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what we’ll be looking at, and why it matters.",3,[38],{"id":39,"data":40,"type":26,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":36,"pages":42},"e24ff657-7772-491f-aa26-cd48075fe800",{"type":26,"title":41},"The French Revolution: An Overview",[43,58,74,92],{"id":44,"data":45,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":49},"c2e43abe-90bc-4d29-9510-909c8c3c380f",{"type":25,"title":46,"markdownContent":47,"audioMediaId":48},"The importance of the French Revolution","The French Revolution was a pivotal moment in world history, and its importance cannot be overstated. It marked the beginning of a new era of political thought and action, one that would shape the modern world. The ideas of liberty, equality, fraternity - which were so central to the revolution - have become fundamental principles for many countries around the globe.\n\n![Graph](image://a06cec66-9ba6-494c-a913-e2d2b1c26ee5 \"Storming of Bastille, 14 July, 1789. Image: Unidentified painter, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe impact of the French Revolution can be seen in practically every aspect of the modern nation state. Principles such as education for all, the abolition of feudalism, and progressive taxation all owe a huge amount to the principles of the French Revolution.","2141be94-0719-4c9d-addf-5c8baaef3ce6",[50],{"id":51,"data":52,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"d27b3e95-baae-4149-aa19-a98c2114dafe",{"type":53,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":54,"clozeWords":56},11,[55],"The impact of the French Revolution can be seen in practically every aspect of the modern nation state. ",[57],"nation state",{"id":59,"data":60,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":64},"31b86dc2-19e7-4365-99c8-0059db907e02",{"type":25,"title":61,"markdownContent":62,"audioMediaId":63},"What was the French Revolution? ","The French Revolution was a period of political and social upheaval that began in 1789. It saw the overthrow of the monarchy, the establishment of a republic, and sweeping changes to France’s legal system, government structure, and society as a whole. The revolution was driven by popular discontent with an oppressive regime that had become increasingly out-of-touch with its citizens.\n\n![Graph](image://aa6974f4-69df-430b-9f73-c7e2c4096cff \"Portrait of Louis XVI. Image: Antoine-François Callet, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe main actors involved in the French Revolution were King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, the Dauphin Louis-Charles, Jean-Paul Marat, Georges Danton, Maximilien Robespierre, Napoleon Bonaparte - some of the most important names in French history.","ae9798ff-d467-462c-82e4-b4b17ff212ff",[65],{"id":66,"data":67,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"92274e9b-160d-4b45-a158-4e9c65b1287d",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":68,"binaryCorrect":70,"binaryIncorrect":72},[69],"What happened to the French monarchy in the French revolution?",[71],"They were overthrown",[73],"They were celebrated",{"id":75,"data":76,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":80},"f043f5fb-7fa0-4e5d-b650-3c4765e01758",{"type":25,"title":77,"markdownContent":78,"audioMediaId":79},"When did the French Revolution happen?","Although the exact period of the French Revolution is hotly contested, most contemporary historians agree that the Revolution began in 1789 with the storming of the Bastille - a symbol of the absolute power of the monarchy - and ended in 1799 with the establishment of the French Consulate.\n\nThe revolutionaries worked to create a new constitution that would guarantee the rights of citizens and limit the power of the government. The Revolution ultimately led to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military leader and political leader. He became Emperor of France in 1804.\n\n![Graph](image://f491162a-d941-4a61-87bf-c0c878d06e16 \"Drawing of Napoleon Bonaparte. Image: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","66c20040-bc35-4eb0-a9fa-a6e87eb9b2b9",[81],{"id":82,"data":83,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"390bcbb5-8389-4850-97f5-46247963c9cd",{"type":53,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":84,"multiChoiceCorrect":86,"multiChoiceIncorrect":88},[85],"When do most historians say the French Revolution started?",[87],"1789",[89,90,91],"1889","1689","1589",{"id":93,"data":94,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":98},"e8f1f9c5-a820-4d8d-b88e-8e7365e90e52",{"type":25,"title":95,"markdownContent":96,"audioMediaId":97},"Why did the French Revolution happen?","There are a lot of complex reasons which led to the French Revolution, but they can be broadly grouped into three categories.\n\nFirst and foremost, France in the 1780s was seriously suffering financially. This was a result of overspending by successive monarchs. This spending came primarily as a result of numerous costly, unsuccessful wars. This led to widespread poverty, hunger, and unrest in France.\n\nSecondly, an intellectual movement towards ideas of individual liberty and republicanism had been steadily building in Enlightenment France. These ideas are best embodied in the writings of Voltaire and Rousseau.\n\n![Graph](image://fe4d975e-7310-4805-b965-5f62434e8436 \"Portrait of Voltaire. Image: Nicolas de Largillière, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nFinally, France's system of Estates and Absolute Monarchy was far too powerful. Many other European nations, such as Britain and The Netherlands, had made steps towards a more constitutional system of government. But France retained an outdated and elitist system of social stratification - until eventually its population had had enough.","eb55c1d4-2304-40d6-b5b4-4853eec59b7c",[99],{"id":100,"data":101,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"0ff77a9c-0b9e-4e52-a213-0f36ad9106dc",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":102,"binaryCorrect":104,"binaryIncorrect":106},[103],"What was France's financial state in the 1780s?",[105],"Financially weak",[107],"Financially strong",{"id":109,"data":110,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"orbs":113},"d0b86584-6f81-4bd6-b558-2bc310f235a5",{"type":28,"title":111,"tagline":112},"What Was The French Revolution?","The French Revolution is actually not all that easy to define. Here we discuss how best to consider this period.",[114,185],{"id":115,"data":116,"type":26,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":36,"pages":118},"8956e8b3-aeaf-47fd-a808-9338d821fe2d",{"type":26,"title":117},"France’s Rise and Apex",[119,142,167],{"id":120,"data":121,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":125},"85ec8558-b69d-4a74-a3aa-471caf84d2f2",{"type":25,"title":122,"markdownContent":123,"audioMediaId":124},"From Richelieu to Louis XIV - France’s rise as a global power","In the early 17th century, France was a country in turmoil. The monarchy was weak, the nobility was strong, and the people were unhappy. This all changed, however, when **Cardinal Richelieu** became France’s chief minister in 1624.\n\nRichelieu was a skilled politician and diplomat, and he quickly set about centralizing power in the hands of the monarchy. He also worked to reduce the power of the nobility, especially the Huguenots Protestants and Ultra-Montains, Catholics who supported the primacy of the pope and the Spanish alliance, and to bring France into a position of prominence on the European stage.\n\n![Graph](image://b5fca53e-751a-4c40-bc0e-2dcff310b310 \"Triple Portrait of Cardinal de Richelieu. Image: Philippe de Champaigne, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nRichelieu's work was continued by his successor, Cardinal Mazarin, who also served as the chief minister of France. Mazarin was equally skilled as a politician and diplomat, and he pursued Richelieu’s ambitions within France and in foreign affairs. The king during Mazarin’s time in power was the most famous monarch of the 17th century, Louis XIV, who ruled from 1643 until his death in 1715.","6b692f59-903d-4ccb-970d-12024f3ef30c",[126,133],{"id":127,"data":128,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"15dba309-6efa-48ab-8acb-e456a60ec4a1",{"type":53,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":129,"clozeWords":131},[130],"Richelieu worked to reduce the power of the nobility",[132],"nobility",{"id":134,"data":135,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"be43019a-5886-46d9-82e4-1ebe6d57b128",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":136,"binaryCorrect":138,"binaryIncorrect":140},[137],"Who became the Prime Minister of France in 1624?",[139],"Richelieu",[141],"Mazarin",{"id":143,"data":144,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":148},"41554605-e2d5-49dd-8528-17d6c6e5a466",{"type":25,"title":145,"markdownContent":146,"audioMediaId":147},"The reign of Louis XIV - France’s apex","After Mazarin’s death in 1661, Louis XIV declined choosing another chief minister and led the cabinet ministers himself. **Louis XIV was an absolute monarch, and he believed in the divine right of kings**.\n\n![Graph](image://59e4f549-65d8-4503-a41a-b85d050f27cb \"Portrait of Louis XIV. Image: Hyacinthe Rigaud, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHe worked to further consolidate power in the hands of the monarchy, and made France the most powerful country in Europe. Under Louis XIV, who was famously nicknamed ‘the Sun King,’ France experienced a period of great prosperity and cultural achievement.\n\n![Graph](image://3e2fe766-4442-4d30-920f-72cb5b29b9e6 \"Palace of Versailles, modern day. Image: G CHP, CC BY-SA 2.5 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nLouis XIV oversaw significant economic growth during his reign; new industries such as textiles, banking, and shipbuilding were developed which allowed for increased investment in public works projects like Versailles Palace and the Canal du Midi. This newfound wealth created a class of wealthy elites who enjoyed great privilege from their investments or positions at court. However, this prosperity was not shared equally among all classes; many peasants were left struggling to make ends meet due to high taxes imposed by the monarchy.\n\nLouis XIV’s reign closed with his death in 1715, the end of a 72-year reign. He was followed by his great-grandson who ascended to the throne as Louis XV.","e0fbfe5b-9852-4ae4-afc4-81ef1f137c4d",[149,158],{"id":150,"data":151,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"34755253-d425-4613-ae32-b8e6f10343f5",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":152,"binaryCorrect":154,"binaryIncorrect":156},[153],"All parts of French society shared in the wealth created during the reign of Louis XIV.",[155],"False",[157],"True",{"id":159,"data":160,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"7b4104d8-0f90-4d43-8364-c0875889ee88",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":161,"binaryCorrect":163,"binaryIncorrect":165},[162],"Louis XIV is known as the ...",[164],"Sun King",[166],"Star King",{"id":168,"data":169,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":173},"e60197f8-f2b4-4ba9-af1b-7528637c4f9e",{"type":25,"title":170,"markdownContent":171,"audioMediaId":172},"The Seven Years' War","The Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a major turning point in the history of France and Europe. It pitted France against Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, Russia, Sweden and other allies in a conflict that lasted for seven years. The war saw France lose much of its colonial possessions to the British Empire as well as significant territory on the European continent. This loss had devastating economic consequences for France; it caused an increase in taxes which further exacerbated existing social tensions between different classes within French society.\n\n![Graph](image://1c1f5ee3-0ceb-44f0-9183-6c8bb74fc5f3 \"Painting of the Battle of Kunersdorf, 1759. Image: Alexander Kotzebue, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe war also marked a shift in power from continental Europe to Britain and her colonies; this new balance of power would have far-reaching implications not just for France but throughout Europe. This coincided with the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Britain - a time of stratospheric growth for the country that truly cemented its position as Europe's greatest power.","81bd31fb-2990-49bb-8ff3-21db4bc83f24",[174],{"id":175,"data":176,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"bf9b0889-0c60-4803-8d2f-49966caa3ceb",{"type":53,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":177,"multiChoiceCorrect":179,"multiChoiceIncorrect":181},[178],"What development cemented Britain's dominance over France in the decades that followed the Seven Years' War?",[180],"The Industrial Revolution",[182,183,184],"The American War of Independence","The Scientific Revolution","The Napoleonic Wars",{"id":186,"data":187,"type":26,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":36,"pages":189},"7d150fea-f52f-46b0-a08d-7265fe5b01cc",{"type":26,"title":188},"Revolutionary Periods",[190,210,224],{"id":191,"data":192,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":196},"7d663040-5199-49d2-9b46-c4775bc067aa",{"type":25,"title":193,"markdownContent":194,"audioMediaId":195},"Textbook periodization: 1789-1799","A great deal of historical debate has occurred over what time period can actually be called 'The French Revolution' accurately.\n\n![Graph](image://6e39375d-d141-46c3-97ba-d148d6ecbc3a \"Painting of Louis XVI. Image: Joseph-Siffred Duplessis, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe 'textbook' periodization would generally mark France’s revolutionary era as 1789-1799. In 1789, Louis XVI sought to solve a political crisis by summoning the **‘Etats Généraux,’** an ancient institution which consisted of representatives from the 3 estates, meaning stakeholders, of the realm.\n\nThe clergy (including secular bishops and priests, as well as monastic orders) was the first estate. The nobility was the second, while the third estate included everyone else, from merchants and lawmen to rural laborers. The ‘Etats Généraux' had not met since 1614 and the King’s decision to summon them proved to be a mistake. From the Etats sprang the first National Assembly of France, putting an end to the traditional (unwritten) constitution of the Kingdom.\n\nIn 1799, a 30-year-old general named **Napoléon Bonaparte** took power. Since this led to regime change with the first French Empire, this traditionally marks the end of the Revolutionary era. However, France saw several other revolutions in the early 19th century, and the political unrest lasted for many decades.","981047a3-a2e5-4d3b-9d6f-c206bea6d2f1",[197,203],{"id":198,"data":199,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"7bd111de-1edc-46ba-a8e3-2101ea55f48d",{"type":53,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":200,"clozeWords":202},[201],"The revolutionary era is generally thought to start in the year 1789",[87],{"id":204,"data":205,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"fc650edd-adb7-4e28-bc16-b8617040921a",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":206,"activeRecallAnswers":208},[207],"In 1799, which general took power in France?",[209],"Napoléon Bonaparte",{"id":211,"data":212,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":25,"reviews":216},"5e6b5235-56b9-47e9-8896-b8a6787f5c3e",{"type":25,"title":213,"markdownContent":214,"audioMediaId":215},"Furet’s periodization: 1770-1880","The French Revolution has been studied and interpreted by many historians, with one of the most influential being François Furet. He argued that the revolution was a process of transformation which began in 1770 and lasted until 1880. This periodization is based on his belief that the revolutionary events of 1789-1799 were only part of a much longer process of social change. \n\nBetween 1770 and 1880, France had 17 political regimes. Furet’s argument is that the consensus among Catholics and Bonapartists to rally the Third Republic in the 1880s put an end to the revolutionary process.\n\nThis led to one of his most prominent books to be titled La Révolution: 1770-1880. His theory has remained provocative today, but, agree or disagree, it demonstrates the complex and multifaceted state of affairs that was created by the French Revolution.","692a3393-5211-4751-a6a9-6399531b8513",[217],{"id":218,"data":219,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"7ac574ab-4431-40cb-9dfe-56d3fc9c1a49",{"type":53,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":220,"clozeWords":222},[221],"Although many define the French Revolution as lasting from 1789-1799, the political turmoil lasted well into the 19th century.",[223],"19th century",{"id":225,"data":226,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":230},"0202a5d4-0930-4e0f-b5ce-56e97b45ec3c",{"type":25,"title":227,"markdownContent":228,"audioMediaId":229},"What the Revolution was not","The Revolution did see the fall and beheading of a king, but it’s simplistic to interpret it as an uprising of the oppressed against the elites. Instead the Revolution was **the boiling point in a complex process** that slowly set various social groups’ interests at odds.\n\n![Graph](image://4027328c-4a07-4a49-8615-87c6b4133fb7 \"Cartoon attacking the excesses of the revolution. Image: \nGeorge Cruikshank, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nBy 1789, the French monarchy was enmeshed within a web of conflicts and social tension which the king, Louis XVI, although a well-intentioned man, was ill-equipped to face.\n\nIn particular, the country was facing a **financial crisis, rapid demographic growth, a declining economy, and a series of adverse natural events,** such as bad crops and polar winters. Louis XVI did pick Chief Ministers who had ambitions to deeply reform the country, but the monarchy ultimately wasn’t up to the task in addressing these challenges.","97794660-d8f8-4c1d-9d3b-b0c133d4397d",[231,242],{"id":232,"data":233,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"702203d2-a737-4453-9d76-5b65026b640f",{"type":53,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":234,"multiChoiceCorrect":236,"multiChoiceIncorrect":238},[235],"How did Louis XVI try to reform France in 1789?",[237],"Appointing reformist ministers",[239,240,241],"Raising taxes","He didn't","Abdicating",{"id":243,"data":244,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"d8869bb0-8ce6-42dd-994a-b88035c9f1f5",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":245,"binaryCorrect":247,"binaryIncorrect":249},[246],"Which of these was a cause of the financial crisis faced by France in the 1780s?",[248],"Demographic growth",[250],"Trade embargoes",{"id":252,"data":253,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"orbs":256},"8c1bd8f1-feac-4460-a863-3d756d6bca45",{"type":28,"title":254,"tagline":255},"The Nested Conflicts Leading to the French Revolution","The causes of the French Revolution are complex. This tile discusses the multiple internal conflicts in France that made conditions ripe for upheaval.",[257,332],{"id":258,"data":259,"type":26,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":36,"pages":261},"b4301ba1-b182-46bd-ba00-4b22a8f9ba15",{"type":26,"title":260},"Complex Causes of the French Revolution",[262,276,292,317],{"id":263,"data":264,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":268},"eb65a658-186e-4767-bb4c-ec45e3bc128c",{"type":25,"title":265,"markdownContent":266,"audioMediaId":267},"Complex causes of the French Revolutions","It’s difficult to pin a single cause on the revolutions that upturned France in the period 1789-1799. The narrative often portrayed in films and novels is one of an oppressed nation rising as one to depose a tyrannical king. But most historians agree that revolution really came as a result of **multiple nested conflicts** - a confluence of different struggles and vested interests that had long been bubbling under the surface.\n\nAnimosity developed towards the monarchy in France from many different sections of French society – **including from the nobility and the courts of justice**, who were far from being motivated by any high republican ideals. This was in addition to a new intellectual bourgeouisie, inspired by the ideas of Voltaire and Rousseau, and a working population growing tired of France’s economic stagnation.\n\nTaken on their own, any one of these nested conflicts might have been resolvable for Louis and his regime. But when combined these conflicts created a perfect storm, one that would prove impossible for the ancien régime to weather.","2f23c509-f1f5-494b-933e-7396a189a4bb",[269],{"id":270,"data":271,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"2315daec-6bb8-4a8a-a45b-e88f970483bb",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":272,"binaryCorrect":274,"binaryIncorrect":275},[273],"The French Revolution had a single cause",[155],[157],{"id":277,"data":278,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":282},"db6d8c4d-8188-4ba0-b5a3-422b46563b7e",{"type":25,"title":279,"markdownContent":280,"audioMediaId":281},"Nested conflicts 1: monarchy vs nobility","Louis XVI's reign saw a major tension develop between the leading nobility and the monarchy. ‘Les Grands,’ the leading noblemen from the great families, had been progressively severed from positions of political power and high military ranks as absolute monarchy took hold. Absolute monarchy was not in favor with many aristocrats, who undermined the king’s administration.\n\nThe sale of offices and titles of nobility was a way to replenish the royal treasury. However, the sale of offices **increased social tensions** as the ‘noblesse de robe,’ those who had bought their way into the nobility, were not as well-considered as the ‘noblesse d’épée,’ those who inherited their titles and positions.\n\nThis lack of prestige of ‘la robe’ was mirrored into the material difficulties of ‘l’épée.’ Unlike in countries like Britain, noblemen from the oldest families were expected not to work. On the other hand, recently ennobled families could make fortunes as barristers or even as merchants, feeding resentment.","ced4ebf8-d9a4-486a-b649-07bc0a95bda2",[283],{"id":284,"data":285,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"015d87fa-8274-4eae-9488-3582c5adac99",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":286,"binaryCorrect":288,"binaryIncorrect":290},[287],"What was the term for the nobles who had paid for their titles?",[289],"Noblesse de robe",[291],"Noblesse d’épée",{"id":293,"data":294,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":298},"42102fef-fa43-478a-8638-faa2ba1a464e",{"type":25,"title":295,"markdownContent":296,"audioMediaId":297},"Nested conflicts 2: monarchy vs the courts","In the French monarchy, ‘Parlement’ was the name given to a high court of justice in each region (unlike today when it refers to the legislative body). Parlements had been openly challenging the king’s prerogative since the Duc d’Orléans re-established their right of retort (retort meaning ‘respond’ or ‘provide comments’) to the monarch in 1715. Members of Parlements were aristocrats, usually from ‘new families.’\n\n​​**In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Parlements became increasingly involved in political disputes**. They acted as a check on the king’s power, but also started to assert their own authority. The Parlements wanted to limit the king’s power, while the king wanted to assert his absolute authority.\n\n![Graph](image://70f98b24-8e18-4990-b956-9089f055d491 \"Drawing of Louis XVI giving money to the poor. Image: After Louis Hersent, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis conflict came to a head in the early 18th century, when the Parlements started to **refuse to register royal edicts**. This led to a standoff between the king and the courts, which was only resolved when the king at the time (Louis XV) agreed to give the Parlements a role in drafting legislation.","88fd1eec-111f-4fab-b24d-5d1fd4255aaa",[299,310],{"id":300,"data":301,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"70e0abc7-44f4-4f24-a98d-d68b43b8f997",{"type":53,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":302,"multiChoiceCorrect":304,"multiChoiceIncorrect":306},[303],"The regional courts in pre-revolutionary France were known as ...",[305],"Parlements",[307,308,309],"Judiciaries","Cours de Cassations","Parlez Vous",{"id":311,"data":312,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"d58229ad-78f7-42d6-8722-28230c3e32da",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":313,"activeRecallAnswers":315},[314],"Which king agreed to allow Parlements to participate in drafting legislation?",[316],"Louis XV",{"id":318,"data":319,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":323},"fa42b624-ec7f-451a-8327-c800c4e4b272",{"type":25,"title":320,"markdownContent":321,"audioMediaId":322},"Nested conflicts 3: monarchy vs the commoners","Even though many ministers, lawyers, and sometimes even merchants had been ennobled, access to prestigious positions was still limited for commoners. Aristocrats and the clergy were largely exempt from taxes. **The whole burden thus fell onto commoners.**\n\nFurthermore, justice in courts was administered unequally with wealthy individuals having access to faster proceedings while poorer citizens faced long delays or denial of their cases altogether.\n\nPractically no one in 1789 was against the monarchy as a political system, let alone in favor of a republic. But large swathes of the Third Estate hoped the king would move further away from absolute monarchy toward a more liberal system. The chief demons were equality of access to positions (in particular in the army), fiscal equality and taxation with consent.","a7316ac7-7f73-420a-b892-f3f401bdd65c",[324],{"id":325,"data":326,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"760d39d2-21c0-4579-bd49-7c93daa32aa8",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":327,"activeRecallAnswers":329},[328],"Which groups in pre-revolutionary France were largely exempt from taxes?",[330,331],"Aristocrats","The clergy",{"id":333,"data":334,"type":26,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":36,"pages":336},"4f1ea4da-275a-4a71-bbca-f6d9a02c3a27",{"type":26,"title":335},"Nested Conflicts in the French Revolution",[337,351],{"id":338,"data":339,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":25,"reviews":343},"2919d992-6600-48d5-902d-0ff6e2f849e1",{"type":25,"title":340,"markdownContent":341,"audioMediaId":342},"Nested conflicts 4: monarchy vs the economy","The French monarchy was heavily reliant on the economy for its own survival. The government had a monopoly over many industries, such as salt and tobacco, which provided much of its revenue. This meant that any economic downturns or changes in policy could have serious consequences for the royal coffers. Furthermore, Louis XVI’s attempts to reform taxation systems were met with resistance from both the nobility and commoners alike who saw it as an attack on their rights and privileges.\n\nThis tension between the monarchy and economy was further exacerbated by France’s involvement in costly wars abroad which drained resources away from domestic projects. In addition, high bread prices due to poor harvests caused widespread discontent among citizens who felt they were being unfairly taxed while not receiving enough food in return.","5005472d-84a3-4647-8af8-b951d72a0dc6",[344],{"id":345,"data":346,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"50b94176-4019-40f6-a5a3-a398c0a6c2df",{"type":53,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":347,"clozeWords":349},[348],"High bread prices were a major source of discontent prior to the French Revolution.",[350],"bread",{"id":352,"data":353,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":357},"7cbf9398-f6a9-4ba3-90af-8ed465a1bad7",{"type":25,"title":354,"markdownContent":355,"audioMediaId":356},"Nested conflicts 5: monarchy vs philosophy","The early 18th century was the peak of the era now known as The Enlightenment. This was a time of radical change in the intellectual culture of the West - ranging from incredible advances in science to major innovation in the arts.\n\n![Graph](image://3fa8b14c-9091-400f-90cb-6aabef58adea \"Portret of René Descartes. Image: After Frans Hals, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nPolitical thought also underwent huge changes during The Enlightenment. Many traditional assumptions started to be challenged, with some radical thinkers even going so far as to question the idea of monarchy, which had been the dominant system of government in Europe since time immemorial.\n\nThis school of thought was gaining traction across Europe, but some of its most vocal proponents were French. Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau were some of the most influential. The ideas of these thinkers would be cited by many of the leaders of the Revolution as vital inspirations.\n\nThe role of intellectuals in causing the revolution should not be overstated, however. Most historians agree that widespread poverty and national debt were far more potent issues in the eyes of most revolutionaries.","4af40919-1846-4a83-9dce-b390c53204c6",[358],{"id":359,"data":360,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"530c67f7-7d7c-4830-a293-0aa684dea617",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":361,"binaryCorrect":363,"binaryIncorrect":365},[362],"Which of these was an influential liberal French political thinker?",[364],"Montesquieu",[366],"Hume",{"id":368,"data":369,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"orbs":372},"26761ea2-6e92-4153-b674-ac509245a10b",{"type":28,"title":370,"tagline":371},"Towards a Constitutional Monarchy","The period 1789-1791 was a time of uncertainty in France. This tile covers the attempts to establish a constitutional monarchy – and their disastrous failure.",[373],{"id":374,"data":375,"type":26,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":36,"pages":377},"1b7a49f6-3eb0-491d-b91c-8ab43e08ab70",{"type":26,"title":376},"The Early Stages of the French Revolution",[378,399,413,431,445,459],{"id":379,"data":380,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":384},"6bab6303-359a-46a6-a440-39febc34d479",{"type":25,"title":381,"markdownContent":382,"audioMediaId":383},"May-June 1789: from the Etats Generaux to the National Assembly","The États Généraux, or Estates General, was a meeting of representatives from the three estates of French society: the clergy (the first estate), the nobility (the second estate) and commoners (the third estate). It had not been convened since 1614 and its purpose in 1789 was to address France’s financial crisis.\n\n![Graph](image://4166fb2e-a641-4c29-a105-7dc4088ba391 \"Image depicting the opening of the États Généraux. Image: Isidore-Stanislaus Helman (1743-1806) and Charles Monnet (1732-1808), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nOn May 5th, the Third Estate seized its moment. The representatives of the Third Estate broke away from the États Généraux, declaring themselves a National Assembly, with the intention of creating a new constitution for France.  The king, determined to seize back control, used maintenance works as a pretext to close the halls where the Third Estate met.\n\nUncertain about the king’s intention and feeling threatened, the National Assembly regrouped on an early tennis court on June 20th and swore not to disband until the Constitution was enacted,  in what was known as the ‘Tennis Court Oath.’\n\n![Graph](image://d47df9b0-b1b8-4698-9d45-8a1753534844 \"Image depicting the Tennis Court Oath. Image: Jacques-Louis David, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis declared that they would not stop until a written constitution, setting out the rights and civil liberties of all French citizens, was established for France.","c1e4fc2c-1824-4704-be9e-e9b111ee5fa2",[385,392],{"id":386,"data":387,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"08b4edfc-c2b4-49d2-bf82-63ac437715fe",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":388,"activeRecallAnswers":390},[389],"Which body was summoned to try to solve France's financial crisis in 1789?",[391],"The États Généraux",{"id":393,"data":394,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"3512b02e-a310-414a-8a75-a06683a5ae99",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":395,"activeRecallAnswers":397},[396],"What name is given to the first revolutionary oath?",[398],"Tennis court oath",{"id":400,"data":401,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":405},"de0f5524-478a-4090-a6db-b1e5076e8277",{"type":25,"title":402,"markdownContent":403,"audioMediaId":404},"July 14th 1789: the Bastille falls","Away from Versailles, Paris was undergoing unrest prompted by the economic conditions and the political events in the capital. On July 14th, Parisians stormed the Bastille to grab the weapons stored there and then destroyed the building - not one brick remains today.\n\n![Graph](image://b7695ea3-2082-4780-a4db-783f25d00349 \"Parisians storm the Bastille, July 14, 1789. Image: Jean-Pierre Houël, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\n**The Bastille was a prison** which, by then, was mostly empty, but had come to symbolize the arbitrary nature of royal power. Kings could send men to the Bastille with no legal recourse (at times, mothers and fathers had asked for one to send an unruly son away).\n\nBeyond this symbolic charge, this event represented the first moment of violence in the Revolution, with the governor of the fort and its guards, who had all surrendered, massacred by the crowd.","6cf5731a-982d-4a98-81a1-9d31a1950594",[406],{"id":407,"data":408,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"ff1c25b2-a118-4e0c-a0ec-9592a37bfc3a",{"type":53,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":409,"clozeWords":411},[410],"The first outbreak of violence in 1789 came in the storming of the Bastille",[412],"storming of the Bastille",{"id":414,"data":415,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":419},"2a2c6fd2-d768-4eaa-a399-dce3f1d342f4",{"type":25,"title":416,"markdownContent":417,"audioMediaId":418},"August 1789: the abolishing of privileges","On the night of August 4th, the new National Assembly voted to end privileges, effectively declaring that the feudal system was entirely abolished. No longer was the Second Estate—the nobility—entitled to special legal privileges.\n\nOn August 26th, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was enacted. This document was a fundamental cornerstone of the French Revolution, establishing the equality of all men before the law, as well as freedoms related to religion, expression, assembly, and association.\n\n![Graph](image://72384c30-118a-472b-a7f0-5f9ea3414134 \"Illustration of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. Image: Museum of the French Revolution, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe abolition of privilege marked a significant moment in the French Revolution, and this spirit of reform would later be carried into the realm of fiscal policy. Specifically, progressive taxes (where those with higher income pay more) were introduced during the late stages of the revolution, further aligning the taxation system with principles of equality and fairness.","16cd4552-656b-4a7c-b60e-3173b5b67c61",[420],{"id":421,"data":422,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"f9518608-b80e-4e7a-8954-8e644a00ed81",{"type":53,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":423,"multiChoiceCorrect":425,"multiChoiceIncorrect":427},[424],"The vote passed on August 4th 1789 did what?",[426],"Abolished the system of privileges in France ",[428,429,430],"Found the King guilty","Declared a new government","Secured the monarchy",{"id":432,"data":433,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":437},"391087b6-4596-4aca-8546-0978c977a3b4",{"type":25,"title":434,"markdownContent":435,"audioMediaId":436},"October 1789: the king is taken back to Paris.","In October 1789, a cohort of women walked from Paris to Versailles to protest about the price of bread, and ended up bringing back the king and his family. The people still professed unconditional love for their king, whose faults were always blamed on bad advisors and greedy ministers, but at the same time it was made clear he was coming back to his Paris palace of Tuileries as a hostage.\n\n![Graph](image://9eb2491d-64cc-46dd-a9cf-655d433e346c \"Illustration of the womens march on Versailles. Image: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/A_Versailles%2C_%C3%A0_Versailles_5_octobre_1789_-_Restoration.jpg\")\n\nForcefully moving the royal family (and, therefore, the country’s capital) from Versailles to Paris symbolized Louis’s change of status from ‘King of France’ to ‘King of the French’ – in Paris he was among the French people, and was felt to be representing them. In Versailles he had been a distant and removed figure, who felt no real responsibility to his people.\n\nThis is the start of two important trends. Firstly, it was the **first instance of mass emigration**, the flight abroad of aristocrats worried for their safety. Secondly, it demonstrated the **inability of the National Assembly to control popular movements**, and their tendency to follow them rather than lead.","1d345019-88ee-43d8-bc97-cf83720a93b5",[438],{"id":439,"data":440,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"1dbd0f89-0773-42c0-aa38-f310c7634f5d",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":441,"activeRecallAnswers":443},[442],"The King was forcibly moved to Paris from where?",[444],"Versailles",{"id":446,"data":447,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":451},"618d5957-94e7-40ea-8549-9d8168c938e7",{"type":25,"title":448,"markdownContent":449,"audioMediaId":450},"July 14th 1790: the Revolution’s one happy moment?","July 14th, France’s national holiday, is known by English speakers as ‘Bastille day’. It is meant to celebrate both the fall of the Bastille, a violent event that saw people who laid down arms gunned down and dismembered, and the Festival of the Federation, a peaceful event exactly a year later.\n\n![Graph](image://d46aa4f8-4b52-4bf3-94c0-b47698d1a436 \"French Alpha jets fly over the Arc de Triomphe on Bastille Day, 2017. Image: Chief Petty Officer Michael McNabb, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe Festival saw joyous civil events organized throughout France to celebrate the new monarchy which many hoped would mark the rise of a liberal regime similar to England’s.","10e8c310-19f7-4b23-9634-1239bcd7f658",[452],{"id":453,"data":454,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"fb3c03bf-6020-44fc-97d6-c3d39dcab930",{"type":53,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":455,"clozeWords":457},[456],"The Festival of the Federation in 1790 celebrated the new civil regime",[458],"Festival of the Federation",{"id":460,"data":461,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":25,"reviews":465},"2ce6f2ee-60ba-479d-928b-1395b4182a91",{"type":25,"title":462,"markdownContent":463,"audioMediaId":464},"July 1790 The civil constitution: a religious revolution","The National Assembly tried to sever the links between the Catholic religion in France and the Pope’s power in Rome: priests were to swear allegiance to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. All privileges enjoyed by the Catholic clergy - who had been exempt from most French law - were abolished. Church property was to be nationalized, and all religious orders expelled from the country.\n\nThe Civil Constitution was met with fierce opposition from both within France and abroad; Pope Pius VI condemned it as “a schismatic act” that threatened “the unity of faith”.","d9d33bea-6d85-4fa8-9614-e7bd6ea854bf",[466],{"id":467,"data":468,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"68a9ed43-b162-4527-b9f9-899161858b8f",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":469,"binaryCorrect":471,"binaryIncorrect":473},[470],"Which document abolished the privileges of the clergy in revolutionary France?",[472],"The Civil Constitution",[474],"The Act of Secular Rights",{"id":476,"data":477,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"orbs":480},"e532c6f4-6e6c-4315-8e0c-407c5bbd4612",{"type":28,"title":478,"tagline":479},"1791-1792: Old Enemies and a New Republic","This tile covers the latter period of constitutional monarchy in France, as it became increasingly clear that Louis XVI’s position was untenable.",[481,530],{"id":482,"data":483,"type":26,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":36,"pages":485},"44f5b640-7abb-4de4-bb54-64189f369f04",{"type":26,"title":484},"The Flight and Fall of the Monarchy",[486,500,514],{"id":487,"data":488,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":492},"9c42e540-d713-44a4-b9f2-81d7b3e9f8a3",{"type":25,"title":489,"markdownContent":490,"audioMediaId":491},"The flight of the king to Varennes","In late 1791, the king and his family attempted to flee the country but were caught in Varennes in Eastern France.\n\nThe family was attempting to travel to the Austrian Netherlands in order to escape the growing political unrest in France. However, they were stopped in Varennes after being recognized, and brought back to Paris, where they were placed under virtual house arrest. The episode was a major embarrassment for the monarchy and helped to further undermine its legitimacy.\n\n![Graph](image://27de788e-c74a-4c0d-bdb0-803450b99f71 \"Arrest of Louis XVI and his Family, Varennes, 1791. Image: Thomas Falcon Marshall, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nDeep distrust ensued and, from that point, the nominal head of state was in fact a prisoner, under guard from the Parisian population which patrolled under his windows.","057a91a7-721c-4be9-a207-4d3858b5b845",[493],{"id":494,"data":495,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"3f81f791-fed6-48f9-81da-254656779827",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":496,"activeRecallAnswers":498},[497],"Where were the King and his family intercepted in their attempt to escape France?",[499],"Varennes",{"id":501,"data":502,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":506},"dbfe345c-ae93-40dc-9f1b-9bac1afca4a9",{"type":25,"title":503,"markdownContent":504,"audioMediaId":505},"France’s first constitution comes into being","The National Assembly’s efforts to create a new republic culminated in the adoption of France’s first constitution on September 3rd, 1791. This document declared that all citizens were equal before the law and had rights such as freedom of speech, press, assembly; religious toleration; and universal male suffrage. It also established a constitutional monarchy with Louis XVI as its head but limited his powers significantly.\n\n![Graph](image://7b2ccf5e-ecff-415c-8a00-91d5f207f0d6 \"France's first constitution, September 3rd, 1791. Image: Archives nationales, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis was followed by the creation of two legislative bodies: an upper house called the Legislative Assembly and a lower house known as the National Convention. The latter was elected by universal male suffrage and held supreme power over all other branches of government. Its members included prominent revolutionaries such as Maximilien Robespierre who sought to implement radical reforms in order to bring about social justice for all French citizens regardless of class or gender.","5e9227ab-0665-4c99-93c7-9ec394dd5947",[507],{"id":508,"data":509,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"41c43059-cee7-4ac2-a82c-aa18f64692ec",{"type":53,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":510,"clozeWords":512},[511],"France's first constitution was enacted in 1791",[513],"constitution",{"id":515,"data":516,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":520},"55746610-e22f-499b-ac1d-85117b4848cf",{"type":25,"title":517,"markdownContent":518,"audioMediaId":519},"War outside","The French Revolution had a profound impact on the international stage, as other countries sought to take advantage of France’s weakened state. In April 1792, Austria and Prussia declared war on France in an attempt to restore the monarchy. This sparked a series of wars that would last for over two decades and involve many European powers.\n\n![Graph](image://89ff0564-4c87-446f-b7db-ce36ab54911c \"Portrait of general Lazare Carnot. Image: Louis-Léopold Boilly, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nIn response, the National Convention created a new army led by General Lazare Carnot which was able to repel foreign invaders from French soil. The revolutionaries also formed alliances with other nations such as Spain and Holland who were sympathetic to their cause. These efforts ultimately resulted in victory at Valmy in September 1792 where the revolutionary forces defeated an Austrian-Prussian coalition army despite being outnumbered three-to-one.\n\nThis victory marked a turning point for the revolution as it demonstrated that France could defend itself against its enemies both domestically and abroad. It also provided much needed morale boost for those fighting for liberty, equality, and fraternity – ideals which would eventually be enshrined in the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen later that year.","71f6d523-10af-48a9-8ea1-fd75539cfbd8",[521],{"id":522,"data":523,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"8772e5c2-abf5-4b66-95d4-c6dfb671dd96",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":524,"binaryCorrect":526,"binaryIncorrect":528},[525],"In which battle did French forces beat the joint forces of Austria and Prussia?",[527],"Valmy",[529],"Valient",{"id":531,"data":532,"type":26,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":36,"pages":534},"6f0cb4b7-95e9-4bb3-9102-7d766d029a22",{"type":26,"title":533},"War and Revolution",[535,551,567,585],{"id":536,"data":537,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":541},"587bb55f-d548-41a4-9adb-31d2e71c70fa",{"type":25,"title":538,"markdownContent":539,"audioMediaId":540},"War within: the Counter-Revolution","The civil constitution of the clergy led to a deep-seated fracture in the country. In the western regions, which were most attached to Roman Catholic traditions, rebellion grew to a point where the regime was endangered.\n\nThe powers that be in Paris were fearful that Britain would support these rebels, or that famous émigrés such as the king’s brother Comte d’Artois (the future king Charles X)  would sail there to become their military leaders.\n\n![Graph](image://34b64136-6647-4fdf-adc3-3dd742d9af7f \"Charles as Count of Artois in 1798. Image: Henri-Pierre Danloux, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe alliance formed in the western regions of France was made up of peasants and noblemen. The revolution wasn’t solely played along social lines, but along cultural ones too.","a3e7f08e-a9a9-4bfe-a37e-e722a346ade8",[542],{"id":543,"data":544,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"5c33340a-8a9e-4da6-9d97-49bd8cbc4f9d",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":545,"binaryCorrect":547,"binaryIncorrect":549},[546],"Which region of France was less sympathetic to the Revolution?",[548],"The West",[550],"The North",{"id":552,"data":553,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":557},"b17560df-bc71-47d8-8804-761b67e700aa",{"type":25,"title":554,"markdownContent":555,"audioMediaId":556},"The fall of the monarchy","The war outside (with Austria) and the war within (the Counter-Revolution) caused an escalating political deterioration in Paris.\n\n![Graph](image://4efe835c-0b45-4996-a024-dee9f04e5a0a \"Louis XVI imprisoned in la Tour du Temple. Image: \nJean-François Garneray, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nOn August 10th, 1792, the National Convention abolished the monarchy and declared France a republic.\n\nThe king and his family (his wife, his 6-year-old son - the heir to the throne - and his daughter) were jailed in various prisons, ending up in la Tour du Temple.","ce221b16-752a-4fc7-8d4b-17af016dde77",[558],{"id":559,"data":560,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"ce638325-23a0-4704-801a-f24ed21e3d78",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":561,"binaryCorrect":563,"binaryIncorrect":565},[562],"Which prison did the royal family eventually end up in?",[564],"The Tour du Temple",[566],"The Bastille",{"id":568,"data":569,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":25,"reviews":573},"f4a3116c-5c83-494c-8f62-559208920875",{"type":25,"title":570,"markdownContent":571,"audioMediaId":572},"A new sovereign: the National Convention","The National Convention was the first governing body of the French Republic, established in September 1792. It was composed of 745 delegates from all over France who had been elected by universal male suffrage.\n\nThe Convention was not only a legislative body, but in the absence of the king, the effective head of state, accumulating all powers in its midst.\n\nIn 1793, the National Convention voted on a new constitution, with a radical plan for wealth redistribution at its core. However, this consitution was never implemented.\n\nThe National Convention also took steps to strengthen the nation’s military capabilities by creating a new army, which was vital for their victory over the Austrians at Valmy.","279a8d7d-6e71-446f-89fa-c5a51b9f7287",[574],{"id":575,"data":576,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"430deaf8-fff0-41c1-beb2-95405afed7b3",{"type":53,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":577,"multiChoiceCorrect":579,"multiChoiceIncorrect":581},[578],"What was the term for the new government that effectively replaced the king?",[580],"The National Convention",[582,583,584],"The National Assembly","The National Parliament","The National Trust",{"id":586,"data":587,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":591},"7411b354-ced2-48db-bfba-f94d3b83170f",{"type":25,"title":588,"markdownContent":589,"audioMediaId":590},"Girondins and Montagnards","The National Convention was divided into two main political factions: the Girondins and the Montagnards. The Girondins were a moderate faction who sought to maintain some of the traditional structures of French society, while also introducing progressive reforms such as universal male suffrage. In contrast, the Montagnards were more radical in their approach and wanted to completely overhaul France’s social and political systems.\n\nThese two factions clashed over how best to move forward with revolutionary reforms – leading to heated debates within the National Convention that often resulted in deadlock. This tension eventually led to a split between them in June 1793 when members of both sides voted against each other on key issues such as whether or not Louis XVI should be executed.\n\n![Graph](image://64ff9eae-de53-4ef6-80f2-3f01123674f1 \"Illustration of the trial of Louis XVI. Image: Éléonore Sophie Rebel, née Massard (1790-18..), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","d3aee8d8-0b4f-47e7-8994-79d59271cbab",[592],{"id":593,"data":594,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"6575c484-ea74-4896-9b0e-a6f94247e698",{"type":53,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":595,"clozeWords":597},[596],"The Girondins and Montagnards were the two major groups in the National Convention",[598],"National Convention",{"id":600,"data":601,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"orbs":604},"678b9894-b7f5-4b9c-a47d-4e1b9f962c1c",{"type":28,"title":602,"tagline":603},"1793-94: Terror For the People and Death for the Monarchs ","This period saw France’s descent into outright chaos, with political violence on a scale never seen before.",[605],{"id":606,"data":607,"type":26,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":36,"pages":609},"0df290a7-3158-459b-afd2-89128a176945",{"type":26,"title":608},"1793-94: Terror For the People and Death for the Monarchs",[610,624,645,663,677],{"id":611,"data":612,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":616},"a54d57d3-f0e5-47e1-8cb0-c70d6105e8e7",{"type":25,"title":613,"markdownContent":614,"audioMediaId":615},"The king’s trial and execution","After the abolition of the monarchy and establishment of the Republic, it became increasingly clear to many revolutionaries that the continued existence of the former royal family was a problem. As long as they were alive, counter-revolutionaries would feel justified in fighting for them to be reinstated.\n\nThe king was finally put to trial at the end of 1792. On December 11, 1792, the National Convention declared him guilty of treason and sentenced him to death by guillotine. Most historians agree that the trial was a complete sham.\n\n![Graph](image://dee2af28-eca8-47ff-9d84-02d5ab0711e3 \"Image depicting the execution of Louis XVI. Image: gravure anonyme du XVIIIe siècle, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe execution took place on January 21, 1793 in front of a large crowd at Place de la Révolution (now Place de la Concorde).","5aaad841-3991-41dd-84c7-4c616feb21d3",[617],{"id":618,"data":619,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"728edc19-646f-480b-a0d2-921a416463c5",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":620,"binaryCorrect":622,"binaryIncorrect":623},[621],"The trial of Louis XVI is generally thought to have been a fair trial by modern historians",[155],[157],{"id":625,"data":626,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":25,"reviews":630},"7a2d966f-5d2b-49eb-94bc-39403ae140e3",{"type":25,"title":627,"markdownContent":628,"audioMediaId":629},"The Montagnard convention","In 1792 up to the king’s trial, the ‘moderate’ Girondins had the upper hand.\n\nBy mid-1793, however, the Montagnards would take power by branding the Girondins enemies of the state and sentencing them to distant exile or to the guillotine.\n\nThis marked the beginning of the era known as the 'Reign of Terror' - a period between 1793-94 where the extreme Montagnards took complete control of France. Thousands were arrested or executed without trial under suspicion of treason or counter-revolutionary activities.","bb88e3d0-6bb5-4727-ab26-1fae57e8a38c",[631,638],{"id":632,"data":633,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"2ec5ced4-405d-482d-8b6b-8793aef16b43",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":634,"activeRecallAnswers":636},[635],"The Montagnards replaced who as the far left of the National Convention?",[637],"The Girondins",{"id":639,"data":640,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"966c4712-2eaf-465a-bb8f-eebc93fdeb48",{"type":53,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":641,"clozeWords":643},[642],"The Montagnards were the most extreme members of the National Convention.",[644],"Montagnards",{"id":646,"data":647,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":651},"a1073a80-1091-445e-834d-2fc523fbc547",{"type":25,"title":648,"markdownContent":649,"audioMediaId":650},"Danton and Robespierre","The foremost leader of the Montagnards, a radical political faction closely aligned with the Jacobin club, was Georges Danton in 1793. The Jacobins were a powerful political club during the French Revolution, advocating for republicanism and the abolition of the monarchy.\n\n![Graph](image://54082338-ae56-46fb-80a4-97086641daad \"Illustration of the Jacobin Club. Image: Illegible, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHis main rival within the Jacobin movement emerged to be Maximilien de Robespierre. Both Danton and Robespierre were radicals unafraid to use violence to realize their revolutionary aims. However, Danton became disillusioned with the increasingly extreme actions of the Montagnards in the summer of 1793. He left the movement, advocating for a more moderate approach.\n\nSeizing this opportunity, Robespierre painted Danton as weak and portrayed himself as a true believer in the Jacobin cause. Eventually, Robespierre replaced Danton as the leader of the faction, leading to Danton's imprisonment and execution in 1794.","b1ab06e4-3b13-47c6-bc33-7b4baa24ef69",[652],{"id":653,"data":654,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"48be3c54-e23b-4fe5-ae9a-9ded2c415ffb",{"type":53,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":655,"multiChoiceCorrect":657,"multiChoiceIncorrect":659},[656],"Who was the first leader of the Montagnards?",[658],"Georges Danton",[660,661,662],"Maximilien Robespierre","Paul Barras","Napoleon",{"id":664,"data":665,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":25,"reviews":669},"3f3b9ee9-c8cc-424d-851f-51b62754a693",{"type":25,"title":666,"markdownContent":667,"audioMediaId":668},"The queen’s trial and execution","Queen Marie-Antoinette was also judged and beheaded in 1793.\n\nThe former queen, who had been held prisoner since August 1792, was put on trial for treason in October 1793. Despite her pleas of innocence, she was found guilty and sentenced to death by guillotine. On October 16th, 1793, Marie Antoinette was executed.\n\nThe royal children stayed in prison for years where the young heir, called Louis XVII by the monarchists, died in 1795, aged 10. His sister was freed a few years later and would live into her 70s, famous - unsurprisingly, perhaps - for her difficult moods.","d2b902f2-1326-4a19-b162-d3c966a6f1ce",[670],{"id":671,"data":672,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"b647f0de-f082-4ee3-a3a1-a04ed8303c71",{"type":53,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":673,"clozeWords":675},[674],"Marie Antoinette was executed on October 16th, 1793.",[676],"Marie Antoinette",{"id":678,"data":679,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":683},"ab21710c-6a1f-4dae-bf7e-f3098a37c0b8",{"type":25,"title":680,"markdownContent":681,"audioMediaId":682},"The Reign of Terror","Robespierre’s time in power is indelibly linked to one word: Terror. His reign saw the implementation of harsh laws such as the Law of Suspects which allowed for anyone suspected of being an enemy of the revolution to be arrested and executed without trial. This resulted in thousands being sent to their deaths, including many innocent people who were simply caught up in the chaos.\n\n![Graph](image://4a158432-5490-4a54-8530-ac6f10b646bf \"Illustration of guillotine being used in reign of Terror. Image: See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nFrom the fall of 1793 to the next summer, around 17,000 people were killed by the guillotine or otherwise executed. Another estimate puts the total number of dead at around 40,000. The Reign of Terror was, in part, a response to the foreign threats that France was facing. But it was also a way for Robespierre and his allies to consolidate power and to stamp out any internal dissent. The methods used were brutal, and the death toll was high.","06322db4-cbb5-4c70-ae75-675bf64a53c3",[684,693],{"id":685,"data":686,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"3c590a56-4dd9-4781-83fe-14c776866315",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":687,"binaryCorrect":689,"binaryIncorrect":691},[688],"Which law allowed anyone suspected of anti-revolutionary beliefs to be executed without trial?",[690],"The Law of Suspects",[692],"The Law of Inquisition",{"id":694,"data":695,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"e727cd34-7bb0-4579-b4f9-82c12139b4d6",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":696,"activeRecallAnswers":698},[697],"Which leader led the Reign of Terror?",[660],{"id":700,"data":701,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"orbs":704},"351c4795-a633-4f28-ab3c-a24e6953936d",{"type":28,"title":702,"tagline":703},"1794-99: les Années Folles of Thermidor and the Directory","This tile covers the mid-1790s, as France recovered from the violence of the earlier part of the decade.",[705,760],{"id":706,"data":707,"type":26,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":36,"pages":709},"dc240349-9609-4dde-adea-cc5bb25d84fa",{"type":26,"title":708},"The Fall of Robespierre",[710,728,742],{"id":711,"data":712,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":716},"f7e8f5bb-b258-406c-93d0-825effabc2fb",{"type":25,"title":713,"markdownContent":714,"audioMediaId":715},"The fall of Robespierre","Maximilien Robespierre held a vice-like grip on the National Convention from mid-1793 to the summer of 1794. In that time he executed countless rivals and oversaw the most brutally violent period of the Revolution.\n\n![Graph](image://9266a3dc-58ab-48c8-b0cc-a5feddc7cda8 \"Portrait of Maximilien Robespierre. Image: Unidentified painter, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nEventually, however, he overreached himself. By July 1794, Robespierre had created such a culture of fear in the National Convention that even his closest allies felt that he had to be deposed. The tide of opinion had already turned heavily against Robespierre, but the straw that broke the camel's back was his attempt to accuse Joseph Cambon, a fellow member of the National Convention, of conspiracy. Everyone knew that the accusations were unfounded, and the Montagnards turned on their leader and had him executed in July 1794.\n\nThis marked the end of the Terror, and the rise of a more moderate faction - most members of the National Convention recognized that the violence had gone too far.","a57856ad-0e2f-4a87-99eb-d7073997035a",[717],{"id":718,"data":719,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"c73aa760-3183-49fb-a08e-e4b8f16bc588",{"type":53,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":720,"multiChoiceCorrect":722,"multiChoiceIncorrect":724},[721],"Robespierre was eventually arrested after accusing who of treason?",[723],"Cambon",[725,726,727],"Danton","Louis XVI","Barras",{"id":729,"data":730,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":25,"reviews":734},"1b0c744a-ba87-4f68-8e66-eb308a995c4d",{"type":25,"title":731,"markdownContent":732,"audioMediaId":733},"The Thermidor regime","Thermidor is the name of the month in the revolutionary calendar when Robespierre’s execution happened.\n\nAfter his deposition, the National Convention was briefly dominated by the Thermidor regime. \n\nThis was a collection of moderates who sought to wrestle power away from the radical Montagnards who had dominated the Convention. They put an end to the Terror, but were fairly brutal with their opponents - executing many of the Montagnards and effectively suppressing left-wing thought in the Convention.","5b5a6532-d755-488f-82a0-b68bc60d3d01",[735],{"id":736,"data":737,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"cad6b5a3-93ed-4aea-8ae1-e480b809d2a9",{"type":53,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":738,"clozeWords":740},[739],"The Thermidor regime was the new system that took the place of Robespierre in 1794",[741],"Thermidor",{"id":743,"data":744,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":25,"reviews":748},"d6bab2a6-cd66-4d18-a04a-b72b4025a786",{"type":25,"title":745,"markdownContent":746,"audioMediaId":747},"Directory: an attempt at a pacified, bourgeois republic","In October 1795, the ailing Convention breathed its last when a new Constitution was adopted:\n\nThe new government was known as 'The Directory'. The Head of State role was filled by a collective of 5 Directors. The legislative power was split between a low and a high chamber. The system was closer to aristocratic republics or to the United States.\n\nUnfortunately the Directory regime was marred by rampant corruption and constant coup attempts, by radical Jacobins or Monarchists.\n\nThe Directors, led by Paul Barras, held the center for the many bourgeois liberals who had benefited from the sale of clergy or nobility estates, and feared both a return to absolute monarchy and another Reign of Terror.","f7205b8e-5c06-4cee-97fa-99f9c7723fce",[749],{"id":750,"data":751,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"22cf5074-8478-4ce3-a728-7a1c825333dd",{"type":53,"reviewType":36,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":752,"multiChoiceCorrect":754,"multiChoiceIncorrect":756},[753],"Which of these was a problem with the Directory?",[755],"Corruption",[757,758,759],"Too much bureaucracy","The directors were elderly","Too inflexible",{"id":761,"data":762,"type":26,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":36,"pages":764},"0d1b5e4c-c328-413e-9db5-5bb623ad5fbd",{"type":26,"title":763},"Post-Terror France",[765,779,795],{"id":766,"data":767,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":25,"reviews":771},"c404409b-eefa-460f-8aa3-895d131528e0",{"type":25,"title":768,"markdownContent":769,"audioMediaId":770},"Incroyables et merveilleuses","The era right after the First World War was known in France as ‘les années folles,’ a period of artistic exuberance when the country was experiencing a breeze of relief after the horrors it had lived through.\n\nThe Revolution had its own 'années folles' (crazy years) after the Terror. Extravagant fashions and literary sub-cultures blossomed, with the most fashionable young lads and ladies being known as ‘les Incroyables et les Merveilleuses’ (the Incredibles and the Marvelous).\n\nThis was a time when people were pushing the boundaries of fashion and society. Men would wear outrageous clothes, such as long coats and scarves, and women would wear short skirts and dresses. They would also wear a lot of makeup and jewelry. \n\nThis trend was not just limited to fashion; it extended to behavior too. People began to indulge in more extravagant activities such as gambling at casinos or attending lavish parties where they could show off their wealth and status.","07d69797-b01c-4468-a705-3556904175db",[772],{"id":773,"data":774,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"dd79b7f7-7b52-4f70-ad26-c84da0d6bdc5",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":775,"activeRecallAnswers":777},[776],"What was the cultural response to the years following the Reign of Terror?",[778],"A flourishing of fashion and the arts",{"id":780,"data":781,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":785},"f7d43129-c9a5-40d0-87dd-504999270960",{"type":25,"title":782,"markdownContent":783,"audioMediaId":784},"War, still","Since 1792, the Republic had been in a state of continuous war. The Directory was mostly victorious in these, making conquests or creating ‘sister republics’ in regions where even Louis XIV wouldn’t have dreamt to tread, like Belgium or northern Italy.\n\nBy 1796, the war went deeper into Italy. Since the 1500s, the region had been under Austrian domination. Several French Kings had attempted to invade Italy, but none had ever succeeded.\n\nHowever, in 1797, a young French commander led the French army to extraordinary success in Italy - even taking Rome and imprisoning the Pope.\n\nThis young commander was Napoléon Bonaparte, and his success in Italy was the first of many conquests that would make him the most powerful man France had ever seen.\n\n![Graph](image://9c37bef0-e8da-477a-8b6f-c8ac9001a7c2 \"A portrait of Napoléon Bonaparte. Image: François Gérard, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","33c37495-0d8e-41e8-9786-016b1fa71835",[786],{"id":787,"data":788,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"3db5c839-492b-4492-8905-522bd1db4688",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":789,"binaryCorrect":791,"binaryIncorrect":793},[790],"How successful was the Directory's war effort?",[792],"Highly successful",[794],"Unsuccessful",{"id":796,"data":797,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":801},"a6ca0e87-906b-4891-96b9-5567fc0fdd17",{"type":25,"title":798,"markdownContent":799,"audioMediaId":800},"The end of the Revolution","Traditional periodization places the end of the Revolution in 1799. This was when Napoléon Bonaparte finally returned to France, after numerous succesful campaigns.\n\nWith Napoléon's conquest of Italy in 1798, he instantly became a national hero. The Directory were pleased at the success of France abroad.\n\nHowever, Napoléon's popularity greatly concerned the Directeurs, who sent him away to conquer Egypt, clearly hoping he would never come back. While he didn't conquer Egypt, he did see significant successes there -- enough to ensure even greater popular support back home.\n\n![Graph](image://314f4a83-518c-4133-9e7f-da57a49ca8c3 \"Painting of The Battle of the Nile, 1798. Image: Mather Brown, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHe returned from his campaign on Egypt with one intention - to seize power. On 18 Brumaire (9th of November, 1799), Bonaparte deposed the Directory. The new regime, the Consulate, was tailor-made: although some hoped that this soldier would just be a figurehead, he quickly assumed complete power. Five short years later, he would be the Emperor.","5d9c9963-13de-4db2-b847-af475c691512",[802],{"id":803,"data":804,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"bd78a29c-a2e5-4c91-99aa-d7c0b273adf7",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":805,"activeRecallAnswers":807},[806],"Which general was responsible for France's victories in Italy?",[209],{"id":809,"data":810,"type":28,"maxContentLevel":813,"version":36,"orbs":814},"249aea9c-0065-47f2-b019-c58bc3a9fd5f",{"type":28,"title":811,"tagline":812},"Contemporary Heritage","This tile considers the impact, both immediate and long-term, of the French Revolution both at home and abroad",7,[815,866,919],{"id":816,"data":817,"type":26,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":36,"pages":819},"f1544fb6-55ee-4b42-9cfb-ec34dd02ee10",{"type":26,"title":818},"The Early 19th Century in France",[820,836,852],{"id":821,"data":822,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":826},"04c480d8-fecc-4590-b159-b0eb0cf794ac",{"type":25,"title":823,"markdownContent":824,"audioMediaId":825},"The early 19th century in France","The early 19th century in France was a period of great change and upheaval. The Revolution had brought about the end of the monarchy, but it also left behind a legacy that would shape French society for generations to come. Social upheaval in France was by no means ended by Napoleon. The period 1804 - 1852 saw no less than five regime changes, including a return to monarchy.\n\nThis extended period of political chaos was an extremely difficult time for France, and its economy. Some would argue that it didn't end until the mid-20th century, where the modern French consitution was adopted in 1958. This constitution has now lasted for over fifty years -- the longest period of political stability France has known since before the Revolution.","25040cfb-9a39-4749-9af1-6e0cc2784d0a",[827],{"id":828,"data":829,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"b6ba944e-ac25-4320-a670-4ea8c9579309",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":830,"binaryCorrect":832,"binaryIncorrect":834},[831],"When was the most recent French constitution adopted?",[833],"1958",[835],"1948",{"id":837,"data":838,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":842},"6d18c443-d233-4ff1-b1fd-8e4298f577dd",{"type":25,"title":839,"markdownContent":840,"audioMediaId":841},"Was the Revolution a success?","The French Revolution was a complex and multifaceted event, and it is difficult to definitively answer the question of whether or not it was a success. On one hand, the Revolution brought about sweeping changes in France that had far-reaching consequences for both its citizens and other countries around the world. The Napoleonic Code – the system of civil rights enshrined by Napoleon – provided greater legal protection than ever before, while social reforms such as universal education helped create an egalitarian society.\n\n![Graph](image://97e35dd6-19e7-4c4a-b323-2aa8dfc9fdb2 \"The Napoleonic Code. Image: napoleonsites.eu, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nOn the other hand, there were also some negative aspects to the Revolution. It caused immense suffering for many people who were caught up in its violence and upheaval, while others found themselves worse off after its conclusion due to economic hardship or political repression. Furthermore, some of its ideals – such as liberty and equality – have yet to be fully realized even today.","410e160c-0c73-4b5b-9ecc-da96e857b61d",[843],{"id":844,"data":845,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"3b486868-9581-46a3-a9bb-21edc89d13d1",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":846,"binaryCorrect":848,"binaryIncorrect":850},[847],"Which civil rights document was introduced in France after the revolution?",[849],"The Napoleonic Code",[851],"The Bill of Rights",{"id":853,"data":854,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":858},"1452aad7-494d-4019-8b0b-72fad84b02b8",{"type":25,"title":855,"markdownContent":856,"audioMediaId":857},"The constitution of the Fifth Republic","The French Revolution had a lasting impact on the political landscape of France, and this was most evident in the constitution of the Fifth Republic. This document, which was adopted in 1958, established a semi-presidential system that is still used today. It also enshrined many of the ideals from the Revolution such as freedom of speech and religion, as well as equality before the law.\n\nThe Fifth Republic also introduced several new features to French politics such as decentralization and regional autonomy. These reforms allowed for greater local control over decision making while still maintaining national unity. Furthermore, it provided citizens with more direct access to their government through referendums and other forms of popular participation. In this way, it ensured that some aspects of democracy were maintained even after centuries had passed since its inception during the Revolution.","3ef8c764-1430-4b91-9a58-221a39ba6f31",[859],{"id":860,"data":861,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"ead86799-2b0c-4416-ab6d-0005caaf352c",{"type":53,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":862,"activeRecallAnswers":864},[863],"What was the most recent constitution adopted by France?",[865],"The Fifth Constitution",{"id":867,"data":868,"type":26,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":36,"pages":870},"f44a7b7e-dddf-49a1-b2fc-1c30803cabd2",{"type":26,"title":869},"Opinions on the French Revolution",[871,887,903],{"id":872,"data":873,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":877},"4fae2763-2fbe-4d96-9ccd-bf78a3e22a9c",{"type":25,"title":874,"markdownContent":875,"audioMediaId":876},"Opinions on the Revolution in France today","Today, opinions on the French Revolution remain divided. On one hand, many people view it as a necessary step in France’s development and an important part of its history. They point to the reforms that were introduced during this period such as universal education and freedom of religion which have had a lasting impact on society. Others argue that the Revolution was ultimately unsuccessful due to its violent nature and failure to achieve some of its goals such as economic equality.\n\n![Graph](image://e7290c98-6761-4e59-ab9c-ca8738d955bc \"Bust of Mariannede Theodore Doriot. Image: Super sapin. Photo personnelle prise au Sénat., CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nDespite these differing views, there is no denying that the legacy of the French Revolution continues to shape modern France today. All major French political parties align themselves with the ideals of 'Liberté, égalité, fraternité', and some on the hard left of French politics, such as Jean-Luc Mélenchon, even express sympathy for figures such as Robespierre.\n\n![Graph](image://bda0aa0e-bee0-441f-99b6-6a7cf30b50f6 \"Profile of Jean-Luc Mélenchon. Image: Thomas Bresson, CC BY 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nIn the popular French imagination, the Revolution has left behind a strong sense of national identity which is still evident today through symbols like Marianne – an iconic figure who represents liberty and revolution for many French citizens.","e5f5985f-6188-4057-86be-e7a540c1ecf3",[878],{"id":879,"data":880,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"704a4b7b-ca32-4fa5-9d5c-796b221863a1",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":881,"binaryCorrect":883,"binaryIncorrect":885},[882],"Which iconic figure represents liberty and revolution to many French citizens?\t",[884],"Marianne",[886],"Madeleine",{"id":888,"data":889,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":893},"7b71d2c2-f6af-4656-bb75-09d58edd1060",{"type":25,"title":890,"markdownContent":891,"audioMediaId":892},"Opinions on the Revolution around the world","The French Revolution provoked huge debate around the world. In Europe, many nations were afraid of the radical upheaval and unrest that the Revolution brought to France.\n\nThere was huge controversy over the issue in Great Britain, where it became **the** defining political issue of the era. While a small number of radicals, such as the poets Byron and Shelley, voiced support for the ideals of the Revolution, there was overwhelming criticism of it from the political establishment.\n\n![Graph](image://670f181d-62d4-4b59-bdb5-05eacf8f411e \"Painting of Edmund Burke, 1771. Image: Studio of Joshua Reynolds, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nPolitical thinker Edmund Burke's anti-Revolution pamphlet 'Reflections on the Revolution in France' was published in 1790, and was hugely popular. It was so influential that it has been described as one of the foundational texts of modern conservatism, and Burke as 'the father of conservatism'. Opposition to the Revolution gave birth to the modern conservative movement around the world.\n\nIn other parts of the world, reactions to the Revolution were more mixed. In North America many praised the Revolution as a triumph of the very same Republican values that had inspired their own revolution against Britain fifteen years earlier. In South America, many revolutionaries such as Simon Bolivar would cite the French Revolution as a great source of inspiration.","a9e70257-76be-47f9-9d68-6a7127cd4357",[894],{"id":895,"data":896,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"034c3bac-9eea-42d9-986b-5659b6e84b66",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":897,"binaryCorrect":899,"binaryIncorrect":901},[898],"Which British political thinker, known as 'the father of conservatism', was an opponent of the Revolution?",[900],"Edmund Burke",[902],"William Godwin",{"id":904,"data":905,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":909},"bcc458eb-d330-4dac-9a68-8a0609e2ff2d",{"type":25,"title":906,"markdownContent":907,"audioMediaId":908},"Literary and cinematic depictions of the French Revolution","The French Revolution has been a popular subject for literature and cinema since its inception. In the 19th century, Victor Hugo’s Les Misérables depicted the struggles of Jean Valjean as he navigated his way through revolutionary France. More recently, films such as La Révolution Française (1989) and Marie Antoinette (2006) have explored different aspects of this tumultuous period in history. These works often focus on themes such as freedom, justice, and equality that were central to the Revolution itself.\n\nIn addition to these more serious depictions of the Revolution, there are also comedic takes on it such as Monty Python’s The Meaning of Life (1983). This film features a musical number set during the storming of the Bastille which satirizes both sides of this conflict with its humorous lyrics and choreography. Such lighthearted portrayals can help us gain a better understanding of how people viewed this event at different times throughout history.","0d19bfc2-9a75-4b81-a53f-9303f2d09354",[910],{"id":911,"data":912,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"584fc63f-b1f0-48a6-8f50-1d071e9ce606",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":913,"binaryCorrect":915,"binaryIncorrect":917},[914],"Which novel by Victor Hugo chronicles Jean Valjean's struggles through revolutionary France? ",[916],"Les Misérables",[918],"The Hunchback of Notre-Dame",{"id":920,"data":921,"type":26,"version":36,"maxContentLevel":813,"pages":923},"b0f5f8cf-d6e0-4b64-ac9b-ccca99399e63",{"type":26,"title":922},"Historiography and Depictions of the French Revolution",[924,938],{"id":925,"data":926,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":36,"version":26,"reviews":930},"fc549a11-15b7-49f3-b674-c81077728a2d",{"type":25,"title":927,"markdownContent":928,"audioMediaId":929},"The historiography of the French Revolution: how different schools of thought have approached the period","The historiography of the French Revolution has been a subject of debate since its inception. Different schools of thought have approached the period in different ways, with some emphasizing the political and social aspects while others focus on economic or cultural factors.\n\n![Graph](image://d264154c-a10c-4541-9371-7a93eb01f582 \"Black and white image of Georges Lefebvre. Image: Jules Marchand, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nFor example, Marxist historians such as Georges Lefebvre argued that class struggle was at the heart of the Revolution, while liberal historians like François Furet saw it as an expression of Enlightenment ideals. In recent years, postmodernist scholars have sought to challenge traditional interpretations by exploring how gender and race shaped people’s experiences during this time.\n\nIn addition to these various approaches, there is also a growing interest in microhistory which seeks to uncover stories from everyday life during this period. This approach often relies on sources such as diaries and letters which can provide insight into how individuals experienced events like the storming of the Bastille or Napoleon’s rise to power. By looking at these smaller-scale accounts we can gain a better understanding not only about what happened but why it happened and who was affected by it.","7a4b3984-6589-4e09-8c79-b82396d823a0",[931],{"id":932,"data":933,"type":53,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":36},"e7ada19f-1bda-454e-a31a-4f2f36d2c8a0",{"type":53,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":934,"clozeWords":936},[935],"François Furet saw the revolution as an expression of Enlightenment ideals.",[937],"Enlightenment",{"id":939,"data":940,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":813,"version":36,"reviews":944},"952d0960-e3af-43b3-b48c-2d8a4246a530",{"type":25,"title":941,"markdownContent":942,"audioMediaId":943},"The global influence of Revolutionary politics","The French Revolution had a profound impact on the world beyond France, inspiring political movements and revolutions in other countries. In Latin America, for example, independence struggles were heavily influenced by Revolutionary ideals such as liberty and equality.\n\n![Graph](image://2176553a-0923-4785-b2fd-7e0d1a574525 \"Portrait of Simón Bolívar. Image: José Toro Moreno, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nSimón Bolívar’s campaign to liberate Venezuela from Spanish rule was inspired by the French Revolution, while José de San Martín used it as a model for his fight against Spanish colonial rule in Argentina.\n\nIn Europe too, revolutionary ideas spread quickly across borders. The 1848 Revolutions saw uprisings throughout the continent with people demanding greater freedoms and rights similar to those enshrined in the Napoleonic Code.\n\nThis wave of unrest eventually led to constitutional reforms in many European countries including Germany and Italy which adopted elements of the French system such as universal suffrage and freedom of religion. Even today we can see echoes of these revolutionary principles at work around the world with governments striving towards greater democracy and social justice for their citizens.","f19848e7-961e-4d82-8359-8fbf11d499b4",[945],{"id":946,"data":947,"type":53,"version":26,"maxContentLevel":813},"ec3871e2-d230-4843-a9d1-0c81dea25327",{"type":53,"reviewType":26,"evolvingBehavior":26,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":948,"binaryCorrect":950,"binaryIncorrect":952},[949],"Which South American revolutionary was inspired by the French Revolution to liberate Venezuela?",[951],"Simón Bolívar",[953],"Che Guevara",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":955,"height":955,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":956},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":955,"height":955,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":958},"\u003Cg fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\">\u003Cpath d=\"M12.586 2.586A2 2 0 0 0 11.172 2H4a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v7.172a2 2 0 0 0 .586 1.414l8.704 8.704a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 3.42 0l6.58-6.58a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 0-3.42z\"/>\u003Ccircle cx=\"7.5\" cy=\"7.5\" r=\".5\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",1778228172098]