ottoman navy to a victory despite having a vastly inferior number of ships, sinking over a hundred Christian ships in the process. This announced a period of Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean.\n\n![Graph](image://0dad1bc2-6bbd-4ff1-a56b-5844acc9f3cf \"The Battle of Djerba. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThe Ottomans further capitalized on this victory at the Battle of Djerba in 1560. Defending Tunisia, the Ottomans managed to sink 60 Christian ships and take over 5,000 prisoners in the process. Again, this victory over a numerically superior fighting force served as an indicator that the Ottomans were dominant even on Spain’s doorstep by fighting so close to the Spanish mainland.","66b6311e-1520-43b9-a417-21f2c4533002",[1452],{"id":1453,"data":1454,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},"f552b1b7-30df-4af0-9e14-a1c2fb1b4cd5",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1455,"activeRecallAnswers":1457},[1456],"Which battle in 1538 was one of the largest sea battles of the 16th century?",[1458],"Preveza",{"id":1460,"data":1461,"type":25,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1463,"introPage":1471,"pages":1477},"d81ced1a-71ab-4df8-96c3-1e6f7d1e4d6a",{"type":25,"title":1462},"Ottoman Naval Defeats",{"id":1464,"data":1465,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"8d817ed6-eb21-42d5-b14e-445a9681131c",{"type":33,"summary":1466},[1467,1468,1469,1470],"Suleiman I's invasion of Malta in 1565 failed despite outnumbering defenders 35,000 to 2,500","Selim II, known as 'The Sot,' became Sultan in 1566 but was ill-suited for leadership","The Ottomans took most of Cyprus quickly but struggled at Famagusta, facing 52,000 casualties","Venetian General Bragadin was flayed to death after a failed peace pact at Famagusta in 1571",{"id":1472,"data":1473,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"4ea78ddf-7224-490a-a601-213721f15b85",{"type":52,"intro":1474},[1475,1476],"Why did Selim II target Cyprus for conquest?","What was the outcome of the siege of Famagusta?",[1478,1523,1540],{"id":1479,"data":1480,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1483},"40b1161f-fb35-49c0-9754-17ca323d87e5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1481,"audioMediaId":1482},"Attempting to capitalize on the Ottoman naval advantage, Suleiman I ordered an invasion of the island of Malta, held by the Knight Hospitallers, after they abandoned Rhodes in 1522. However, things wouldn’t prove so easy for the Ottomans this time. Although they outnumbered the Christian defenders by 35,000 soldiers to 2500, they could not take the island and suffered heavy casualties in the process.\n\n![Graph](image://aa4d437e-7a5f-4fdb-b6cb-dcb651d35dfb \"The Siege of Malta. Image: Matteo Perez d'Aleccio, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAlthough this wasn’t a naval battle in the strictest sense, the Ottoman defeat in 1565 served to break the aura of invincibility that had surrounded the Ottomans since the Battle of Preveza. This vulnerability encouraged Pope Pius V to raise support for a new ‘Holy League’ of Christian forces to oppose the Ottomans at sea, lobbying Christian rulers to unite under a single banner against the forces of Islam.","18cafd57-7a75-48f4-9eaf-049bb50f7827",[1484,1495,1506,1514],{"id":1415,"data":1485,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1486,"multiChoiceQuestion":1487,"multiChoiceCorrect":1489,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1490,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1491,"matchPairsPairs":1492},[1412,1416,1417],[1488],"Who was the ruler who ordered an invasion of Malta?",[1422],[782,1423,1424],[217],[1493],{"left":1422,"right":1494,"direction":33},"Ordered an invasion of Malta",{"id":1416,"data":1496,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1497,"multiChoiceQuestion":1498,"multiChoiceCorrect":1500,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1501,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1502,"matchPairsPairs":1503},[1412,1415,1417],[1499],"Who was the Pope that raised support for a new 'Holy League'?",[1423],[782,1422,1424],[217],[1504],{"left":1423,"right":1505,"direction":33},"Raised support for a new 'Holy League'",{"id":1507,"data":1508,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"c0457608-0961-4ca9-94ae-cd1116d220dc",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1509,"multiChoiceCorrect":1511,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1513,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1510],"When was the Siege of Malta?",[1512],"1565",[90,1040,1042],{"id":1515,"data":1516,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"e96d1a7d-6cb4-42f1-ac5a-46d98ca26f07",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1517,"binaryCorrect":1519,"binaryIncorrect":1521},[1518],"Who won the Battle of Malta, despite having vastly inferior numbers?",[1520],"The Christians",[1522],"The Ottomans",{"id":1524,"data":1525,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1528},"caa7ce7c-1369-4284-9411-8ef1fe57df2e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1526,"audioMediaId":1527},"In 1566, the landscape of the Ottoman Empire changed significantly with the death of Suleiman The Magnificent. Although Selim II seemed at first to be an unlikely candidate for the throne, the rebellion of two of his brothers against Suleiman and the unforeseen deaths of two others through illness thrust him into the political spotlight, and he became Sultan in 1566.\n\n![Graph](image://df637eed-5d0b-4cac-bceb-dbdd00a5e3a7 \"Selim II - an unlikely ruler. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nHowever, Selim II was ill-suited to be Sultan: he was unwilling to follow the army on a campaign as Sultans had traditionally done. This meant that the army struggled to unite under a cohesive command, with generals working to undermine each other so that they might be better positioned for promotion upon the return to Constantinople.\n\nMoreover, it is alleged that Selim II spent much of his time intoxicated – a particular problem given that alcohol is considered to be forbidden by practitioners of the Islamic faith. This hypocrisy led to Selim popularly gaining the nickname ‘The Sot’ in popular discourse.","7c19b01d-351e-44b7-8091-b076acd3f9c8",[1529],{"id":1417,"data":1530,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1531,"multiChoiceQuestion":1532,"multiChoiceCorrect":1534,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1536,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1537,"matchPairsPairs":1538},[1412,1415,1416],[1533],"Which of the following most closely applies to Selim II?",[1535],"Heavy drinker who didn't want to go on military campaigns",[1428,1494,1505],[217],[1539],{"left":1424,"right":1535,"direction":33},{"id":1541,"data":1542,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1545},"85977658-576f-4f33-b095-183e78aef0e3",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1543,"audioMediaId":1544},"Even though Selim II wasn’t willing to travel on campaign himself, he still had ambitions of territorial expansion, driven in part by the hunger of his Janissary Corps to receive plunder as payment for their loyalty. This led to him declaring Cyprus to be the next target of the Ottoman war machine upon ascending to the throne in 1566, sending out a galley fleet to conquer them.\n\nThe Ottomans faced little resistance upon arriving at Cyprus, taking most of the island relatively quickly. However, the Ottomans faced significant difficulty in taking the Christian fort of Famagusta, which had strong physical defenses. At Famagusta, the Venetians managed to hold out for nearly a year, despite being outnumbered by 8500 soldiers to 100,000.\n\n![Graph](image://4386a1c7-3c53-441c-b47a-5a61e12b40f8 \"Venetian general Marco Antonio Bragadin. Image: Sailko, CC BY 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe Ottomans were rumored to have suffered 52,000 casualties trying to take the fort and were frustrated enough to sue for peace in August 1571, offering the Venetians an honorable return home untouched. However, upon agreeing to the deal, the Ottomans seized the Venetian General Marco Antonio Bragadin and flayed him to death while slaughtering the other Venetian defenders, building anger and resentment across Europe.\n\nThere is some historical debate about who was at fault in this failed pact. Some historians claim that it was Bragadin that betrayed the pact, after he killed some Ottoman prisoners of his own.","ba0cbb56-2fa2-44c9-905f-92b71366e460",[1546,1555],{"id":1547,"data":1548,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"0bdda73c-e082-46e5-8673-b94b3fa7a388",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1549,"binaryCorrect":1551,"binaryIncorrect":1553},[1550],"What type of ships were present at the Ottoman invasion of Cyprus?",[1552],"Galleys",[1554],"Sailing Ships",{"id":1556,"data":1557,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"fad99bae-bf1e-4a87-a238-c112ff2d30eb",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1558,"binaryCorrect":1560,"binaryIncorrect":1562},[1559],"Which Venetian General was flayed alive after the Ottoman conquest of Famagusta, in violation of surrender terms?",[1561],"Marco Antonio Bragadin",[1563],"Gianandrea Doria",{"id":1565,"data":1566,"type":25,"version":78,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1568,"introPage":1576,"pages":1582},"8638bdb9-ebf1-4f2e-b2f0-6d57755e7d3d",{"type":25,"title":1567},"Battle of Lepanto",{"id":1569,"data":1570,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"c2c9b956-ce46-4c03-8cad-3da5a4e1249d",{"type":33,"summary":1571},[1572,1573,1574,1575],"The Holy League's Christian fleet had 7 powerful Venetian Galleasses that helped break Ottoman ranks.","Don John of Austria led the Christian fleet and killed Ottoman leader Ali Pasha, crushing Ottoman morale.","The Battle of Lepanto saw nearly 40,000 casualties and marked the end of large-scale galley warfare.","Historians debate Lepanto's significance; some see it as a turning point, others as a minor setback for the Ottomans.",{"id":1577,"data":1578,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"0cba0eab-b496-4b08-97e9-b2b79aecf2df",{"type":52,"intro":1579},[1580,1581],"Why did the Holy League's Venetian Galleasses give them an edge at Lepanto?","How did the death of Ali Pasha impact the Ottoman fleet's morale?",[1583,1605,1629,1653,1679],{"id":1584,"data":1585,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1588},"170c9c82-87ba-4db0-8002-7f05a5821890",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1586,"audioMediaId":1587},"The Holy League’s Christian force, assembled and ready, set out from Italian ports to meet the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto. Initially, it would be easy to conclude that the Ottomans had the superior fighting force: they outnumbered the Europeans by 251 galleys to 208. However, that doesn’t tell the full story.\n\n![Graph](image://dcdf1ebd-98ad-45b2-909a-af40122e5b08 \"The Battle of Lepanto. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nThe Christians had within their arsenal seven Venetian Galleasses, extremely large capital ships with raised sides that allowed soldiers to board other vessels without being boarded themselves, which eventually allowed the Holy League to break through Ottoman ranks.\n\nMoreover, there was a significant numerical difference between the two sides. The Christians had 35,000 soldiers, whereas the Ottomans only had 30,000. Many rowers onboard the Ottoman ships were enslaved Christians, meaning that if an Ottoman ship was captured, they could be freed and join the Christian ranks.","25db68f8-8950-438f-b7f0-26c614a0eff2",[1589,1598],{"id":1590,"data":1591,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"90f9b012-c11b-4615-8ad5-7cf3dbbb0932",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1592,"binaryCorrect":1594,"binaryIncorrect":1596},[1593],"What large Venetian ship allowed the Holy League to break through Ottoman ranks?",[1595],"Galleass",[1597],"Galley",{"id":1599,"data":1600,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"5cb9892e-8cfb-4183-9c7e-ac6b2ccc24ab",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1601,"clozeWords":1603},[1602],"At Lepanto, the Ottomans outnumbered the Europeans 251 ships to 208",[1604],"Lepanto",{"id":1606,"data":1607,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1610},"13319597-9b2d-4558-824b-48c1c95a99f7",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1608,"audioMediaId":1609},"On the other hand, many of the rowers for the Christian fleet were willing volunteers, meaning the Ottomans had no prospect of mid-battle reinforcement from their enemy’s ships.\n\nAt the Battle of Lepanto, the Christian Holy League was expertly led by Don John of Austria, who commanded an elite group of Spanish warriors, known as Tercios, on the Spanish flagship called The Real. Upon Don John’s command, these Tercios concentrated their energies on their Ottoman capital ship, killing Ali Pasha, the leader of the Ottoman fleet. This destroyed the Ottoman morale.\n\n![Graph](image://c1e31276-7196-4c97-a98c-30454fa3d7d9 \"Don John of Austria. Image: Alonso Sánchez Coello, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nSoon, the Ottoman force was leaderless and routed. When the Ottomans returned to port, their fleet, which had set out as the largest ever assembled with 251 galleys, was reduced to 40 boats. Over the course of the battle, there were nearly 40,000 casualties.\n\nMoreover, the battle was mostly fought with hand-to-hand combat, leading some historians to describe it as a land battle fought at sea. The deadly chaos of the battle led to most powers adopting their fleets to focus on sailing and cannon, signaling the end of large-scale galley warfare.","fee68888-b708-4577-93d9-16d0a684ce8f",[1611,1620],{"id":1612,"data":1613,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"24e008c5-6a69-4898-90f4-ac1d10043abc",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1614,"binaryCorrect":1616,"binaryIncorrect":1618},[1615],"Who commanded the Christians at the Battle of Lepanto?",[1617],"Don John of Austria",[1619],"Charles V of Spain",{"id":1621,"data":1622,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"15762a0e-f7af-479a-8515-4655302dbf84",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1623,"binaryCorrect":1625,"binaryIncorrect":1627},[1624],"How many ships did the Ottomans escape with after Lepanto?",[1626],"40",[1628],"120",{"id":1630,"data":1631,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1634},"2270ccba-c2a1-4a15-aeb5-046a90ba9e01",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1632,"audioMediaId":1633},"There are two major schools of historiographical thought surrounding the Battle of Lepanto.\n\nAccording to the leadership thesis, the Ottomans lost the battle because Ali Pasha, their command, was a land-based commander who knew little about naval warfare. Indeed, he was selected for the role after a career as a Janissary due to his loyalty to the Sultan. The conflict between him and Sirocco, an Ottoman governor, led to the Ottoman forces being disjointed during the battle, with disastrous timing leading to the ineffective deployment of Ottoman reserves.\n\n![Graph](image://0ab7b48c-2d37-4bd3-be63-1364530cedbd \"The Battle of Lepanto. Image: Laureys a Castro, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAccording to the material thesis, the Ottomans lost the battle because they were low on men and provisions. Indeed, after significantly higher than anticipated casualties besieging Famagusta, many modern estimates place the Ottoman fleet as roughly ten men short per ship.\n\nThis was coupled with the fact that the troops were exhausted after a summer raiding the Italian coast and low on weaponry. In fact, the Ottomans were so low on weapons at Lepanto that there are European reports of the Janissaries throwing oranges, though these were likely apocryphal.","edff2abe-29cc-4714-9237-4ac59e3ba6d3",[1635,1646],{"id":1636,"data":1637,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"c81cbc78-0757-4b95-8810-2d0fdb5219d4",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1638,"multiChoiceCorrect":1640,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1642,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1639],"According to the material thesis, how many men was each Ottoman ship short of after the exhaustion of the Cyprus campaign?",[1641],"10",[1643,1644,1645],"30","100","150",{"id":1647,"data":1648,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"10eb72c8-4778-4dcd-83c4-33911de0d156",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1649,"clozeWords":1651},[1650],"According to the leadership thesis, the Ottomans lost the battle because Ali Pasha was a land-based commander who knew little about naval warfare",[1652],"Ali Pasha",{"id":1654,"data":1655,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1658},"45ae240d-ec1b-4c9b-8332-d069abdf42ff",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1656,"audioMediaId":1657},"There are also significant historiographical debates about the importance of the Battle of Lepanto. According to Roger Crowley, Lepanto 'did have consequences, and they were significant.' Those aligning with Crowley’s school of thought argue that Lepanto was a major turning point and brought about the end of the Ottoman expansion.\n\nOn the other hand, Historian Kate Fleet of Cambridge University believes that Lepanto 'was not significant, either in terms of undermining Ottoman naval strength or in adjusting the balance of power in the Mediterranean'.\n\nThis is for two reasons. First, Professor Fleet argues that the Siege of Malta in 1565 meant that the Ottomans were already in decline, meaning Lepanto didn’t make a difference. Second, it only took the Ottomans six months to rebuild their fleet at their naval dockyard in Kasimpasa because of their deep treasury, perhaps indicating that the Ottomans did not suffer a significant material detriment. However, this doesn’t consider the large-scale losses in experienced sailors.\n\n![Graph](image://3db6a8a2-b8b4-4b6a-a360-ca61dc193f49 \"Siege of Malta, 1565. Image: Matteo Perez d'Aleccio, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","7dfc2634-4c1e-468f-99dc-dfc1b0da7e9d",[1659,1670],{"id":1660,"data":1661,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"2f024603-f766-49b5-9cec-0f7c04c7d41e",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1662,"multiChoiceCorrect":1664,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1666,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1663],"How long did it take the Ottomans to rebuild their fleet at the naval dockyard in Kasimpasa?",[1665],"6 months",[1667,1668,1669],"10 years","1 year","20 years",{"id":1671,"data":1672,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"96fe5ad4-3e43-4b52-9c60-c889184ed98f",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1673,"binaryCorrect":1675,"binaryIncorrect":1677},[1674],"Which of these is arguably a reason that Lepanto was NOT that historically significant?",[1676],"The Siege of Malta meant that the Ottomans were already in decline",[1678],"It brought about an end to Ottoman expansion",{"id":1680,"data":1681,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1684},"5f91e97d-4308-4139-85b8-2b5aace541c0",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1682,"audioMediaId":1683},"For Christians, the Battle of Lepanto brought forth a sense of papal joy throughout the domains of Catholic powers. Paintings and frescoes were commissioned to commemorate the victory, and writers like Miguel de Cervantes romanticized the leaders of the Holy League: in his Magnum Opus Don Quixote, the nobility of Don John is parodied.\n\n![Graph](image://cc8bfce1-2ef0-4262-8134-1095a401b29e \"Miguel de Cervantes. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nLepanto also featured as the background for William Shakespeare’s Othello, showing that even despite the large distance between the Eastern Mediterranean and Britain, the effect of Lepanto was seen as an important cultural touchstone.","ae3413b3-4518-49fd-a047-66cab369e789",[1685],{"id":1035,"data":1686,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1687,"multiChoiceQuestion":1688,"multiChoiceCorrect":1690,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1691,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":1692,"orderItems":1693},[1030,1033,1034],[1689],"When was the Battle of Lepanto?",[1042],[90,1040,1041],[1044],[1694],{"label":1567,"reveal":1042,"sortOrder":33},{"id":1696,"data":1697,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":40,"orbs":1700},"f9bfb203-ecad-4dd2-af80-086d455a8094",{"type":26,"title":1698,"tagline":1699},"Classical Ottoman Decline","The Ottomans were no longer “the present terror of the world” by the end of the 17th century. Let’s explore why.",[1701,1815,1887,1974],{"id":1702,"data":1703,"type":25,"version":40,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1705,"introPage":1713,"pages":1719},"42250958-2fb4-499e-a392-05cf6fd31374",{"type":25,"title":1704},"The Shift in Ottoman Leadership",{"id":1706,"data":1707,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"a110905a-f86c-40a8-b537-d7a6d8f81918",{"type":33,"summary":1708},[1709,1710,1711,1712],"Ottoman Sultans led battles directly until Suleiman The Magnificent's death","Selim II's reign marked the start of Sultans staying away from the battlefield","Suleiman's marriage to Roxelana brought women into Ottoman politics","Fratricide was a brutal succession method, but Suleiman and some successors didn't follow it",{"id":1714,"data":1715,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"79ead2b7-ed78-4b6a-b593-59204ad09404",{"type":52,"intro":1716},[1717,1718],"How did the sedentarization of Sultans impact the Ottoman army?","What role did Roxelana play in changing Ottoman politics?",[1720,1754,1769],{"id":1721,"data":1722,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":1725},"19c3198f-7ee2-4365-9980-55984f0925dc",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1723,"audioMediaId":1724},"The Ottoman Empire's success in campaigns was traditionally attributed to the direct presence of their Sultans on the battlefield. Major victories at Constantinople, Chaldiran, and Mohacs were achieved under the direct command of the Sultan, enhancing their status as a gazi warrior and ensuring unity among the troops.\n\nHowever, this changed after the death of Suleiman The Magnificent. His successor, Selim II, marked a shift in leadership style, with the Sultan's direct involvement in campaigns becoming less frequent. This led to a weakening of the Ottoman army due to internal disagreements among commanders.\n\n![Graph](image://26baaac1-1318-4d48-b5fd-0c9d4d92b09a \"Sultan Selim II. Image: Haydar Reis, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","d28ffc35-6de1-408f-a627-4d8463972762",[1726,1743],{"id":1727,"data":1728,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"fd4b8b40-7f38-4ad1-9277-8a79f04f56f9",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1729,"multiChoiceQuestion":1733,"multiChoiceCorrect":1734,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1736,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1740,"matchPairsPairs":1741},[1730,1731,1732],"3026f58e-dacc-41ef-a7c9-4e0351038932","c0aadacb-e9f1-4b3e-a9a4-88f4bdf133ff","78f8db68-8e7d-40ed-b675-7529b969ed52",[1533],[1735],"Successor of Suleiman The Magnificent",[1737,1738,1739],"Made fratricide the official legal mechanism for dynastic succession","Committed bloody fratricide in 1595","Established custom of pay rise for Janissary Corps",[217],[1742],{"left":1424,"right":1735,"direction":33},{"id":1744,"data":1745,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"4d3decc4-b174-430b-b57b-feddcbd5f4e9",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1746,"multiChoiceCorrect":1748,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1750,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1747],"The Ottomans' military might was often attributed to what?",[1749],"Their Sultans being on the battlefield",[1751,1752,1753],"Their superior wealth","The training processes of the janissaries","The fact that they had gunpowder",{"id":1755,"data":1756,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1759},"d7e28f0d-ffbd-44b1-9736-e73c61abdf06",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1757,"audioMediaId":1758},"This process is known as the sedentarization of the Sultans. The shift in leadership style also had implications for the role of women in politics. Prior to Suleiman The Magnificent's reign, the Sultan's consorts were kept away from the center of politics.\n\nHowever, Suleiman's marriage to Roxelana in 1530 brought her into the political fold, setting a precedent for other consorts. This allowed advisors to influence the Sultan through his wife, leading to lobbying behind closed doors and a decrease in transparency.","e9088f67-51d4-4469-a6a0-6357308e1142",[1760],{"id":1761,"data":1762,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"199d38e6-43e3-433b-a7ef-1cba3f3a090f",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1763,"binaryCorrect":1765,"binaryIncorrect":1767},[1764],"Who became the first wife of a Sultan when she married Suleiman the Magnificent?",[1766],"Roxelana",[1768],"Nur Banu",{"id":1770,"data":1771,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":1774},"76d23eaa-4b2c-494d-89ec-273b6b1241b9",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1772,"audioMediaId":1773},"Another significant change in Ottoman governance was the method of succession. After Mehmed II made fratricide the official legal mechanism for dynastic succession in 1453, all Sultans up to Suleiman killed their brothers.\n\nHowever, this practice was not followed by Suleiman I, Selim II, Ahmed I, and Murad III. This undermined the meritocracy at the top of the Ottoman state. Despite this, the practice was not completely eradicated, as evidenced by Mehmed III's bloody fratricide in 1595, where he slaughtered his 17 brothers.","42aaaf69-71f3-4318-9cdf-c9938b32587d",[1775,1787,1797,1805],{"id":1730,"data":1776,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1777,"multiChoiceQuestion":1778,"multiChoiceCorrect":1780,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1782,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1784,"matchPairsPairs":1785},[1727,1731,1732],[1779],"Who officially established fratricide as the legal mechanism for dynastic succession?",[1781],"Mehmed I",[1424,1783,227],"Mehmed III",[217],[1786],{"left":1781,"right":1737,"direction":33},{"id":1731,"data":1788,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1789,"multiChoiceQuestion":1790,"multiChoiceCorrect":1792,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1793,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1794,"matchPairsPairs":1795},[1727,1730,1732],[1791],"Who was the individual responsible for committing bloody fratricide in 1595?",[1783],[1424,1781,227],[217],[1796],{"left":1783,"right":1738,"direction":33},{"id":1798,"data":1799,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"ea1a5633-16cf-4051-a234-f538bb62a540",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1800,"multiChoiceCorrect":1802,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1803,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1801],"Which of these Sultans was the only one after 1519 to commit a fratricide?",[1783],[1422,1424,1804],"Ahmed I",{"id":1806,"data":1807,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"a6c93cdb-12a1-401e-9729-43f4fbcacf64",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1808,"multiChoiceCorrect":1810,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1812,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1809],"How many brothers did Mehmed III kill during his own fratricide?",[1811],"17",[1813,1178,1814],"3","12",{"id":1816,"data":1817,"type":25,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1819,"introPage":1827,"pages":1833},"f76a01d6-2262-41e4-bb8d-a518cc6e7d65",{"type":25,"title":1818},"The Erosion of Ottoman Meritocracy",{"id":1820,"data":1821,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"fe67144f-7e30-4ea4-8263-8ca488f3dff5",{"type":33,"summary":1822},[1823,1824,1825,1826],"The Janissaries blocked Selim II from entering Topkapi Palace until he met their demands.","Selim II allowed Janissaries to marry and enroll their sons, inflating state pensions.","Selim II's policies led to fewer merit-based promotions in the Ottoman administration.","The Habsburgs built forts and fielded elite troops, making it harder for the Ottomans to defend their territory.",{"id":1828,"data":1829,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"b684cfab-124a-41f7-be4e-3b0d67fbb29a",{"type":52,"intro":1830},[1831,1832],"What did the Janissaries demand from Selim II before allowing him to enter Topkapi palace?","How did the returkification of the Ottoman administration impact meritocratic promotion by 1610?",[1834,1859,1874],{"id":1835,"data":1836,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1839},"9e14647c-c419-4360-801f-4cca2a74bd7d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1837,"audioMediaId":1838},"Another key change to Ottoman governance was how the empire was run internally. Typically, it had been customary since the reign of Mehmed II for the Sultan to afford the Janissary Corps a pay rise when gaining the throne – think of it almost as an inflation adjustment.\n\nHowever, in 1566, upon the death of Suleiman, the elite troops took it upon themselves to go a step further, blocking Selim II’s entrance to Topkapi palace, the seat of the Ottoman government, until he granted their wishes.\n\nIn the end, Selim II was forced to yield, allowing the Janissaries to marry and enroll their sons in the Corps, leading state pensions to balloon and undermining the meritocracy upon which the Corps was supposed to be founded.","b1cce44f-5482-448a-9826-ba042ccd3d57",[1840,1850],{"id":1732,"data":1841,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1842,"multiChoiceQuestion":1843,"multiChoiceCorrect":1845,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1846,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1847,"matchPairsPairs":1848},[1727,1730,1731],[1844],"Who established the custom of a pay rise for the Janissary Corps?",[227],[1424,1781,1783],[217],[1849],{"left":227,"right":1739,"direction":33},{"id":1851,"data":1852,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"77d97385-98a1-4426-9abd-f03f993f64ba",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1853,"binaryCorrect":1855,"binaryIncorrect":1857},[1854],"What did the Janissaries demand upon Selim II's accession to the throne?",[1856],"The right to marry and to enroll their sons",[1858],"The right to hold political offices",{"id":1860,"data":1861,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1864},"62f3be9d-bd3a-489b-8a7a-4c31aad82218",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1862,"audioMediaId":1863},"However, it didn’t stop there. According to Mustafa Ali, a court advisor and historian, Selim II undermined state meritocracy at all levels by returkifying the Ottoman administration.\n\nAlthough modern historians dispute Ali’s account, labeling him as a disgruntled civil servant, there is certainly evidence of some erosion of meritocracy. While in 1560, two-thirds of Sanjak Beys had served in more junior roles, that number decreased to only one-quarter by 1610, showing a decrease in meritocratic promotion.","e643ed47-8807-48a4-a0bd-e9532240c925",[1865],{"id":1866,"data":1867,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"6e88680f-7a70-427c-9d5c-7e3f37881d45",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1868,"binaryCorrect":1870,"binaryIncorrect":1872},[1869],"In 1560, two thirds of sanjak beys were provincial. What was the fraction by the early 17th century?",[1871],"One Quarter",[1873],"One Half",{"id":1875,"data":1876,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":1879},"ba9a8731-ea5b-4849-8fa8-e04f973ba7da",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1877,"audioMediaId":1878},"Perhaps the most obvious change to the Ottomans was one that was immediately ostensible because of its territorial nature. Along the Habsburg frontier, the fortifications of the Viennese Aulic War Council after the threat to Vienna in 1532 made it far more difficult for the Ottomans to defend its territory.\n\n![Graph](image://c6873ef8-b3fb-4c3f-be75-b74d1956dd57 \"Vienna in the 16th century. Image: See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe Europeans built forts along their 117-mile border in the new trace Italian style and manned them with a new type of soldier: the tercio. This marked the first time the Austrian Habsburgs could field professional elite troops against the Ottomans. This process of gradual militaristic improvement is more broadly known as the ‘European Military Revolution.’","21e4abea-852c-4634-a8fe-e76eb54a90c9",[1880],{"id":1881,"data":1882,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"cc73d316-e638-4848-a2ea-359986e56344",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1883,"activeRecallAnswers":1885},[1884],"When it came to the Habsburg frontier, what reduced the Ottoman threat to Europe after the death of Suleiman I?",[1886],"The fortification of the Viennese Aulic War Council",{"id":1888,"data":1889,"type":25,"version":78,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1891,"introPage":1899,"pages":1905},"ae52b59d-aa02-4b83-a4bc-f24546e637df",{"type":25,"title":1890},"The Shift in Ottoman Diplomacy",{"id":1892,"data":1893,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"919b34fb-c9aa-49b8-a0be-09c3bd2e8b39",{"type":33,"summary":1894},[1895,1896,1897,1898],"The Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606 marked the ceremonial equality between the Habsburgs and Ottomans","Mustafa I's unusual succession in 1617 led to questions about his legitimacy and sanity","Osman II's inexperience led to a major defeat at the Battle of Khotyn in 1621","Rapid changes in leadership highlighted the Ottoman Empire's growing instability",{"id":1900,"data":1901,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"f8480086-8953-43eb-bc3c-b3c106248bf7",{"type":52,"intro":1902},[1903,1904],"Why was Mustafa I's succession controversial?","How did Osman II's inexperience impact the Ottoman Empire?",[1906,1919,1940,1953],{"id":1907,"data":1908,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1911},"6c8279a0-ce1f-4fd3-badb-fa5a900f6058",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1909,"audioMediaId":1910},"The Ottoman Sultans valued titles and recognition to consolidate and showcase their authority. After seizing Constantinople in 1453, they assumed the title of 'Caesar' or 'Kayser' in Turkish. By subjugating the Mamluks in 1517, they adopted the title 'Caliph,' positioning the Ottoman ruler as the spiritual leader of the Sunni Muslim world.\n\nIn their diplomatic dealings, especially with the Austrian Habsburgs, various treaties like the Treaty of Constantinople in 1533 and the Treaty of Adrianople in 1547 were signed. These agreements primarily set peace terms and borders, not necessarily establishing a hierarchy between the two powers.\n\n![Graph](image://fb3720c0-74c9-4ecb-9700-1be7046922ea \"Text of the Truce of Adrianople. Image: Taken from here., Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","f1ee5108-011e-4c65-ae6b-0534f7554987",[1912],{"id":1913,"data":1914,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"5921c7ae-285d-4515-984d-b3a504b56862",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1915,"binaryCorrect":1917,"binaryIncorrect":1918},[1916],"What title did the Ottomans take after conquering the Mamluks?",[1083],[1080],{"id":1920,"data":1921,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":1924},"bf6e3075-0223-4d44-a0cd-f3ee5b728ea9",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1922,"audioMediaId":1923},"However, the relationship between the Habsburgs and Ottomans underwent a noticeable change during the Long War from 1593 to 1606. This prolonged conflict saw no decisive victor and inflicted heavy losses on both sides. The war's aftermath was the Treaty of Zsitvatorok in 1606, which notably acknowledged the ceremonial equality between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans, representing a shift from any perceived superiority the Ottomans might have held in earlier decades.\n\n![Graph](image://6f5ff157-d274-4971-9630-57adf9c9439a \"Painting of the Long War. Image: Vienna Museum, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nWhile this treaty hinted at a shift in the balance of power, it's crucial to understand that the Ottoman Empire remained a formidable force and continued to play a significant role in global politics for centuries thereafter.","c82a7e4b-a361-418c-a74a-91db2c465a89",[1925,1932],{"id":1926,"data":1927,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"c5dd80d0-56f1-4e13-a2ea-fb3219997e89",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1928,"clozeWords":1930},[1929],"In 1606, after The Long War, the Ottomans agreed titular equality with the Habsburgs at the Treaty of Zsitvatorok",[1931],"Long War",{"id":1933,"data":1934,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"2ef09fd7-fcb6-45ba-8ab1-d36cb885de88",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1935,"activeRecallAnswers":1937},[1936],"Within which two treaties did the Ottomans gain titular authority over the Habsburgs before 1606?",[1938,1939],"Treaty of Constantinople (1533)","Treaty of Adrianople (1547)",{"id":1941,"data":1942,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1945},"a71f1b52-c342-41d0-9d18-cd43775a0f10",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1943,"audioMediaId":1944},"To add trouble to an already failing empire, the accession of Mustafa I to the throne in 1617 posed particular problems to the empire. After the death of Ahmed I, there were two contenders for the throne. The obvious choice was Osman The Young, who was Ahmed’s son. However, without a living mother to petition for him at court, he could not lobby influential Viziers and Janissaries to support his bid for the throne. As a result, Mustafa I convinced the Viziers that he, Ahmed’s brother, should take the throne.\n\n![Graph](image://bba651da-9a93-4491-abb4-032a7f45ef38 \"Mustafa I. Image: Unknown painter, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHowever, it was not a happy ascendancy. First, questions were raised about Mustafa’s credentials due to the unusual nature of his succession and the fact that he didn’t commit fratricide. Additionally, those closest to the Sultan claimed that he was mad and that his advisors were using him as a puppet soldier. Since historians fiercely debate these claims, we may never know the truth about Mustafa. Nevertheless, it was a clear contributor to Ottoman instability.","f2f6db15-e325-4423-8283-519ea5da5282",[1946],{"id":1947,"data":1948,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"bbf069a4-aa37-4f7a-9724-a2c270aa90c2",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1949,"clozeWords":1951},[1950],"In 1617, Ahmed I was succeeded by his brother Mustafa I instead of his son Osman, marking a departure from Ottoman succession traditions",[1952],"Mustafa I",{"id":1954,"data":1955,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":1958},"6488cae4-9c99-453d-bd2f-e071a0d3e384",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1956,"audioMediaId":1957},"To compound the difficulty brought about by Mustafa the Mad, after upsetting the Janissary Corps less than a year into his reign, he was deposed in favor of his nephew, Osman II.\n\n![Graph](image://4990bff2-3183-4bef-91ca-ae72313a42c9 \"Osman the Young. Image: See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis further proved to cause problems, with Osman the Young’s inexperience costing the Ottomans their chance of victory at the Battle of Khotyn in 1621, losing to a Polish-Lithuanian force with significantly inferior numbers. This further undermined the influence of Osman, leading to him being deposed again in favor of Mustafa in 1622.\n\nThe overall impact of these sudden changes in Ottoman power showed how vulnerable the Ottoman state was, further cementing its decline.","09c78fbb-b134-4672-8ab1-c85bb8db407e",[1959,1966],{"id":1960,"data":1961,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"ce48d0ce-10e9-4817-8aec-f94ef42c94e8",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1962,"binaryCorrect":1964,"binaryIncorrect":1965},[1963],"Which Sultan was deposed after showing symptoms of madness?",[1952],[783],{"id":1967,"data":1968,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"b827c8bf-9421-4e2e-a538-7ad68a48e12b",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1969,"binaryCorrect":1971,"binaryIncorrect":1973},[1970],"Which battle did Osman the Young lose, eventually catalysing his deposition from the throne?",[1972],"Battle of Khotyn",[1567],{"id":1975,"data":1976,"type":25,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":1978,"introPage":1986,"pages":1992},"34102bbb-2d06-45de-8a41-e717a6465764",{"type":25,"title":1977},"Ottoman Military Endeavors",{"id":1979,"data":1980,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"2918cf39-624b-49cd-90c4-f7701d748195",{"type":33,"summary":1981},[1982,1983,1984,1985],"The Ottomans rebuilt their military after losing at Khotyn to try again at Vienna","The Ottomans ignored a relief force of 74,000 troops at Vienna, leading to their loss","The humiliating loss at Vienna undermined Ottoman power","The Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699 marked the Ottoman decline",{"id":1987,"data":1988,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"8a9eae95-cef4-45ad-98f8-d9e82567eca8",{"type":52,"intro":1989},[1990,1991],"What was the significance of the Treaty of Karlowitz for the Ottoman Empire?","How did the loss at Vienna change the Ottomans' diplomatic stance with the Austrian Habsburgs?",[1993,1998,2010],{"id":1994,"data":1995,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25},"70529b6a-178c-4dc2-b666-bd7e5f977b52",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1996,"audioMediaId":1997},"Meanwhile, increased Christian unity because of the influence of the Holy League meant that the Ottomans could not gain other victories toward their military objectives.\n\n![Graph](image://2195b147-9f93-464b-b34d-6f2b1593c528 \"The Last Siege of Vienna. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nHowever, the Ottomans made one last attempt at European domination. After losing at Khotyn, the Ottomans rebuilt their military infrastructure to make another attempt at Vienna. This included rebuilding key roads and restructuring the army.","9196f638-ad6c-401c-8af9-4a98d18b52f5",{"id":1999,"data":2000,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":2003},"41a16797-7641-4de4-bb01-aa31ca62e0c7",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2001,"audioMediaId":2002},"Even this couldn’t lead to an Ottoman victory. Upon leaving Constantinople, the Ottomans had 170,000 men. This was reduced to 150,000 through disease and attritional attacks by the time the Ottomans reached the gates of the city.\n\nThis force initially couldn’t believe its luck when it met a force of less than 20,000 at the city gates. However, the Ottomans largely ignored a relief force of 74,000 troops and single-mindedly focused on taking the city, leading to their eventual loss.","e8afaec6-4cb1-4e5f-82e0-1fde50c43ce4",[2004],{"id":2005,"data":2006,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"ab9e1d9a-df1b-4ed9-bb61-d922d0e096b3",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2007,"clozeWords":2009},[2008],"In 1683, the Ottoman Empire besieged Vienna for the last time, losing in a bloody battle after refusing to concentrate on the relief army of their opponents",[243],{"id":2011,"data":2012,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":2015},"550d2bd5-4587-4b29-acfc-db750eac7e9f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2013,"audioMediaId":2014},"Despite again possessing another significant material advantage, the humiliating loss at Vienna proved to majorly undermine Ottoman power. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Karlowitz with the Austrian Habsburgs in 1699 after another loss for the Ottomans at the hands of the Holy League during the Battle of Zenta.\n\n![Graph](image://2fb647f9-4cd5-411b-b995-3c72c0f0e6cc \"The Treaty of Karlowitz. Image: unknown person from Low Countries, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe treaty acknowledged Austrian territorial gains and cemented public knowledge of the Ottoman decline. The overall impact was that the Ottomans had ceased to be 'the present terror of the world'.","a497503a-7d64-4ee0-aa36-b5fc1c1b3438",[2016,2027],{"id":2017,"data":2018,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"17a0f065-ec51-4fdb-978d-9ead0a366ede",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2019,"multiChoiceCorrect":2021,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2023,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2020],"Which cohesive Christian League beat the Ottomans at the Battle of Zenta?",[2022],"The Holy League",[2024,2025,2026],"The Premier League","The League of Nations","The League of Legends",{"id":2028,"data":2029,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"778d6d07-6a91-48db-b578-5e55a65a9692",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2030,"activeRecallAnswers":2032},[2031],"Which Treaty saw the Habsburgs become the dominant power in Europe because of Ottoman cessation of territory?",[2033],"Treaty of Karlowitz",{"id":2035,"data":2036,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"orbs":2039},"3ef9c2e4-f164-471a-b8ac-3ffe2735796c",{"type":26,"title":2037,"tagline":2038},"Losing a Foothold","The acceleration of the Ottoman decline until their relegation to irrelevance.",[2040,2125,2209],{"id":2041,"data":2042,"type":25,"version":78,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":2044,"introPage":2052,"pages":2058},"b5cdfd66-4eb0-4351-8167-0ea8f5997058",{"type":25,"title":2043},"The Ottoman Empire's Struggles",{"id":2045,"data":2046,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"e7a92a73-c1cc-4ac2-9d88-5a22d9a860a8",{"type":33,"summary":2047},[2048,2049,2050,2051],"The Pruth River Campaign gave the Ottomans a much-needed victory against Russia.","The Austrians captured Belgrade in 1717 despite being outnumbered by Ottoman forces.","The Treaty of Passarowitz forced the Ottomans to give up northern Serbia to Austria.","Ottoman economic struggles reversed their power balance in Europe.",{"id":2053,"data":2054,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"263b9100-eef8-415f-aa38-561effac7521",{"type":52,"intro":2055},[2056,2057],"Why did the Ottomans refuse to hand over the Swedish King to the Russians?","What was the impact of the Treaty of Passarowitz on the Ottoman Empire?",[2059,2083,2109],{"id":2060,"data":2061,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":2064},"7dfe10c4-3702-4f9a-8b33-4745e14bfffe",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2062,"audioMediaId":2063},"After the last attempt at besieging Vienna, the Ottoman emperors were badly in need of a victory. They were soon given the perfect opportunity through what is known as The Pruth River Campaign.\n\nIn 1710, the Swedish King, fleeing from Russian troops after losing the Battle of Poltava during the Great Northern War, decided to claim sanctuary at Bender, an Ottoman fort in modern-day Moldova. Despite overtures from the Russian troops to give him up, Sultan Ahmed III refused all requests as a show of strength. This led to the Russian Tsar declaring war on the Ottomans.\n\n![Graph](image://747fc4c2-6c3f-453a-8d18-09218230fbb6 \"King Charles XII of Sweden at Bender. Image: From the Library of Congress, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nImmediately, the Sultan sent his troops out on a campaign. The two armies were expected to meet alongside the Danube river, which the Tsar had instructed his troops to stop the Ottomans from crossing. However, a lack of food prevented the Russians from mounting a strong resistance, and the Danube was crossed almost without resistance, leading to the signing of a treaty favorable to the Ottoman Sultans.","6a1050e8-f85c-4d28-87b3-d8f523a187df",[2065,2072],{"id":2066,"data":2067,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"9e8d96cf-c16b-4d2c-8ddf-560c7a26a4ff",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2068,"clozeWords":2070},[2069],"During the Pruth River campaign of 1710, the Ottomans fought with Russia, crossing the Danube.",[2071],"Pruth River",{"id":2073,"data":2074,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"b8bdc997-0abf-4383-b3a0-1a41c8cf4885",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2075,"multiChoiceCorrect":2077,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2079,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2076],"Why did Russia declare war on the Ottomans in 1710?",[2078],"The Ottomans gave sanctuary to the King of Sweden",[2080,2081,2082],"The Ottomans attacked the Russians in Crimea","The Ottomans insulted the Orthodox church","The Tsar sought to expand his territories",{"id":2084,"data":2085,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":2088},"2dc740a0-fe86-4cfa-9241-0b018eefe9a7",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2086,"audioMediaId":2087},"Although the Pruth River campaign had proved that the Ottomans still had a high level of geopolitical relevance on the European stage, it was not long before they were dealt another blow to their expansionary ambitions. In 1717, the Austrian Habsburgs attempted to strike a significant blow to the Ottomans by attacking Belgrade, a key city alongside the Danube which the Ottomans had held since 1521.\n\n![Graph](image://241571dc-6aac-4e2e-aa5e-2c7c78d81b17 \"The Pruth River campaign, depicted on an 18th-century screen. Image: Circle of Gonzalez Family, No restrictions, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nInitially, the Austrians appeared to have the upper hand, with a fighting force of 100,000 men combating an Ottoman garrison with only 30,000 soldiers. However, an Ottoman relief force containing another 180,000 men soon arrived, leaving the Austrians at a disadvantage both in terms of infrastructure – with the Ottomans possessing the city walls – and in terms of manpower.\n\nHowever, strong mortar attacks from the Austrians, combined with a brave offensive from the Austrian relief cavalry led directly by Prince Eugene, enabled the Austrians to take Belgrade.","76072ed8-e081-4fda-a602-d8990778e29f",[2089,2098],{"id":2090,"data":2091,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"e3b271bb-341f-493f-a66a-7209eebc0247",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2092,"multiChoiceCorrect":2094,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2096,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2093],"The Austrian Habsburgs attacked the Ottomans in 1717 in which city?",[2095],"Belgrade",[243,2097,108],"Budapest",{"id":2099,"data":2100,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"8f3dfde8-ae73-43db-90dc-b32b0cc2e58d",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2101,"multiChoiceCorrect":2103,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2105,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2102],"When did the Ottoman Empire lose Belgrade?",[2104],"1717",[2106,2107,2108],"1621","1572","1815",{"id":2110,"data":2111,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":2114},"d9e65a4a-0434-4119-ac7f-b39d6cb66fbd",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2112,"audioMediaId":2113},"Although the Ottomans had largely been winning the war against Europe before the Battle of Belgrade, with key victories in much of Ottoman controlled Greece repelling Venetian and Austrian advances, Belgrade dealt a significant blow to Ottoman hopes of victory. This was compounded by the fact that Great Britain and the Dutch Republic, who were now key trading partners for the Ottomans, were keen to see a peace to alleviate the Venetian blockade of their goods.\n\n![Graph](image://d2ec1a34-5da5-49e4-bbbd-6022dfdcbd16 \"A modern-day reconstruction of the Treaty of Passarowitz. Image: Peca.Jo12, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAs a result, the Ottomans were forced to sign the Treaty of Passarowitz, which contained damaging terms, including the cessation of the northern half of Serbia to Austrian Habsburg control. This marked a significant departure in Ottoman policy.\n\nFor much of their ascendancy, they could leverage their trading relationships to sue for favorable peace. Now that the Ottoman economy had been ruined by state pay increases, with the state lying in deficit since 1592, the power balance had been reversed.","37afe3f0-930b-4428-b016-7d6cce385ac1",[2115],{"id":2116,"data":2117,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"6db4f7ff-78a9-4ff4-b6e2-c3558b734b1c",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2118,"multiChoiceCorrect":2120,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2122,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2119],"The Ottomans conceded the northern half of which territory at the Treaty of Passarowitz?",[2121],"Serbia",[2123,2124,801],"Bosnia","Greece",{"id":2126,"data":2127,"type":25,"version":78,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":2129,"introPage":2137,"pages":2143},"2f0c4c95-7e77-4e43-aeb7-a3ddb6b63092",{"type":25,"title":2128},"Religious Interference and Its Impact",{"id":2130,"data":2131,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"0bedd87a-d458-4943-964d-c4781f336f76",{"type":33,"summary":2132},[2133,2134,2135,2136],"The Ulema shut down the Ottoman artillery school, calling it 'offensive to the will of Allah'","The Ulema destroyed the Sultan’s observatory in 1580, fearing it meddled with divine will","Austrian occupation introduced rationalism and new military tactics to Serbia","The Serbian Revolution in 1809 led to Serbia's independence from the Ottomans by 1815",{"id":2138,"data":2139,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"8670f444-6a79-4e97-b4e0-a5b04ffddbd9",{"type":52,"intro":2140},[2141,2142],"Why did the Ulema oppose the artillery school in 1734?","How did the destruction of Taqi Ad-Din's observatory impact Ottoman military campaigns?",[2144,2161,2193],{"id":2145,"data":2146,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":2149},"d6e6004b-d6b9-4a3f-a3d5-e4380f355dc6",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2147,"audioMediaId":2148},"Ottoman power was further undermined by restrictions placed on attempts to modernize their army. In 1734, the Sultan established an artillery school in Istanbul to teach his troops about advancements in tactics and strategy made during the European Military Revolution. It appeared for a moment that the Ottomans were finally done playing catch up. However, it wasn’t to be.\n\n![Graph](image://93a487bb-8656-4e9e-a1e8-01250afd0624 \"The Ulema religious class restricted the Ottomans' scientific development. Public domain via Wikimedia\")\n\nIn reaction, the Ulema religious class called the school 'offensive to the will of Allah'. They believed that meddling with artillery was against the religious mission of the Ottomans and ordered the closing of the school.","7be1d76e-9988-4557-b7f0-e96920a40831",[2150],{"id":2151,"data":2152,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"5e13e247-49a6-4acc-a9da-b16fdf161439",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2153,"multiChoiceCorrect":2155,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2157,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2154],"Who ordered the closing of the Ottoman artillery school as soon as it was established in 1734?",[2156],"The Ulema Religious Class",[2158,2159,2160],"The Sultanate of Women","The Austrian Habsburgs","The Sultan's Political Advisors",{"id":2162,"data":2163,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":2166},"637da7a2-8288-4961-b2cc-82330146891a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2164,"audioMediaId":2165},"This was not the first time that the religious class undermined the scientific and military efforts of the Ottoman. Over a century earlier, in 1577, the Sultan’s chief astronomer Taqi Ad-Din requested permission to build a grand observatory in Constantinople to study planetary and weather patterns.\n\n![Graph](image://abd171ee-12e9-49fb-b40e-d636b6b6bb5f \"Work in the observatory of Taqi ad-Din. Image: Ala ad-Din Mansur-Shirazi, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHowever, the Ulema later objected to the observatory and destroyed it in 1580. In part due to their poor understanding of climatological science, the Ottomans were hit by fog and poor weather during many of their campaigns, including at Belgrade.","23bad18e-2d12-475f-a7dd-ca6754382fa8",[2167,2186],{"id":2168,"data":2169,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"3d721215-be12-43e7-a76e-6345805d1ed8",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2170,"multiChoiceQuestion":2174,"multiChoiceCorrect":2176,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2178,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2182,"matchPairsPairs":2183},[2171,2172,2173],"67ba9e04-5991-4a7c-92de-1bddf5c227aa","1a1f3f8f-a4ac-4332-a792-753949645411","675ab1ec-bd48-45c4-9c57-e7dc866cafb3",[2175],"Which of the following most closely applies to Taqi Ad-Din?",[2177],"Sultan’s chief astronomer",[2179,2180,2181],"Governor of Egypt, military leader","Turkish Ottoman, father of modern Turkey","Last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire",[217],[2184],{"left":2185,"right":2177,"direction":33},"Taqi Ad-Din",{"id":2187,"data":2188,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"2e8c4a51-3363-4593-80f3-560294fd21c8",{"type":66,"reviewType":78,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2189,"clozeWords":2191},[2190],"The destruction of Taqi ad-Din's observatory in 1580 was a significant backwards step for Islamic science and restricted Ottoman understanding of the weather",[2192],"observatory",{"id":2194,"data":2195,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":2198},"efb41e09-eb17-4ce7-8ab9-7df864c43407",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2196,"audioMediaId":2197},"Although the Austrian occupation of Serbia after the Treaty of Passarowitz only lasted for three years, it planted significant seeds in the country through the opening of the country intellectually, with rationalism, romanticism, and enlightenment philosophy being introduced in Belgrade. In addition, many Serbians served in the Austrian army during this era, learning new military tactics.\n\n![Graph](image://ed77fe81-ce11-4af1-b53b-21ca176e47ae \"The Serbian Revolution. Image: Afanasij Scheloumoff, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis was all compounded when Napoleonic gains in the Balkans fueled fires of wanting independence from the Turks, leading to the Serbian Revolution. The revolution climaxed in 1809 when Karadorde made a proclamation in Belgrade. The document called on Serbians to stop paying tax to Istanbul as well as establishing the concept of a Pan-Slavic racial group and tying it to the claimed right to self-determination.\n\nIntense fighting ensued. By 1815, the Ottomans had lost Serbia, and the empire was clearly in decline.","42f8dc5b-b7d7-49c5-8b88-03bc543c2480",[2199],{"id":2200,"data":2201,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"d2d2a0b8-fa5c-4f10-a35b-76e15baeccdb",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2202,"multiChoiceCorrect":2204,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2206,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2203],"Who led the Serbian independence movement by giving the proclamation of 1809?",[2205],"Karadorde",[2185,2207,2208],"Barbarossa","Gavril Princip",{"id":2210,"data":2211,"type":25,"version":78,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":2213,"introPage":2221,"pages":2227},"f734b965-0c22-4efa-8908-831530b8deb9",{"type":25,"title":2212},"Independence Movements",{"id":2214,"data":2215,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"ddebc479-fdf6-4392-b079-de93556bd273",{"type":33,"summary":2216},[2217,2218,2219,2220],"The Greeks declared independence from the Ottomans in 1821, inspired by the Serbian revolution.","The Filiki Eteria, a secret society, played a key role in the Greek independence movement.","The Ottomans lost control of the Hejaz to the Emirate of Diriyah in 1803.","Muhammad Ali Pasha secured hereditary control over Egypt in 1839, breaking away from the Ottoman Empire.",{"id":2222,"data":2223,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"d6ce8236-b5ea-48fe-9e04-dc8fb908eb94",{"type":52,"intro":2224},[2225,2226],"What sparked the Greek War of Independence in 1821?","How did Muhammad Ali Pasha challenge Ottoman control in Egypt?",[2228,2253,2267],{"id":2229,"data":2230,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":2233},"adc7a832-f484-4e1f-a9d7-8c7848bfcd60",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2231,"audioMediaId":2232},"Another part of the Ottoman Empire that was endangered was its Greek possessions. After seeing the success of the Serbian revolution and emboldened by the support of the British and the Russian Tsar, the Greek people attempted to capitalize on Ottoman weakness to gain their own nation state.\n\n![Graph](image://2c3f12a3-886f-4eae-98cc-93d50adfc21c \"The Greeks declare independence, 1821. Image: Public domain via Picryl\")\n\nIn 1821, three young Greeks founded the Filiki Eteria, a society designed to secure Greek independence. Through lobbying, they quickly got the support of wealthy American and British donors, including Lord Byron.\n\nAlthough they had initially intended to spend time planning, their discovery by Ottoman authorities forced them to bring forward their plans. As a result, in March 1821, they attempted to declare independence, and the Ottomans hanged the patriarch of the Greek Orthodox church in response. A revolution had begun.\n\nAided by a Russian invasion of the Ottoman Empire and the ability of a quickly assembled Greek navy to stop the Ottomans from reinforcing from the sea, the Greeks were able to secure their independence in the 1829 Treaty of Adrianople.","36515082-f635-4cb0-a3c1-b11fb55ae857",[2234,2243],{"id":2235,"data":2236,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"656cd682-b80e-403f-a362-c03de56e7daa",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2237,"binaryCorrect":2239,"binaryIncorrect":2241},[2238],"What was the Greek society, founded by three people in 1821, which started the Greek independence movement?",[2240],"Filiki Eteria",[2242],"Filik Spanakopita",{"id":2244,"data":2245,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"e295eedf-5b27-4470-8033-f840e91c15ba",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2246,"multiChoiceCorrect":2248,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2250,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2247],"In what year did the Greek people secure their independence from the Ottomans?",[2249],"1829",[2251,2104,2252],"1817","1846",{"id":2254,"data":2255,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":2258},"55207fad-8aae-4a4d-89ac-10e56b30abaf",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2256,"audioMediaId":2257},"During the 19th century, many of the Ottoman European possessions were endangered. However, it wasn’t just the European possessions that were endangered. In 1803, the Emirate of Diriyah in Saudi Arabia successfully captured the Hejaz, Islam’s holy land, from the Ottomans. This posed a significant challenge to the authority of the Sultan, who had previously claimed his credibility from his status as the defender of the Islamic holy land.\n\n![Graph](image://5f583e36-41a1-49ca-8399-3d11f858b205 \"Abdullah Bin Saud. Image: Félix Mengin ‏, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nUnfortunately for the Emirate, keeping Mecca and Medina was a bridge too far. Between 1811 and 1818, the Ottomans engaged in the Wahhabi War against the Saudis, which eventually led to the near eradication of the Emirate and the execution of the Emirate’s leader, Abdullah bin Saud in 1818. Although the Ottomans were undeniably in decline in Europe, their control of the Middle East remained strong.","005adcf8-d1c8-4a7b-b248-1f57403a375e",[2259],{"id":2260,"data":2261,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"5f7a4dea-a2b0-408c-9012-0ed39814d04c",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2262,"binaryCorrect":2264,"binaryIncorrect":2266},[2263],"Who attempted to seize the Islamic Holy Land from the Ottomans in 1803?",[2265],"The Emirate of Diriyah",[321],{"id":2268,"data":2269,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":2272},"5c3f058d-6629-473d-acfe-b5c856591f9b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2270,"audioMediaId":2271},"Since its conquest by Selim I in the 1510s, Egypt had become a key part of the Ottoman Empire. However, the invasion of Napoleon towards the end of the 18th century threw it into chaos. Although the Ottomans quickly regained control over the territory, the additional powers that needed to be given to the Ottoman Governor served to be problematic.\n\nIn 1831, Muhammad Ali Pasha, the governor at the time, demanded that he be given personal control of Syria and Egypt. When the Sultan refused his request, he raised an army and marched it toward Constantinople, threatening the Sultan himself. However, he was stopped from doing so by the threats of other European powers who sought to preserve stability on the continent.\n\n![Graph](image://90e332c6-b56b-482d-a0d4-735f8c930c72 \"Part of the campaigns of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, 1831-1833. Image: Henry Warren, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nIn 1839, he attempted to do so again. Both the Europeans and the Ottomans recognized the need to appease him and granted him hereditary control over Egypt. The Ottoman Empire’s most important colony was lost.","e7f7c2b4-d652-46c2-854a-b1daef35b627",[2273,2284],{"id":2171,"data":2274,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2275,"multiChoiceQuestion":2276,"multiChoiceCorrect":2278,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2279,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2280,"matchPairsPairs":2281},[2168,2172,2173],[2277],"Which of the following most closely applies to Muhammad Ali Pasha?",[2179],[2177,2180,2181],[217],[2282],{"left":2283,"right":2179,"direction":33},"Muhammad Ali Pasha",{"id":2285,"data":2286,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7df66275-7817-4215-904a-1b5d0f01bb60",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2287,"activeRecallAnswers":2289},[2288],"Who gained control of Egypt from the Ottomans to rule as a hereditary state?",[2283],{"id":2291,"data":2292,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"orbs":2295},"663c4355-c4b5-4722-9dc3-7de03c25c9e5",{"type":26,"title":2293,"tagline":2294},"Near Contemporary Decline","The events that led to the dissolution of the Ottoman State.",[2296,2395,2464,2527],{"id":2297,"data":2298,"type":25,"version":78,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":2300,"introPage":2308,"pages":2314},"bee1f297-e95a-4497-80cc-405fe58990d7",{"type":25,"title":2299},"The Ottoman Empire's Struggle for Stability",{"id":2301,"data":2302,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"fc9cbb02-359d-4a89-babd-f6f4278e06b3",{"type":33,"summary":2303},[2304,2305,2306,2307],"The Ottoman Empire faced a dilemma after Serbia and Greece gained independence.","The Tanzimat reforms modernized laws, improved civil liberties, and decriminalized homosexuality.","The Janissary Corps disbandment left the Ottomans vulnerable to Russian expansion.","The Crimean War was a pyrrhic victory that drained the Ottoman Empire's resources.",{"id":2309,"data":2310,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"ce619212-bb3a-4577-b9b9-fbd9db209fae",{"type":52,"intro":2311},[2312,2313],"What was the Tanzimat?","Why did the Ottomans declare war on Russia in 1854?",[2315,2331,2358],{"id":2316,"data":2317,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":2320},"749d56d5-81ce-4894-ba90-580d94528bdb",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2318,"audioMediaId":2319},"The Ottoman Empire, after witnessing successful independence movements in Serbia and Greece, was faced with a dilemma. The rise of new nationalistic identities threatened the empire's stability.\n\nThe court was divided between two options: reforming the state’s structures to appease those calling for modernism or reforming the army to suppress any rebellion attempts.","4d7710bb-5408-4738-ac88-cf6d7112fc1c",[2321],{"id":2322,"data":2323,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"e31b4b29-f075-4ffd-9e18-b2dbd61b2267",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2324,"multiChoiceCorrect":2326,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2327,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2325],"The independence movements of which two countries forced the Ottomans to consider reform?",[2121,2124],[2328,2329,2330],"Saudi Arabia","Italy","Israel",{"id":2332,"data":2333,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":2336},"4e74f6d6-d242-4da2-bc98-93a4f6c3a375",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2334,"audioMediaId":2335},"In the end, the Ottomans chose to do both. Through a process called the Tanzimat, which occurred between 1839 and 1876, the Ottomans secularized law, improved civil liberties, and decriminalized homosexuality.\n\nThey experimented with semi-democratic bodies and established state education. The army's recruitment and organization mechanism was also changed to standardized conscription from devshirme in 1856.","9fc5f82d-0d15-406c-8b45-8c23f6c6ff8b",[2337,2346],{"id":2338,"data":2339,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"0826664f-1f09-41c1-9188-ea3c55e11adf",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2340,"binaryCorrect":2342,"binaryIncorrect":2344},[2341],"What was abolished as part of the Tanzimat?",[2343],"Devshirme conscription",[2345],"The Janissary corps",{"id":2347,"data":2348,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"301a75d7-59dd-4a68-9de3-70e2dc2842a0",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2349,"multiChoiceCorrect":2351,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2354,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2350],"During the Tanzimat, which occurred between 1839 and 1876, the Ottomans undertook which actions?",[2352,2353],"Secularizing law","Decriminalizing homosexuality",[2355,2356,2357],"Establishing democracy","Writing a constitution","Enshrining a Bill of Rights",{"id":2359,"data":2360,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":2363},"82da17a5-499d-4dba-9651-a746628b13e1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2361,"audioMediaId":2362},"Although the disbandment of the Janissary Corps provided benefits to the Ottoman State by separating military influences from political and economic decision-making processes, it left the Ottomans without a full-time standing army in the short term. This vulnerability was exploited by Russia, who were looking to expand.\n\nThe situation escalated in 1854 when a dispute over the rights of Catholics and Eastern Orthodox Christians led to Ottomans declaring war on Russia. Britain and France, determined to restrict Russian power and expansion in the region, came to the defense of the Ottomans, causing the Crimean War.\n\n![Graph](image://f99749a8-b666-442f-ba09-885a50f92359 \"\\\"The valley of the shadow of death\\\" Crimean War photograph. Image: Roger Fenton, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAlthough the Ottomans won the war, it was a pyrrhic victory. The war significantly contributed to the exhaustion of the Ottoman state and led to a loss of desire for Ottoman rule, given the heavy conscription costs. This marked a significant point in the Ottoman Empire's struggle for stability.","7188f8dd-8e06-41f8-a0a6-d4172e1e85c9",[2364,2384],{"id":2365,"data":2366,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"c0f0b66d-dce7-4802-a05d-45090f06bce3",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2367,"multiChoiceQuestion":2371,"multiChoiceCorrect":2373,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2375,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":2379,"orderItems":2381},[2368,2369,2370],"48dcc864-9ca4-4dec-8b79-0a831543b16d","654cee42-7cb6-4544-9b7a-6bab65310415","4d616087-fd4d-4680-ba51-5a9e1d3ada9a",[2372],"When did the Crimean War begin?",[2374],"1854",[2376,2377,2378],"1878","1919","1923",[2380],"Put the following in order:",[2382],{"label":2383,"reveal":2374,"sortOrder":4},"Beginning of Crimean War",{"id":2385,"data":2386,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"a62065d8-4653-4030-8549-53438e7c20ff",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2387,"multiChoiceCorrect":2389,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2392,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2388],"Which two powers supported the Ottomans during the Crimean War?",[2390,2391],"Britain","France",[2393,803,2394],"Austro-Hungary","Russia",{"id":2396,"data":2397,"type":25,"version":78,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":2399,"introPage":2407,"pages":2413},"38f5aefa-aff6-4c4f-b11e-e2af14ba03fc",{"type":25,"title":2398},"The Ottoman Empire's Economic Transformation",{"id":2400,"data":2401,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"c3536812-0d81-47c3-8254-1c4b524cf5a2",{"type":33,"summary":2402},[2403,2404,2405,2406],"The Crimean War forced the Ottomans to overhaul their economy.","The Ottomans printed their first banknotes and opened post offices.","The Ottoman Bank and Stock Exchange were founded in 1856 and 1866.","The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 led to the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania.",{"id":2408,"data":2409,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"21744ea8-9e43-4b9f-ac7e-cadc6eb94ea6",{"type":52,"intro":2410},[2411,2412],"What financial measures did the Ottomans take during the Tanzimat reforms?","How did the Crimean War loans impact the Ottoman Empire's economic system?",[2414,2432,2447],{"id":2415,"data":2416,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":2419},"6b66a9ef-6f49-4769-975c-b8034a688ee9",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2417,"audioMediaId":2418},"One key impact of the Crimean war was on the economic situation of the Ottoman Empire. Because of the high costs of fighting a war that saw nearly three years of intense fighting, the Ottomans had to find a way to restructure their economic status to finance their expenditure.\n\nAs a result, as part of the Tanzimat, the state also enacted banking reforms, the first printing of banknotes, the opening of post offices, and rapid factory industrialization, attempting to stabilize the state’s financial situation. This coincided with the establishment of the Ottoman Bank and the Ottoman Stock Exchange in 1856 and 1866, respectively.\n\n![Graph](image://31a5416a-f3f7-407f-afec-3a0f41e8fdee \"Ottoman paper bank note. Image: Ottoman Mint, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","22057578-07e3-47cc-9fd1-cd24dbe58793",[2420],{"id":2421,"data":2422,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"ed8674af-0310-4ef0-9205-c69b1a10f2d8",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2423,"multiChoiceCorrect":2425,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2428,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2424],"Which of these were economic reforms as part of the Tanzimat?",[2426,2427],"Printing of bank notes","Opening of post offices",[2429,2430,2431],"Establishment of gold standard","Acts against inflation","Lowering of interest rates",{"id":2433,"data":2434,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":2437},"49e91d72-f8f0-4132-a9a1-632ddd822e1d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2435,"audioMediaId":2436},"Moreover, the Ottomans were forced to take out £5 million worth of loans from other states. This led to the Ottoman Empire further representing a standard European state rather than having its own unique Islamic system.\n\nDespite attempts to appease breakaway groups through concessions made during the Tanzimat reforms, the Ottomans were largely unable to stop increased calls for independence. In 1875, uprisings in Herzegovina and Bulgaria led to strong suppression from the Ottomans, drawing international outrage.\n\n![Graph](image://002c040c-5256-4f39-a206-63d4bf8d1c17 \"An AI imagining of the Russo-Turkish War\")","60c5a9bf-c374-4fbb-b60f-07f31cb6a1c2",[2438],{"id":2439,"data":2440,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"0712e957-a823-4d76-8d0c-dc3c7e3964ef",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2441,"multiChoiceCorrect":2443,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2445,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2442],"What was the effect of the Ottomans taking out loans to fund the Crimean War?",[2444],"It meant they were no longer following the Islamic system",[2446],"It left them with an insurmountable deficit",{"id":2448,"data":2449,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":2452},"2163b422-36c6-405b-99eb-288db2e976bd",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2450,"audioMediaId":2451},"After the Crimean War, the Russian Tsars wanted revenge for their loss as well as the recovery of lands confiscated from them by the Ottomans. After the international reaction to the Bulgarian uprisings, many in Russia also felt that this time, other European powers wouldn’t come to the aid of the flailing Ottomans. As a result, when Romania declared its independence in 1877, it was a perfect moment for Russia to come to the aid of a breakaway state, provoking Ottoman wrath.\n\nThis led to the Russo-Turkish War of 1877 to 1878, which led to a resounding Russian victory and the formal acceptance of the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, further weakening the Ottoman.","2aea188c-cf81-4cc9-9242-096a5074d499",[2453],{"id":2454,"data":2455,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"cb26a38c-1558-4bd7-a461-2cd2b47232d7",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2456,"multiChoiceCorrect":2458,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2460,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2457],"Which war was triggered by Romania declaring its independence in 1877?",[2459],"The Russo-Turkish War",[2461,2462,2463],"The Ottoman-Venetian War","The Long War","The Crimean War",{"id":2465,"data":2466,"type":25,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":2468,"introPage":2476,"pages":2482},"de2ec25e-9d60-4bb9-8eac-e4f954a7fd32",{"type":25,"title":2467},"The Ottoman Empire's Territorial Losses",{"id":2469,"data":2470,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"8cba1039-829a-4df6-b7c0-ed002eff8f63",{"type":33,"summary":2471},[2472,2473,2474,2475],"The Ottomans ceded Cyprus to Britain in exchange for help at the Congress of Berlin.","The Congress of Berlin left Romania and Bulgaria independent, but shrank Bulgaria and Greece.","The First Balkan War in 1912 led to the Ottomans losing all their Albanian and Macedonian territories.","By the early 20th century, the Ottoman Empire was known as 'the sick man of Europe' due to its territorial losses.",{"id":2477,"data":2478,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"6dee20ca-4332-4a52-97a9-358afa8bef2e",{"type":52,"intro":2479},[2480,2481],"Why did the Ottomans cede Cyprus to the British?","What territories did the Ottomans lose after the First Balkan War?",[2483,2509,2522],{"id":2484,"data":2485,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":2488},"2f912a8e-4c72-42cd-ac27-a75888408259",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2486,"audioMediaId":2487},"Even though the Ottomans agreed to the treaty of San Stefano, which benefited Russia greatly, they still sought to improve its terms. Capitalizing on the Ottoman desperation for an improvement, Britain’s Benjamin Disraeli offered to help the Ottomans negotiate – for a price. In exchange for British help at the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Ottomans were expected to cede Cyprus to the British.\n\n![Graph](image://fc110bf3-a767-4ac9-b541-fe9231ecf303 \"Benjamin Disraeli, British Prime Minister. Image: Political Graveyard from Ann Arbor, MI, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nUltimately, the outcome of the congress was a success for the Ottomans. Although Romania and Bulgaria were left independent, Bulgaria and Greece became much smaller nations. Moreover, it was decided that Montenegro would remain Ottoman, provided the Sultan agreed to reform local governance.","f99f6260-0944-4cce-b661-4ff5e84ae568",[2489,2500],{"id":2368,"data":2490,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2491,"multiChoiceQuestion":2492,"multiChoiceCorrect":2494,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2495,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":2496,"orderItems":2497},[2365,2369,2370],[2493],"When did the Congress of Berlin take place?",[2376],[2374,2377,2378],[2380],[2498],{"label":2499,"reveal":2376,"sortOrder":24},"Congress of Berlin",{"id":2501,"data":2502,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"f0a016d1-621d-4e88-be62-6a438dd659c3",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2503,"binaryCorrect":2505,"binaryIncorrect":2507},[2504],"In which treaty did the Ottomans lose significant territory by formally accepting the independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania?",[2506],"Treaty of San Stefano",[2508],"Treaty of Zsitvatorok",{"id":2510,"data":2511,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":2514},"34725c4d-6d50-46c9-8021-3c06d190b573",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2512,"audioMediaId":2513},"Nonetheless, even though the Congress of Berlin was seen as a success for the Ottomans, the loss of Cyprus reconfirmed their position as a state in decline.\n\nJust before the First World War, there was another lesser-known European war. In October 1912, the Balkan states of Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, and Montenegro attempted to take even more Ottoman land in Central Europe. Although the Ottomans had a large productive population, most were Christians, who were seen to be untrustworthy regarding conscription. As a result, the Ottomans had a relatively small army to draw upon.\n\n![Graph](image://0fe3fccf-5135-4e4f-93c9-53a606565715 \"Photographs from the first Balkan War. Image: Avidius, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","a8f43b0a-a45d-4441-b8c6-8c3a24c97127",[2515],{"id":2516,"data":2517,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"7e850285-9551-4203-996d-18bbd88247a5",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2518,"activeRecallAnswers":2520},[2519],"Which conflict, in October 1912, saw the Ottomans lose to an alliance of Balkan states including Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and Montenegro, underlining the Ottoman decline?",[2521],"First Balkan War",{"id":2523,"data":2524,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33},"c580469d-c110-4992-89dd-a671dd39bfc2",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2525,"audioMediaId":2526},"As a result, the First Balkan War turned out to be a resounding defeat for the Ottomans and led to them losing all of their Albanian and Macedonian territories.\n\n![Graph](image://885d00d1-aa9f-446b-8767-dc55bdffe8e6 \"Bulgarian troops overrun Ottoman positions. Image: Public domain via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe effect of this is that it essentially extinguished the Ottoman flame, losing nearly all of its territory in Europe. It was so clear that the Ottoman state was in decline by this point that it was labeled as 'the sick man of Europe.'","ba1b3111-ba4c-4b27-916c-3dd4c32e698c",{"id":2528,"data":2529,"type":25,"version":78,"maxContentLevel":33,"summaryPage":2531,"introPage":2539,"pages":2545},"a1d914b8-bc18-4904-89cc-6dedd2ba19fa",{"type":25,"title":2530},"The Ottoman Empire's Final Years",{"id":2532,"data":2533,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"607980d7-d41b-4959-acd4-1b5a7b09e016",{"type":33,"summary":2534},[2535,2536,2537,2538],"The Ottoman Empire secretly sided with Germany in WWI","The Treaty of Sevres shrank the Ottoman Empire to just Turkish lands","Mustafa Kemal Ataturk led the Turkish War of Independence against the Treaty of Sevres","The Treaty of Lausanne ended the Ottoman Empire and created modern Turkey",{"id":2540,"data":2541,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":24},"300f1054-f4cd-4ccb-aa03-4db91bfbb72d",{"type":52,"intro":2542},[2543,2544],"Why did the Ottoman Empire side with Germany in WWI?","What was the impact of the Treaty of Sevres on the Ottoman Empire?",[2546,2561,2600],{"id":2547,"data":2548,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":25,"reviews":2551},"8d2e350b-0645-4592-b73d-f6f39be66241",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2549,"audioMediaId":2550},"During the First World War, the Ottoman Empire initially declared a neutral position so that they could negotiate with both sides to secure the best possible deal. In the end, the Ottoman Empire struck a secret deal with Germany.\n\n![Graph](image://b7b048a7-9bf8-42b8-973a-b4e3ee60f2cb \"Photographs from the First World War. User:Hohum, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nOttoman forces were viewed as superior to the Allied forces, and they were able to emerge victorious in one of the significant campaigns of the war. However, their success was nonetheless immaterial as their allies capitulated in Europe, leading them to be treated as a defeated power, securing another unfavorable settlement and further pushing them into decline.","224f1dda-b5b1-41e1-a9e8-35f6020601e1",[2552],{"id":2553,"data":2554,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"347f95e4-e8a5-49c5-8a8a-7a59f3a1bd1d",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2555,"binaryCorrect":2557,"binaryIncorrect":2559},[2556],"Who did the Ottomans secretly ally themselves with in the First World War?",[2558],"Germany",[2560],"The Allies",{"id":2562,"data":2563,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":78,"reviews":2566},"61c3477b-d5cb-4e9f-8855-178bb863637a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2564,"audioMediaId":2565},"The Treaty of Sevres, signed in 1920, removed all territories from the Ottoman Empire not inhabited by Turkish peoples, reducing the Empire to a fraction of its former size.\n\nIn reaction to the Treaty of Sevres, one outraged Turkish Ottoman, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, revoked the citizenship of the signatories of the treaty, sparking the Turkish War of Independence. This movement sought to create a new Turkish state separate from the Ottoman Empire and remove British troops from their presence in Constantinople.\n\n![Graph](image://47ceaedf-4511-4e91-9df5-bae39177c0a8 \"Portrait of Mustafa Kemal. Image: See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","5a210ec1-60bc-42ef-a2c5-49a0694fc191",[2567,2578,2589],{"id":2172,"data":2568,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2569,"multiChoiceQuestion":2570,"multiChoiceCorrect":2572,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2573,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2574,"matchPairsPairs":2575},[2168,2171,2173],[2571],"Which of the following most closely applies to Mustafa Kemal Ataturk?",[2180],[2177,2179,2181],[217],[2576],{"left":2577,"right":2180,"direction":33},"Mustafa Kemal Ataturk",{"id":2369,"data":2579,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2580,"multiChoiceQuestion":2581,"multiChoiceCorrect":2583,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2584,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":2585,"orderItems":2586},[2365,2368,2370],[2582],"When did the Turkish War of Independence begin?",[2377],[2374,2376,2378],[2380],[2587],{"label":2588,"reveal":2377,"sortOrder":25},"Beginning of Turkish War of Independence",{"id":2590,"data":2591,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"8dc9bad8-13aa-4aa8-bb02-088e7169dc91",{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2592,"multiChoiceCorrect":2594,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2596,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2593],"Which post-World War One treaty, signed in 1920, dealt with the rights of the Ottoman Empire?",[2595],"Treaty of Sevres",[2597,2598,2599],"Treaty of Versailles","Treaty of Yalta","Treaty of Potsdam",{"id":2601,"data":2602,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":33,"version":33,"reviews":2605},"4ab3b465-790d-4ba3-9ee7-212507fb4764",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2603,"audioMediaId":2604},"Ultimately, they were successful in their mission after an extended campaign of resistance.\n\nIn the Treaty of Lausanne, the National Assembly in Ankara was recognized as having sovereignty over Turkey by the international community, formally extinguishing the Ottoman Empire and founding a secular republic. On November 1st, 1922, the Ottoman Sultanate was abandoned, and Mehmed VI, the last Sultan, was sent into exile.\n\n![Graph](image://81776adf-bfb4-4941-afa1-a91bcd758ff6 \"Mehmed VI prays before being expelled from Istanbul. Image: Gizlenentarihimiz.blogspot.com, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nA direct line of Sultans that had lasted over 600 years, and at one point covered the entire Middle East, and a large chunk of Europe, finally came to an end.","73636e97-baa8-4e8d-9386-1312c45c09ac",[2606,2617,2628],{"id":2173,"data":2607,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2608,"multiChoiceQuestion":2609,"multiChoiceCorrect":2611,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2612,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2613,"matchPairsPairs":2614},[2168,2171,2172],[2610],"Which of the following most closely applies to Mehmed VI?",[2181],[2177,2179,2180],[217],[2615],{"left":2616,"right":2181,"direction":33},"Mehmed VI",{"id":2370,"data":2618,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},{"type":66,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2619,"multiChoiceQuestion":2620,"multiChoiceCorrect":2622,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2623,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":2624,"orderItems":2625},[2365,2368,2369],[2621],"In what year was the Treaty of Lausanne signed?",[2378],[2374,2376,2377],[2380],[2626],{"label":2627,"reveal":2378,"sortOrder":33},"Treaty of Lausanne",{"id":2629,"data":2630,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":33},"0bde1090-f17d-49dc-8fba-1923d2f0a7ed",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2631,"activeRecallAnswers":2633},[2632],"Which treaty recognised the new Turkish Government, ending over six hundred years of Ottoman rule in Turkey?",[2627],{"left":4,"top":4,"width":2635,"height":2635,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":2636},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":2635,"height":2635,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":2638},"\u003Cg fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\">\u003Cpath d=\"M12.586 2.586A2 2 0 0 0 11.172 2H4a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v7.172a2 2 0 0 0 .586 1.414l8.704 8.704a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 3.42 0l6.58-6.58a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 0-3.42z\"/>\u003Ccircle cx=\"7.5\" cy=\"7.5\" r=\".5\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",1778228387787]