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and the Soviet Union","The Nazis and Soviets invaded Poland together in 1939, kicking off World War Two",1,{"id":35,"data":36,"type":37,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"79f854d5-58fa-4660-92ae-0219aa16463e",{"type":37,"intro":38},10,[39,40],"What sparked the rise of the Nazis in Germany and the Communists in Russia?","How did a secret pact between Germany and Russia ignite the start of World War Two?",[42,68],{"id":43,"data":44,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":47},"89327f18-1865-4081-8f63-5ada758df8fb",{"type":33,"markdownContent":45,"audioMediaId":46},"In 1942, Nazi Germany and Communist Russia squared off outside the city of Stalingrad. The Nazis had come to power a decade earlier, after their leader, Adolf Hitler, ignited a blaze of fierce nationalism in the wake of World War One. The Nazis boosted the German economy, strengthened the military, and set their eyes upon imperial expansion.\n\nIn the Soviet Union, the Communist Party came to power slightly earlier, after assassinating the Russian monarch, Tsar Nicholas II, in 1917. Just like the French Revolution before it, the Communist Revolution had noble goals: they wanted to replace the monarchy with a fairer system, so that the lives of the populace would improve.\n\nHowever, in both instances, the removal of the monarchy created a power vacuum. In France, this vacuum was filled by Napoleon, and in the Soviet Union, it was filled by Joseph Stalin. Just like Napoleon, Stalin wanted to spread his influence into other countries. Shortly after coming to power, he began absorbing them into a Union of Soviet Socialist Republics – the USSR.","d2d3b34a-2bb8-45b2-ac51-4899f8d7537b",[48,57],{"id":49,"data":50,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"7a3f42db-1f47-47b3-8701-6c93fe42123d",{"type":51,"reviewType":52,"spacingBehaviour":33,"clozeQuestion":53,"clozeWords":55},11,4,[54],"Hitler rose to power in Germany after igniting a blaze of nationalism in the aftermath of World War One.",[56],"World War One",{"id":58,"data":59,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"57fd0d25-e5b0-48fc-add6-56c54379654a",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":60,"multiChoiceCorrect":62,"multiChoiceIncorrect":64,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[61],"The Communist Party rose to power in Russia after assassinating which monarch?",[63],"Tsar Nicholas II",[65,66,67],"Tsar Nicholas I","Tsar Alexander I","None of these",{"id":69,"data":70,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":73},"113a2a46-554d-4384-b2c4-01e20e660ee4",{"type":33,"markdownContent":71,"audioMediaId":72},"In the 1930s, Stalin’s Russia and Hitler’s Germany were separated from one another by Poland. Stalin was nervous about the prospect of a German invasion, and tried to form a defensive alliance with Britain and France, but neither country was interested. They were also nervous about German attacks, and did not want to provoke the Nazis into action.\n\nIn 1939, Stalin decided to take a different approach, sending his Foreign Minister to negotiate a peace treaty with Germany. In August of that year, the two countries signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. This agreement made sure that neither country would attack the other, and was meant to last for 10 years.\n\nThis pact also contained a secret protocol: the two of them would invade Poland together, with the Nazis attacking from the west and the Soviets attacking from the east, with the aim of dividing the country into two halves. This joint-invasion shocked the rest of Europe, and marked the beginning of World War Two.\n\n![Graph](image://9178d48b-dbfc-4f62-8005-71b9265c177e \"Hitler reading the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Image: Public domain\")","fd380e31-3ab4-4428-b2b6-44d28396eff4",[74,81,92],{"id":75,"data":76,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"3ac190a2-0e00-454e-8fe1-af1c2181cf92",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":77,"activeRecallAnswers":79},[78],"In the 1930s, Stalin’s Russia and Hitler’s Germany were separated from one another by which country?",[80],"Poland",{"id":82,"data":83,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"c259d0d0-7d23-4fcc-8ba0-d07fde847a89",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":84,"multiChoiceCorrect":86,"multiChoiceIncorrect":88,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[85],"What was the name of the peace agreement drawn up between Stalin and Hitler in 1939?",[87],"Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact",[89,90,91],"Stalin-Hitler Pact","Communist-Nazi Pact","Fascist-Soviet Pact",{"id":93,"data":94,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"3bcf3a5e-92b0-4124-bd41-96d467268075",{"type":51,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":33,"binaryQuestion":95,"binaryCorrect":97,"binaryIncorrect":99},[96],"What secret protocol was contained in the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact?",[98],"A joint-invasion of Poland",[100],"A joint-invasion of France",{"id":102,"data":103,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":105,"introPage":113,"pages":119},"562b1461-5f5f-4d63-9ef8-32447e69b19a",{"type":24,"title":104},"The Siege of Stalingrad",{"id":106,"data":107,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"13fefbf3-6705-46e2-8658-302e4360e781",{"type":19,"summary":108},[109,110,111,112],"In 1941, Hitler broke the Nonaggression Pact, and sent 3 million soldiers to invade the Soviet Union","Stalingrad was a key target for the Germans, due to its industrial power and symbolic name","The Siege of Stalingrad stretched into winter, which the Russian army was better prepared to handle","They launched a counter-offensive in the middle of the winter, and forced the Germans to surrender",{"id":114,"data":115,"type":37,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"65486b19-7b62-4d91-8e40-6131477df93d",{"type":37,"intro":116},[117,118],"Why did Hitler go back on his pact with the Russians, and launch an attack on Stalingrad?","How did a harsh Russian winter impact the outcome of the battle?",[120,144,182],{"id":121,"data":122,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":125},"b30ea85f-a2a4-4ba5-af5b-9b75b323261e",{"type":33,"markdownContent":123,"audioMediaId":124},"Despite the Nonagression Pact between the Nazis and the USSR, Hitler still viewed the Russians as his enemy. He despised communism, distrusted Stalin, and feared that the Russians would stab the Germans in the back.\n\nIn 1941, the Nazis launched Operation Barbarossa – a total invasion of the USSR, tearing up the Nonaggression Pact along the way. Barbarossa, or ‘red beard’, was the nickname of Frederick I, a Holy Roman Emperor and Prussian king who conquered parts of Europe in the 12th century.\n\nThe Nazis were not the first to draw inspiration from Frederik. Wilhelm I, the first Kaiser of Germany, styled himself as Barbablanca, or ‘white beard’.","c3b6a9c3-69c7-4188-91b2-fde7083b38e5",[126,137],{"id":127,"data":128,"type":51,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":19},"014dd7be-56ea-4b68-8386-cfc7b5f70da9",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":129,"multiChoiceCorrect":131,"multiChoiceIncorrect":133},[130],"In 1941, the Nazis tore up the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, and launched an invasion of the USSR. What was this invasion called?",[132],"Operation Barbarossa",[134,135,136],"Operation Barbablanca","Operation Valkyrie","Operation Hammerfall",{"id":138,"data":139,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"1c5f73a0-1b2f-41f1-9a36-55c057a727b6",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":140,"activeRecallAnswers":142},[141],"Who was Operation Barbarossa ('red beard') named after?",[143],"Holy Roman Emperor Frederik I",{"id":145,"data":146,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":149},"88e9ba61-2d7a-4e47-954e-3d41d5e2805b",{"type":33,"markdownContent":147,"audioMediaId":148},"For the campaign in Russia, the Nazis allocated about 3 million soldiers, making it the largest invasion force in human history.\n\nThis was still only a small percentage of the Nazis overall force. A total of 12.5 million Germans served in World War Two, divided up across a number of battlefronts in France, Scandinavia, Greece, the Netherlands, and even North Africa.\n\nThe Nazi attack, from a supposed ally, caught the USSR off guard. In the first few days, the Germans obliterated the Soviet army, sending defensive units into disarray. As they advanced into the Soviet Union, the Nazis set their eyes upon Stalingrad. This large, industrial city was an important producer of Soviet armaments, while also holding symbolic significance: Hitler wanted to claim the city which bore Joseph Stalin’s name.","9db49833-f8a6-48cc-b17f-6e7c9188c8b0",[150,170],{"id":151,"data":152,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"ad041cbb-712b-4ca6-9ff8-6d0f305f5b34",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":153,"multiChoiceQuestion":157,"multiChoiceCorrect":159,"multiChoiceIncorrect":161,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":165,"matchPairsPairs":167},[154,155,156],"26c31bc5-20c3-425d-b5cf-2eed1a21735c","bdcbf69c-b10e-40b0-852a-b745c8e43648","cc60d4c9-e691-4782-bee6-62f4ba848ab3",[158],"What was the size of the German force that entered Russia as part of Operation Barbarossa?",[160],"3 million soldiers",[162,163,164],"20,000 soldiers","80,000 soldiers","100,000 soldiers",[166],"Match the pairs below:",[168],{"left":169,"right":160,"direction":19},"German force in Russia",{"id":171,"data":172,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"abd9c5d3-f862-4627-91b0-542a52631dff",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":173,"multiChoiceCorrect":175,"multiChoiceIncorrect":178,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":181,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[174],"Why did the Germans target the city of Stalingrad?",[176,177],"It was named after Stalin","It was an important industrial hub",[179,180],"It was the Russian capital at the time","It housed important Russian officials",true,{"id":183,"data":184,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":187},"41e15667-0e16-44ec-9a5d-54192329b709",{"type":33,"markdownContent":185,"audioMediaId":186},"The Soviets managed to reorganize themselves, and took a defensive stand at Stalingrad. When the two armies clashed in the streets of the city, it was some of the fiercest fighting seen during World War Two.\n\nTo make the situation more difficult, a bitter winter was approaching, as the battle stretched from July 1942 into December. The Soviets were better prepared for this, with heavy coats and boots designed to withstand the winter conditions in Russia. And they decided to launch a counter-offensive, catching the shivering German invaders by surprise.\n\nThis counter-offensive was devastating. And in January 1943, the German generals were forced to surrender, ignoring the direction of Hitler himself.\n\nAt last, the siege had come to an end. Historians estimate that more than a million soldiers were killed on both sides, making it one of the deadliest battles of all time.\n\n![Graph](image://ed45f55f-75e7-4d92-af5e-52fc260c3131 \"Stalingrad during the siege. Image: Public domain\")","0e346d29-0db6-440e-b9f5-5d9e0fb3c0f8",[188,197,204],{"id":189,"data":190,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"bcefc7ec-2452-437e-baa5-472ac2fea5fd",{"type":51,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":33,"binaryQuestion":191,"binaryCorrect":193,"binaryIncorrect":195},[192],"What shifted momentum from the Germans to the Russians at Stalingrad?",[194],"A biting winter",[196],"A blistering summer",{"id":198,"data":199,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"0b5b7007-28d9-4615-98c9-2a0c429b1c73",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":200,"activeRecallAnswers":202},[201],"Why were the Russians better prepared for the biting winter at Stalingrad?",[203],"They had thicker boots and coats than the Germans",{"id":205,"data":206,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"f96edef6-7911-4742-a462-344a867529ee",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":207,"multiChoiceCorrect":209,"multiChoiceIncorrect":211,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[208],"When the Russians launched their counter-offensive at Stalingrad, what did the German generals do?",[210],"Surrender (against Hitler's orders)",[212,213,214],"Surrender (based on Hitler's orders)","Keep fighting (against Hitler's orders)","Keep fighting (based on Hitler's orders)",{"id":216,"data":217,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":219,"introPage":226,"pages":232},"788efff9-3223-43f9-bb2a-c80a26296f1c",{"type":24,"title":218},"The impact of Stalingrad",{"id":220,"data":221,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"bfbb5ed1-2a60-4b1a-8b82-6fb2c6c626e7",{"type":19,"summary":222},[223,224,225],"The Siege of Stalingrad was the first major defeat for the Nazi army during World War Two","Germany's enemies gained confidence after Stalingrad, while fear spread across Germany","In 1945, Soviet forces arrived in Berlin, and brought an end to World War Two",{"id":227,"data":228,"type":37,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"a5a24287-0214-41a3-88d5-e43bebde9d28",{"type":37,"intro":229},[230,231],"What impact did the Siege of Stalingrad have on the wider world?","What might the world have looked like if the Russians had lost the Siege of Stalingrad instead?",[233,267,280],{"id":234,"data":235,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":238},"c2741a73-f750-45fc-942c-ad47ed13a3af",{"type":33,"markdownContent":236,"audioMediaId":237},"Historians view the Siege of Stalingrad as the most significant turning point in World War Two. Strategically, the battle drained a significant portion of Nazi resources. But on top of that, it was symbolically important: this was the very first time that the Nazi army had lost such a major battle.\n\nGermany's enemies gained confidence. One British general wrote of the battle: 'We start 1943 under conditions I would never have dared to hope.' As for the Germans themselves, fear and misery spread across the country, as people realized that the momentum of the war had changed.\n\nIn 1945, Soviet forces arrived in Berlin, led by General Zhukov, who had played an important role at Stalingrad. The Germans surrendered, and Hitler committed suicide before the Soviet forces could reach him. This marked the official end of World War Two in Europe.","ec465503-4902-4921-9bc6-8e720470b025",[239,258],{"id":240,"data":241,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"53012d74-294c-4988-8dd5-83a6066aed3f",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":242,"multiChoiceQuestion":246,"multiChoiceCorrect":248,"multiChoiceIncorrect":250,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":254,"matchPairsPairs":255},[243,244,245],"c87e3cb4-1f94-4608-bedf-ddb7080efab9","0a8efde2-ce21-473a-9e94-de0e6e271e69","95642c45-f0c9-49d7-b1b7-3e7249fc29de",[247],"What was the most significant consequence of the Siege of Stalingrad?",[249],"Allied victory at WW2",[251,252,253],"British empire","Pax Britannica","Treaty of Addis Ababa",[166],[256],{"left":257,"right":249,"direction":19},"Siege of Stalingrad",{"id":259,"data":260,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"4a19f956-6be3-4149-ac79-afcc5b492ca9",{"type":51,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":33,"binaryQuestion":261,"binaryCorrect":263,"binaryIncorrect":265},[262],"Which Russian general, who played an important role at Stalingrad, led a Soviet invasion of Berlin in 1945?",[264],"General Zhukov",[266],"General Zhirkov",{"id":268,"data":269,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":272},"9908647b-52d7-4ecd-8301-ae0dc5702fa5",{"type":33,"markdownContent":270,"audioMediaId":271},"If the Nazis had won the Siege of Stalingrad, it could have won them the war as a whole.\n\nThe USSR was rich in resources, which would have significantly boosted the German war economy, helping in their fight against the Allied forces of Britain, the United States, and others. It would also have boosted German morale, giving them a psychological advantage over the other armies.\n\nThe prospect of a Nazi victory at World War Two has been widely considered by counterfactual historians, as well as works of literature such as Philip K. Dick’s *The Man in the High Castle*. This book imagines an alternative world in which the Nazis seize control of Europe and Africa, and are now fighting with Japan for ownership of the United States. The Jewish population has been exterminated, as well as other minorities which the Nazis wanted to destroy.\n\nIn 1943, shortly after the Nazi defeat at Stalingrad, *The Daily Telegraph* wrote that Russia had 'saved Continental civilisation'. If the battle had ended differently, then the modern world might never have been the same.","178646c9-5762-44bd-a8bf-2286a6fd49cd",[273],{"id":274,"data":275,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"a680d19b-3858-409c-8d05-1d1dbac1d981",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":276,"activeRecallAnswers":278},[277],"Shortly after the Siege of Stalingrad, The Daily Telegraph wrote that Russia had saved what?",[279],"\"Continental civilization\"",{"id":281,"data":282,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":285},"f2c36dd7-2f7a-48a8-8eeb-3a3625de21a2",{"type":33,"markdownContent":283,"audioMediaId":284},"When a scholar considers the historical significance of any battle, they are taking a military approach to history.\n\n![Graph](image://c4fe9ca6-78c5-40c1-a460-32c1eb4cb68e \"Ruins at Stalingrad. Image: Public domain\")\n\nThis isn't the only way to think about the past, and other scholars could approach an event from an entirely different perspective. An economic historian thinks about the impact of trade and finances. A social historian considers the role of culture, race and gender.\n\nThere's a place for all of these approaches. History is rich and complex, and true understanding can only be achieved after approaching a topic from several different angles.\n\nBut even non-military historians would find it hard to deny the importance of some conflicts. From the Battle of Megiddo in 1457 BCE, to the Siege of Stalingrad more than 3000 years later, these battles really changed the world.","1ed7b776-9859-4547-9efd-d4c60b33e837",[286,297],{"id":287,"data":288,"type":51,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":19},"d2133902-a753-4295-ae59-5ab4af28f3ee",{"type":51,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":33,"binaryQuestion":289,"binaryCorrect":291,"binaryIncorrect":293,"multiChoiceIncorrect":295},[290],"What do we mean when we say that a historian has a military approach to history?",[292],"They study the broader historical significance of battles",[294],"They only study battles in isolation",[296],"They focus on the historical significance of battles",{"id":298,"data":299,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"95da726f-9d45-45c4-b02d-4261234ef445",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":300,"multiChoiceQuestion":305,"multiChoiceCorrect":307,"multiChoiceIncorrect":309,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":33,"orderQuestion":313,"orderItems":315},[301,302,303,304],"52448176-6399-4639-94af-55dc8c6236e0","a860e8c1-0719-4cec-9341-0562dc802b89","4efc7158-15c1-4316-843f-94b2cf72e1af","7364de96-1229-449b-b871-065e9d851b35",[306],"When was the Siege of Stalingrad?",[308],"1942 CE",[310,311,312],"1521 CE","1588 CE","1815 CE",[314],"Put these events in order:",[316],{"label":257,"reveal":308,"sortOrder":52},[318,379,460],{"id":22,"data":23,"type":24,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":26,"introPage":34,"pages":319},[320,347],{"id":43,"data":44,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":47,"parsed":321},{"data":322,"body":325,"toc":345},{"title":323,"description":324},"","In 1942, Nazi Germany and Communist Russia squared off outside the city of Stalingrad. The Nazis had come to power a decade earlier, after their leader, Adolf Hitler, ignited a blaze of fierce nationalism in the wake of World War One. The Nazis boosted the German economy, strengthened the military, and set their eyes upon imperial expansion.",{"type":326,"children":327},"root",[328,335,340],{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":331,"children":332},"element","p",{},[333],{"type":334,"value":324},"text",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":336,"children":337},{},[338],{"type":334,"value":339},"In the Soviet Union, the Communist Party came to power slightly earlier, after assassinating the Russian monarch, Tsar Nicholas II, in 1917. Just like the French Revolution before it, the Communist Revolution had noble goals: they wanted to replace the monarchy with a fairer system, so that the lives of the populace would improve.",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":341,"children":342},{},[343],{"type":334,"value":344},"However, in both instances, the removal of the monarchy created a power vacuum. In France, this vacuum was filled by Napoleon, and in the Soviet Union, it was filled by Joseph Stalin. Just like Napoleon, Stalin wanted to spread his influence into other countries. Shortly after coming to power, he began absorbing them into a Union of Soviet Socialist Republics – the USSR.",{"title":323,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":346},[],{"id":69,"data":70,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":73,"parsed":348},{"data":349,"body":351,"toc":377},{"title":323,"description":350},"In the 1930s, Stalin’s Russia and Hitler’s Germany were separated from one another by Poland. Stalin was nervous about the prospect of a German invasion, and tried to form a defensive alliance with Britain and France, but neither country was interested. They were also nervous about German attacks, and did not want to provoke the Nazis into action.",{"type":326,"children":352},[353,357,362,367],{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":354,"children":355},{},[356],{"type":334,"value":350},{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":358,"children":359},{},[360],{"type":334,"value":361},"In 1939, Stalin decided to take a different approach, sending his Foreign Minister to negotiate a peace treaty with Germany. In August of that year, the two countries signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. This agreement made sure that neither country would attack the other, and was meant to last for 10 years.",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":363,"children":364},{},[365],{"type":334,"value":366},"This pact also contained a secret protocol: the two of them would invade Poland together, with the Nazis attacking from the west and the Soviets attacking from the east, with the aim of dividing the country into two halves. This joint-invasion shocked the rest of Europe, and marked the beginning of World War Two.",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":368,"children":369},{},[370],{"type":329,"tag":371,"props":372,"children":376},"img",{"alt":373,"src":374,"title":375},"Graph","image://9178d48b-dbfc-4f62-8005-71b9265c177e","Hitler reading the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Image: Public domain",[],{"title":323,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":378},[],{"id":102,"data":103,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":105,"introPage":113,"pages":380},[381,403,425],{"id":121,"data":122,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":125,"parsed":382},{"data":383,"body":385,"toc":401},{"title":323,"description":384},"Despite the Nonagression Pact between the Nazis and the USSR, Hitler still viewed the Russians as his enemy. He despised communism, distrusted Stalin, and feared that the Russians would stab the Germans in the back.",{"type":326,"children":386},[387,391,396],{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":388,"children":389},{},[390],{"type":334,"value":384},{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":392,"children":393},{},[394],{"type":334,"value":395},"In 1941, the Nazis launched Operation Barbarossa – a total invasion of the USSR, tearing up the Nonaggression Pact along the way. Barbarossa, or ‘red beard’, was the nickname of Frederick I, a Holy Roman Emperor and Prussian king who conquered parts of Europe in the 12th century.",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":397,"children":398},{},[399],{"type":334,"value":400},"The Nazis were not the first to draw inspiration from Frederik. Wilhelm I, the first Kaiser of Germany, styled himself as Barbablanca, or ‘white beard’.",{"title":323,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":402},[],{"id":145,"data":146,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":149,"parsed":404},{"data":405,"body":407,"toc":423},{"title":323,"description":406},"For the campaign in Russia, the Nazis allocated about 3 million soldiers, making it the largest invasion force in human history.",{"type":326,"children":408},[409,413,418],{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":410,"children":411},{},[412],{"type":334,"value":406},{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":414,"children":415},{},[416],{"type":334,"value":417},"This was still only a small percentage of the Nazis overall force. A total of 12.5 million Germans served in World War Two, divided up across a number of battlefronts in France, Scandinavia, Greece, the Netherlands, and even North Africa.",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":419,"children":420},{},[421],{"type":334,"value":422},"The Nazi attack, from a supposed ally, caught the USSR off guard. In the first few days, the Germans obliterated the Soviet army, sending defensive units into disarray. As they advanced into the Soviet Union, the Nazis set their eyes upon Stalingrad. This large, industrial city was an important producer of Soviet armaments, while also holding symbolic significance: Hitler wanted to claim the city which bore Joseph Stalin’s name.",{"title":323,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":424},[],{"id":183,"data":184,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":187,"parsed":426},{"data":427,"body":429,"toc":458},{"title":323,"description":428},"The Soviets managed to reorganize themselves, and took a defensive stand at Stalingrad. When the two armies clashed in the streets of the city, it was some of the fiercest fighting seen during World War Two.",{"type":326,"children":430},[431,435,440,445,450],{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":432,"children":433},{},[434],{"type":334,"value":428},{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":436,"children":437},{},[438],{"type":334,"value":439},"To make the situation more difficult, a bitter winter was approaching, as the battle stretched from July 1942 into December. The Soviets were better prepared for this, with heavy coats and boots designed to withstand the winter conditions in Russia. And they decided to launch a counter-offensive, catching the shivering German invaders by surprise.",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":441,"children":442},{},[443],{"type":334,"value":444},"This counter-offensive was devastating. And in January 1943, the German generals were forced to surrender, ignoring the direction of Hitler himself.",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":446,"children":447},{},[448],{"type":334,"value":449},"At last, the siege had come to an end. Historians estimate that more than a million soldiers were killed on both sides, making it one of the deadliest battles of all time.",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":451,"children":452},{},[453],{"type":329,"tag":371,"props":454,"children":457},{"alt":373,"src":455,"title":456},"image://ed45f55f-75e7-4d92-af5e-52fc260c3131","Stalingrad during the siege. Image: Public domain",[],{"title":323,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":459},[],{"id":216,"data":217,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":219,"introPage":226,"pages":461},[462,484,526],{"id":234,"data":235,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":238,"parsed":463},{"data":464,"body":466,"toc":482},{"title":323,"description":465},"Historians view the Siege of Stalingrad as the most significant turning point in World War Two. Strategically, the battle drained a significant portion of Nazi resources. But on top of that, it was symbolically important: this was the very first time that the Nazi army had lost such a major battle.",{"type":326,"children":467},[468,472,477],{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":469,"children":470},{},[471],{"type":334,"value":465},{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":473,"children":474},{},[475],{"type":334,"value":476},"Germany's enemies gained confidence. One British general wrote of the battle: 'We start 1943 under conditions I would never have dared to hope.' As for the Germans themselves, fear and misery spread across the country, as people realized that the momentum of the war had changed.",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":478,"children":479},{},[480],{"type":334,"value":481},"In 1945, Soviet forces arrived in Berlin, led by General Zhukov, who had played an important role at Stalingrad. The Germans surrendered, and Hitler committed suicide before the Soviet forces could reach him. This marked the official end of World War Two in Europe.",{"title":323,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":483},[],{"id":268,"data":269,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":272,"parsed":485},{"data":486,"body":488,"toc":524},{"title":323,"description":487},"If the Nazis had won the Siege of Stalingrad, it could have won them the war as a whole.",{"type":326,"children":489},[490,494,499,512],{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":491,"children":492},{},[493],{"type":334,"value":487},{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":495,"children":496},{},[497],{"type":334,"value":498},"The USSR was rich in resources, which would have significantly boosted the German war economy, helping in their fight against the Allied forces of Britain, the United States, and others. It would also have boosted German morale, giving them a psychological advantage over the other armies.",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":500,"children":501},{},[502,504,510],{"type":334,"value":503},"The prospect of a Nazi victory at World War Two has been widely considered by counterfactual historians, as well as works of literature such as Philip K. Dick’s ",{"type":329,"tag":505,"props":506,"children":507},"em",{},[508],{"type":334,"value":509},"The Man in the High Castle",{"type":334,"value":511},". This book imagines an alternative world in which the Nazis seize control of Europe and Africa, and are now fighting with Japan for ownership of the United States. The Jewish population has been exterminated, as well as other minorities which the Nazis wanted to destroy.",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":513,"children":514},{},[515,517,522],{"type":334,"value":516},"In 1943, shortly after the Nazi defeat at Stalingrad, ",{"type":329,"tag":505,"props":518,"children":519},{},[520],{"type":334,"value":521},"The Daily Telegraph",{"type":334,"value":523}," wrote that Russia had 'saved Continental civilisation'. If the battle had ended differently, then the modern world might never have been the same.",{"title":323,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":525},[],{"id":281,"data":282,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":285,"parsed":527},{"data":528,"body":530,"toc":559},{"title":323,"description":529},"When a scholar considers the historical significance of any battle, they are taking a military approach to history.",{"type":326,"children":531},[532,536,544,549,554],{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":533,"children":534},{},[535],{"type":334,"value":529},{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":537,"children":538},{},[539],{"type":329,"tag":371,"props":540,"children":543},{"alt":373,"src":541,"title":542},"image://c4fe9ca6-78c5-40c1-a460-32c1eb4cb68e","Ruins at Stalingrad. Image: Public domain",[],{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":545,"children":546},{},[547],{"type":334,"value":548},"This isn't the only way to think about the past, and other scholars could approach an event from an entirely different perspective. An economic historian thinks about the impact of trade and finances. A social historian considers the role of culture, race and gender.",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":550,"children":551},{},[552],{"type":334,"value":553},"There's a place for all of these approaches. History is rich and complex, and true understanding can only be achieved after approaching a topic from several different angles.",{"type":329,"tag":330,"props":555,"children":556},{},[557],{"type":334,"value":558},"But even non-military historians would find it hard to deny the importance of some conflicts. From the Battle of Megiddo in 1457 BCE, to the Siege of Stalingrad more than 3000 years later, these battles really changed the world.",{"title":323,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":560},[],{"left":4,"top":4,"width":562,"height":562,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":563},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":562,"height":562,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":565},"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"M4 5h16M4 12h16M4 19h16\"/>",1778179227557]