[{"data":1,"prerenderedAt":3432},["ShallowReactive",2],{"i-kinnu:logo":3,"i-kinnu:origami-folding":8,"pathway-history-battles":12,"i-lucide:chevron-right":3427,"i-lucide:tag":3430},{"left":4,"top":4,"width":5,"height":5,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":7},0,27,false,"\u003Cg fill=\"none\">\u003Cpath d=\"M0.046875 1.05555C0.046875 1.03541 0.048197 1.01579 0.0507438 0.996728C0.0987149 0.438619 0.586845 0 1.18194 0H25.4398C26.451 0 26.9575 1.171 26.2424 1.85585L15.7301 11.9243L1.31574 0.903476C1.17475 0.79568 1.01137 0.761884 0.859586 0.784111L26.2936 25.1441C27.0086 25.829 26.5022 27 25.4909 27H1.18194C0.555061 27 0.046875 26.5133 0.046875 25.9129V1.05555Z\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":9,"height":10,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":11},1000,236,"\u003Cg fill=\"none\">\u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M193.68 38.2238C195.994 38.2238 197.87 40.0989 197.87 42.412V231.812C197.87 234.125 195.994 236 193.68 236H4.19013C1.87603 236 2.02305e-07 234.125 0 231.812V42.412C-2.02305e-07 40.0989 1.87603 38.2238 4.19013 38.2238H193.68ZM111.76 89.0072C111.685 87.9474 110.572 87.2905 109.608 87.7376L96.8872 93.641C95.7786 94.1554 95.702 95.7016 96.7545 96.3225L101.579 99.167C94.7045 109.365 90.5733 122.892 90.5732 137.642C90.5733 154.323 95.8569 169.439 104.416 179.945C105.301 181.032 106.9 181.196 107.987 180.311C109.075 179.426 109.238 177.828 108.353 176.741C100.621 167.25 95.6522 153.305 95.6521 137.642C95.6522 123.661 99.6138 111.051 105.963 101.754L110.456 104.403C111.508 105.024 112.826 104.21 112.74 102.991L111.76 89.0072ZM9.63194 136.286C9.14864 136.286 8.75684 136.678 8.75684 137.161C8.7569 137.644 9.14868 138.035 9.63194 138.035H17.2161C17.6993 138.035 18.0912 137.644 18.0912 137.161C18.0912 136.678 17.6994 136.286 17.2161 136.286H9.63194ZM22.6813 136.286C22.198 136.286 21.8062 136.678 21.8062 137.161C21.8063 137.644 22.1981 138.035 22.6813 138.035H30.2655C30.7487 138.035 31.1406 137.644 31.1406 137.161C31.1406 136.678 30.7488 136.286 30.2655 136.286H22.6813ZM35.7464 136.286C35.2631 136.286 34.8713 136.678 34.8713 137.161C34.8713 137.644 35.2631 138.035 35.7464 138.035H44.4973C44.9805 138.035 45.3724 137.644 45.3724 137.161C45.3724 136.678 44.9806 136.286 44.4973 136.286H35.7464ZM49.9977 136.286C49.5144 136.286 49.1226 136.678 49.1226 137.161C49.1226 137.644 49.5144 138.035 49.9977 138.035H57.5819C58.0651 138.035 58.4569 137.644 58.457 137.161C58.457 136.678 58.0651 136.286 57.5819 136.286H49.9977ZM63.0783 136.286C62.595 136.286 62.2032 136.678 62.2032 137.161C62.2033 137.644 62.5951 138.035 63.0783 138.035H70.6625C71.1457 138.035 71.5375 137.644 71.5376 137.161C71.5376 136.678 71.1457 136.286 70.6625 136.286H63.0783ZM76.1277 136.286C75.6444 136.286 75.2526 136.678 75.2526 137.161C75.2527 137.644 75.6445 138.035 76.1277 138.035H83.7119C84.1951 138.035 84.5869 137.644 84.587 137.161C84.587 136.678 84.1951 136.286 83.7119 136.286H76.1277ZM102.266 136.286C101.782 136.286 101.39 136.678 101.39 137.161C101.391 137.644 101.782 138.035 102.266 138.035H109.85C110.333 138.035 110.725 137.644 110.725 137.161C110.725 136.678 110.333 136.286 109.85 136.286H102.266ZM115.338 136.286C114.855 136.286 114.463 136.678 114.463 137.161C114.463 137.644 114.855 138.035 115.338 138.035H122.923C123.406 138.035 123.798 137.644 123.798 137.161C123.798 136.678 123.406 136.286 122.923 136.286H115.338ZM128.403 136.286C127.92 136.286 127.528 136.678 127.528 137.161C127.528 137.644 127.92 138.035 128.403 138.035H135.988C136.471 138.035 136.863 137.644 136.863 137.161C136.863 136.678 136.471 136.286 135.988 136.286H128.403ZM141.468 136.286C140.985 136.286 140.593 136.678 140.593 137.161C140.593 137.644 140.985 138.035 141.468 138.035H149.053C149.536 138.035 149.928 137.644 149.928 137.161C149.928 136.678 149.536 136.286 149.053 136.286H141.468ZM154.541 136.286C154.058 136.286 153.666 136.678 153.666 137.161C153.666 137.644 154.058 138.035 154.541 138.035H162.125C162.609 138.035 163 137.644 163.001 137.161C163.001 136.678 162.609 136.286 162.125 136.286H154.541ZM167.614 136.286C167.131 136.286 166.739 136.678 166.739 137.161C166.739 137.644 167.131 138.035 167.614 138.035H175.198C175.681 138.035 176.073 137.644 176.073 137.161C176.073 136.678 175.681 136.286 175.198 136.286H167.614ZM180.671 136.286C180.188 136.286 179.796 136.678 179.796 137.161C179.796 137.644 180.188 138.035 180.671 138.035H188.255C188.739 138.035 189.13 137.644 189.131 137.161C189.131 136.678 188.739 136.286 188.255 136.286H180.671Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M444.85 38.2277C447.164 38.2277 449.04 40.1028 449.04 42.4159V132.928C449.04 135.241 447.164 137.116 444.85 137.116H255.36C253.046 137.116 251.17 135.241 251.17 132.928V42.4159C251.17 40.1028 253.046 38.2277 255.36 38.2277H444.85ZM361.96 125.388C361.618 125.046 361.064 125.046 360.722 125.388L354.534 131.572C354.192 131.914 354.192 132.468 354.534 132.81C354.876 133.151 355.43 133.151 355.772 132.81L361.96 126.624C362.301 126.283 362.301 125.73 361.96 125.388ZM371.047 116.311C370.705 115.969 370.15 115.969 369.809 116.311L364.446 121.671C364.104 122.012 364.104 122.567 364.446 122.908C364.788 123.249 365.342 123.25 365.684 122.908L371.047 117.548C371.388 117.207 371.388 116.652 371.047 116.311ZM380.124 107.246C379.782 106.904 379.227 106.904 378.885 107.246L373.523 112.606C373.181 112.948 373.181 113.502 373.523 113.844C373.864 114.185 374.419 114.185 374.761 113.844L380.124 108.483C380.465 108.142 380.465 107.587 380.124 107.246ZM385.736 65.8841C385.891 64.6727 384.622 63.7845 383.536 64.3434L371.069 70.7636C370.124 71.2504 369.96 72.5334 370.752 73.2424L381.2 82.5938C382.11 83.4081 383.561 82.8672 383.717 81.6557L384.393 76.3725C391.143 77.1933 398.567 80.7709 404.771 86.9711C411.124 93.3213 414.726 100.952 415.43 107.827C415.573 109.221 416.819 110.236 418.214 110.093C419.609 109.95 420.624 108.703 420.481 107.309C419.644 99.1317 415.435 90.4514 408.362 83.3817C401.466 76.489 393.038 72.3185 385.038 71.338L385.736 65.8841ZM389.2 98.1733C388.859 97.8319 388.304 97.8318 387.962 98.1733L382.6 103.534C382.258 103.875 382.258 104.429 382.6 104.771C382.941 105.112 383.496 105.112 383.838 104.771L389.2 99.4108C389.542 99.0693 389.542 98.5149 389.2 98.1733ZM398.262 89.1047C397.92 88.7633 397.365 88.7632 397.024 89.1047L391.661 94.4649C391.319 94.8065 391.319 95.3608 391.661 95.7024C392.002 96.0436 392.557 96.0438 392.899 95.7024L398.262 90.3421C398.603 90.0007 398.603 89.4463 398.262 89.1047ZM416.431 70.9616C416.089 70.6202 415.534 70.6201 415.193 70.9616L409.83 76.3218C409.488 76.6634 409.488 77.2177 409.83 77.5592C410.172 77.9005 410.726 77.9007 411.068 77.5592L416.431 72.199C416.772 71.8575 416.772 71.3032 416.431 70.9616ZM425.508 61.891C425.166 61.5496 424.611 61.5495 424.27 61.891L418.907 67.2512C418.565 67.5928 418.565 68.1471 418.907 68.4887C419.249 68.8299 419.803 68.8301 420.145 68.4887L425.508 63.1284C425.849 62.787 425.849 62.2326 425.508 61.891ZM434.569 52.8146C434.227 52.4731 433.673 52.4731 433.331 52.8146L427.968 58.1748C427.626 58.5163 427.627 59.0706 427.968 59.4122C428.31 59.7534 428.864 59.7537 429.206 59.4122L434.569 54.052C434.91 53.7105 434.91 53.1562 434.569 52.8146ZM443.638 43.7479C443.296 43.4065 442.742 43.4064 442.4 43.7479L437.037 49.1081C436.695 49.4496 436.696 50.004 437.037 50.3455C437.379 50.6868 437.933 50.687 438.275 50.3455L443.638 44.9853C443.98 44.6438 443.979 44.0895 443.638 43.7479Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M684.066 38.2277C687.798 38.2281 689.667 42.7391 687.027 45.3773L596.473 135.889C595.687 136.675 594.621 137.116 593.51 137.116H506.335C504.021 137.116 502.145 135.241 502.145 132.928V42.4159C502.145 40.1028 504.021 38.2277 506.335 38.2277H684.066ZM514.603 124.566C514.261 124.224 513.707 124.224 513.365 124.566L507.178 130.751C506.836 131.093 506.836 131.646 507.178 131.988C507.519 132.329 508.073 132.329 508.415 131.988L514.603 125.803C514.945 125.462 514.945 124.908 514.603 124.566ZM523.689 115.491C523.348 115.15 522.794 115.15 522.452 115.491L517.09 120.852C516.748 121.193 516.748 121.747 517.09 122.088C517.431 122.43 517.985 122.43 518.327 122.088L523.689 116.728C524.031 116.386 524.031 115.833 523.689 115.491ZM532.102 65.8295C530.707 65.6872 529.46 66.7017 529.318 68.0957C529.175 69.4896 530.189 70.7355 531.584 70.8787C538.463 71.5825 546.096 75.1826 552.45 81.5329C558.723 87.8037 562.312 95.3226 563.079 102.13L557.738 102.392C556.518 102.452 555.865 103.855 556.607 104.827L565.115 115.969C565.76 116.814 567.051 116.751 567.611 115.847L574.992 103.928C575.635 102.889 574.848 101.555 573.628 101.615L568.161 101.882C568.161 101.878 568.162 101.874 568.161 101.871C567.324 93.6931 563.114 85.0124 556.041 77.9425C548.968 70.873 540.283 66.6668 532.102 65.8295ZM532.766 106.421C532.425 106.079 531.871 106.079 531.529 106.421L526.166 111.781C525.825 112.123 525.825 112.676 526.166 113.018C526.508 113.359 527.062 113.359 527.403 113.018L532.766 107.657C533.108 107.316 533.108 106.762 532.766 106.421ZM541.843 97.3445C541.501 97.003 540.948 97.003 540.606 97.3445L535.243 102.705C534.901 103.046 534.902 103.6 535.243 103.941C535.585 104.283 536.139 104.283 536.48 103.941L541.843 98.5809C542.185 98.2393 542.185 97.686 541.843 97.3445ZM550.92 88.2778C550.578 87.9363 550.025 87.9363 549.683 88.2778L544.32 93.638C543.978 93.9796 543.978 94.5329 544.32 94.8745C544.662 95.2161 545.215 95.2161 545.557 94.8745L550.92 89.5142C551.262 89.1727 551.262 88.6193 550.92 88.2778ZM569.066 70.1405C568.724 69.799 568.17 69.7991 567.829 70.1405L562.466 75.5008C562.124 75.8423 562.124 76.3956 562.466 76.7372C562.808 77.0788 563.361 77.0788 563.703 76.7372L569.066 71.377C569.407 71.0354 569.407 70.4821 569.066 70.1405ZM578.143 61.0699C577.801 60.7284 577.247 60.7285 576.906 61.0699L571.543 66.4302C571.201 66.7717 571.201 67.3251 571.543 67.6666C571.885 68.0082 572.438 68.0082 572.78 67.6666L578.143 62.3064C578.484 61.9648 578.484 61.4115 578.143 61.0699ZM587.219 51.9896C586.878 51.6481 586.324 51.6481 585.982 51.9896L580.62 57.3498C580.278 57.6914 580.278 58.2447 580.62 58.5863C580.961 58.9279 581.515 58.9279 581.857 58.5863L587.219 53.2261C587.561 52.8845 587.561 52.3312 587.219 51.9896ZM596.288 42.9249C595.947 42.5833 595.392 42.5833 595.05 42.9249L589.689 48.2851C589.347 48.6267 589.347 49.18 589.689 49.5216C590.03 49.863 590.584 49.8631 590.926 49.5216L596.288 44.1613C596.63 43.8198 596.63 43.2664 596.288 42.9249Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M850.814 38.2277C854.547 38.2281 856.416 42.739 853.777 45.3773L763.223 135.889C762.437 136.674 761.371 137.116 760.26 137.116H673.176C669.443 137.116 667.574 132.605 670.213 129.966L760.768 39.4544C761.554 38.6692 762.62 38.2277 763.731 38.2277H850.814ZM761.338 121.8C760.855 121.8 760.463 122.191 760.463 122.674V131.13H762.213V122.674C762.213 122.191 761.821 121.8 761.338 121.8ZM761.338 108.971C760.855 108.971 760.463 109.363 760.463 109.846V118.301H762.213V109.846C762.213 109.363 761.821 108.971 761.338 108.971ZM761.338 96.1402C760.855 96.1406 760.463 96.5321 760.463 97.0149V105.47H762.213V97.0149C762.213 96.532 761.821 96.1404 761.338 96.1402ZM782.263 71.887C781.043 71.951 780.395 73.3571 781.139 74.3257L784.474 78.6631C779.115 82.951 771.242 85.7443 762.35 85.7444C753.366 85.7442 745.421 82.8944 740.059 78.5305C738.972 77.6461 737.373 77.8099 736.488 78.8961C735.602 79.983 735.766 81.582 736.853 82.467C743.231 87.6574 752.348 90.8207 762.35 90.8209C772.209 90.8208 781.205 87.746 787.568 82.6884L790.833 86.9341C791.577 87.9025 793.103 87.6391 793.479 86.4767L797.791 73.138C798.118 72.127 797.33 71.1017 796.268 71.1566L782.263 71.887ZM761.338 70.4847C760.855 70.4851 760.463 70.8767 760.463 71.3594V79.8147H762.213V71.3594C762.213 70.8766 761.821 70.485 761.338 70.4847ZM761.338 57.656C760.855 57.6564 760.463 58.048 760.463 58.5307V66.986H762.213V58.5307C762.213 58.0479 761.821 57.6563 761.338 57.656ZM761.338 44.8293C760.855 44.8297 760.463 45.2212 760.463 45.704V54.1592H762.213V45.704C762.213 45.2211 761.821 44.8295 761.338 44.8293Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath\n    d=\"M995.759 38.2277C999.53 38.228 1001.42 42.5171 998.752 45.0253L959.55 81.9005L905.796 41.5363C905.271 41.1418 904.662 41.0182 904.096 41.0994L997.485 130.319C1000.15 132.828 998.262 137.116 994.491 137.116H905.298C902.96 137.116 901.065 135.333 901.065 133.134V42.0941C901.065 42.0204 901.07 41.9483 901.079 41.8786C901.258 39.8345 903.079 38.2277 905.298 38.2277H995.759Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath\n    d=\"M505.873 0C506.657 4.57042e-05 507.307 0.195499 507.823 0.587023C508.338 0.969046 508.596 1.53802 508.596 2.29251C508.596 2.76034 508.467 3.19015 508.209 3.58162C507.951 3.96344 507.497 4.26401 506.848 4.48361V4.54114C507.65 4.67487 508.205 4.96191 508.51 5.4012C508.816 5.83087 508.969 6.31772 508.969 6.86193C508.969 7.74056 508.672 8.41851 508.08 8.89604C507.497 9.38304 506.733 9.62731 505.787 9.62738C504.861 9.62738 504.158 9.42172 503.68 9.0111C503.212 8.60054 502.935 8.08005 502.849 7.44993L503.881 7.10571L503.924 7.24028C504.035 7.54934 504.211 7.82925 504.454 8.07986C504.731 8.36635 505.166 8.50986 505.758 8.50989C506.465 8.50989 506.943 8.32772 507.191 7.9648C507.449 7.6019 507.579 7.20078 507.579 6.7615C507.579 6.2173 507.378 5.80683 506.977 5.52992C506.585 5.25295 505.93 5.10026 505.013 5.07161V4.15402C505.901 4.12537 506.489 3.92484 506.776 3.55237C507.062 3.18009 507.206 2.82242 507.206 2.47876C507.206 1.62801 506.752 1.17539 505.845 1.12237L505.658 1.11749C505.467 1.11752 505.242 1.14605 504.985 1.2033C504.736 1.25105 504.511 1.3274 504.31 1.43245L504.081 2.56457L503.05 2.44951L503.322 0.687461C503.666 0.49653 504.068 0.33454 504.526 0.200875C504.985 0.0671945 505.434 0 505.873 0Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath\n    d=\"M905.727 2.30616L904.638 2.4066L904.466 1.26083H901.428V3.72497C901.533 3.71544 901.643 3.71034 901.757 3.71034H902.086C902.755 3.71034 903.386 3.78668 903.979 3.93949C904.58 4.09229 905.068 4.38363 905.44 4.8132C905.822 5.23335 906.014 5.84949 906.014 6.66106C906.014 7.64468 905.722 8.38068 905.14 8.86776C904.557 9.36434 903.783 9.6127 902.818 9.61275C901.91 9.61275 901.213 9.40711 900.725 8.99648C900.248 8.59544 899.96 8.08007 899.865 7.44993L900.911 7.10571C901.007 7.49723 901.203 7.8271 901.499 8.09449C901.795 8.37131 902.211 8.50985 902.746 8.50989C903.395 8.50989 903.869 8.33787 904.165 7.99405C904.461 7.65981 904.609 7.22507 904.609 6.69031C904.609 5.87861 904.337 5.3625 903.792 5.14279C903.248 4.91361 902.612 4.79958 901.886 4.79955C901.695 4.79955 901.489 4.80365 901.27 4.8132C901.059 4.82275 900.854 4.83701 900.653 4.85611L900.224 4.44071V0.143343H905.569L905.727 2.30616Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath fill-rule=\"evenodd\" clip-rule=\"evenodd\"\n    d=\"M765.49 6.04576H766.966L766.837 7.14862H765.49V9.48404H764.185V7.14862H759.857L759.713 6.04576L762.909 0.143343H765.49V6.04576ZM760.96 6.04576H764.185V1.26083H763.541L760.96 6.04576Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath d=\"M4.80573 6.47481H6.41154V7.60693H1.81068V6.47481H3.50235V1.27546H1.81068V0.143343H4.80573V6.47481Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\n  \u003Cpath\n    d=\"M254.359 0C255.353 0 256.055 0.239186 256.466 0.716715C256.877 1.18447 257.083 1.68072 257.083 2.20573C257.083 2.85516 256.849 3.44346 256.38 3.96875C255.912 4.49397 255.348 4.96638 254.689 5.38657C254.039 5.79717 253.437 6.15968 252.883 6.47481H256.423L256.538 5.42948L257.599 5.51529L257.426 7.60693H251.407L251.292 6.58987C252.582 5.73032 253.638 4.98523 254.46 4.35489C255.281 3.71509 255.693 3.05632 255.693 2.37832C255.693 1.53787 255.166 1.11749 254.115 1.12237L254.115 1.11749C253.924 1.11754 253.695 1.14604 253.427 1.2033C253.16 1.25104 252.916 1.32238 252.697 1.41783L252.467 2.47876L251.45 2.3637L251.707 0.60165C252.118 0.401088 252.563 0.253475 253.041 0.15797C253.519 0.0529708 253.958 1.99446e-05 254.359 0Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\u003C/g>",{"id":13,"data":14,"type":15,"maxContentLevel":27,"version":15,"tiles":28},"8e9c60eb-c15a-40ac-b26e-64c9278dd739",{"type":15,"title":16,"tagline":17,"description":17,"featureImageSquare":18,"baseColor":19,"emoji":20,"shapePreference":4,"allowContentSuspension":21,"allowContentEdits":21,"editorsChoice":21,"accreditations":22,"certificatePriceLevel":25,"certificationTitle":26},8,"Battles","From Megiddo to Stalingrad, these battles changed the world","fff9aade-1c6a-41fc-9ff7-10db427decce","#93778D","⚔️",true,[23],{"authority":24},1,2,"The History of Great Battles",9,[29,462,787,1211,1560,1882,2232,2539,2888,3159],{"id":30,"data":31,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":35,"orbs":36},"3179dc88-6d36-4a5f-8e8d-6f3cb655b7c7",{"type":27,"title":32,"tagline":33},"The Battle of Megiddo (1457 BCE)","The world's first recorded battle",3,6,[37,142,247,353],{"id":38,"data":39,"type":25,"version":41,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":42,"introPage":49,"pages":56},"e5714e5a-634d-4595-a718-10c194725908",{"type":25,"title":40},"The first battle",4,{"id":43,"data":44,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"056bccf4-5070-4ee9-9f96-85d33b47cdae",{"type":34,"summary":45},[46,47,48],"Archaeologists have found 13,000-year-old skeletons with arrowheads lodged in their bones","The Stele of the Vultures, from Ancient Sumer, depicts a battle from over 4,000 years ago","The oldest complete inscription of a battle, from 1457 BCE, is on a wall at Karnak Temple",{"id":50,"data":51,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"6c6a82dc-2723-4966-8b3d-bea8f2d42efc",{"type":52,"intro":53},10,[54,55],"What is the oldest evidence of human warfare that historians have ever discovered?","What is the oldest written account of a war that historians have ever discovered?",[57,75,90],{"id":58,"data":59,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":41,"reviews":62},"1e7bee54-c3f7-43b0-beb4-8254e10b0d09",{"type":24,"markdownContent":60,"audioMediaId":61},"The swinging of swords. The blaring of guns. A field piled high with skulls. Our species has engaged in violent warfare for thousands of years, and some of these battles have changed the course of history.\n\n![Graph](image://e0eaee37-8d4d-4f63-be50-3c72e95d5eba \"Image: Public domain\")\n\nIt's hard to know when human beings first engaged in warfare. In 1964, archaeologists discovered 61 skeletons at the Jebel Sahaba site in Sudan, which had arrowheads lodged in their bones. These skeletons were more than 13,000 years old, and some historians think they were the victims of one of the earliest battles in history.\n\nBut we'll never know for sure what happened there. This conflict took place before the invention of writing. The first *written* account of a historical battle came thousands of years later.\n\n![Graph](image://4c068fee-23b8-42ad-aa65-bc27eb8fd57a \"Skeletons at Jebel Sahaba. Image: Isabelle Crevecoeur, Marie-Hélène Dias-Meirinho, Antoine Zazzo, Daniel Antoine, François Bon, CC BY 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","dd50ed2c-4229-4be2-b6bb-1cc0735286ce",[63],{"id":64,"data":65,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"ae63e3bb-2b71-4883-90a3-844ffb487d75",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":67,"multiChoiceCorrect":69,"multiChoiceIncorrect":71,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},11,[68],"What evidence suggests that the 13,000-year-old skeletons in Sudan were the victims of an ancient battle?",[70],"There are arrowheads lodged in the bones",[72,73,74],"There are slash marks on the bones","A broken ax was discovered nearby","A broken bow was discovered nearby",{"id":76,"data":77,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":80},"b58aa56c-67af-4fe8-89f2-d3900514e3b1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":78,"audioMediaId":79},"In the 1880s, archaeologists in Southern Iraq were brushing away a layer of sand, when they discovered a pile of ancient limestone shards.\n\nThese shards were jagged and faded – but they were covered by pictorial carvings. These carvings showed a troop of powerful soldiers marching into battle, with ugly vultures soaring above them, blotting out the sun.\n\n![Graph](image://5fb222af-745f-4bed-8604-82a36a4bd658 \"One piece of the Stele of the Vultures. Image: Sting, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\n![Graph](image://f0c01e9c-b931-4f0e-8987-506ac63bc3a7 \"Another piece of the Stele of the Vultures. Image: Sting, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe Stele of the Vultures, as it came to be known, was carved more than 4000 years ago. Beneath the pictures was a written inscription, describing a victory for King Eannatum of Lagash, an ancient Sumerian city-state.\n\nBut fragments of the Stele are missing. The inscription is incomplete.","e435148b-6d68-45c4-85fe-0fd33063481f",[81],{"id":82,"data":83,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"1b32a4e1-a3db-49db-a3ce-dc50edb4c356",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":84,"binaryCorrect":86,"binaryIncorrect":88},[85],"What prevents historians from fully understanding the battle depicted on the Stele of the Vultures?",[87],"The written inscription is incomplete",[89],"The written inscription is untranslatable",{"id":91,"data":92,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":95},"3c7118ef-50d3-43b6-ba2c-cd5fc6a182c8",{"type":24,"markdownContent":93,"audioMediaId":94},"The oldest *complete* inscription of a battle describes a fight that broke out in 1457 BCE. That's approximately a thousand years after the Stele of the Vultures was carved.\n\nThe inscription stretches across one of the walls at Karnak Temple, a sprawling complex of passages and chambers on the fertile bank of the Nile. While the sands shifted, and the river flowed, these temple walls survived the course of time.\n\nThe inscription speaks of Megiddo – a conflict between Egypt and a coalition of rival states. Megiddo wasn't just a battle. It was a battle that changed the world.\n\n![Graph](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Luxor%2C_Egypt%2C_Karnak.jpg/800px-Luxor%2C_Egypt%2C_Karnak.jpg?20210723110049 \"Karnak Temple. Image: Vyacheslav Argenberg, CC BY 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","4815234e-18a9-44f0-bcd6-72ec0585691c",[96,103,121],{"id":97,"data":98,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"5dcf238c-b03c-499c-98ff-53655a998413",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":99,"clozeWords":101},[100],"The Battle of Megiddo took place between Ancient Egypt and a coalition of rival states.",[102],"Egypt",{"id":104,"data":105,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"93a725b9-8019-45f7-b877-b17c5b6ebd96",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":106,"matchPairsPairs":108,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[107],"Match these events to the time they took place.",[109,112,115,118],{"left":110,"right":111,"direction":34},"~13,000 years ago","61 humans killed by arrows in Sudan",{"left":113,"right":114,"direction":34},"~5500 years ago","Writing first invented",{"left":116,"right":117,"direction":34},"~4500 years ago","Stele of the Vultures first inscribed",{"left":119,"right":120,"direction":34},"~3500 years ago","Battle of Megiddo takes place",{"id":122,"data":123,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"1a141f4a-6150-486d-964e-12d067f337eb",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":124,"multiChoiceQuestion":129,"multiChoiceCorrect":131,"multiChoiceIncorrect":133,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":137,"orderItems":139},[125,126,127,128],"c18f9959-7d1f-4148-ad38-273a11f93194","efa64840-057b-43d5-adb5-d3754ee51361","f8c01954-20e6-46ef-b659-ba570411aa43","317fc083-8d07-4dec-b3a9-d7b3057261dd",[130],"When was the Battle of Megiddo?",[132],"1457 BCE",[134,135,136],"490 BCE","732 CE","1066 CE",[138],"Put these events in order:",[140],{"label":141,"reveal":132,"sortOrder":4},"Battle of Megiddo",{"id":143,"data":144,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":146,"introPage":154,"pages":160},"82369d8b-9be6-471a-b3ab-de3445616374",{"type":25,"title":145},"The New Kingdom",{"id":147,"data":148,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"1a790c21-55f5-45f8-9fef-bf274d7588c2",{"type":34,"summary":149},[150,151,152,153],"The New Kingdom period was Egypt united into a single entity around 1550 BCE","Iconic pharaohs like Tutankhamun and Ramesses II ruled during the New Kingdom","Thutmose III shared the throne with his stepmother Hatshepsut for 22 years","Thutmose III became a pharaoh in his own right after Hatshepsut's death",{"id":155,"data":156,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"37d624ef-b7c1-425e-af44-11b97ac95de0",{"type":52,"intro":157},[158,159],"What was the New Kingdom era of Ancient Egypt, and why was it so significant?","Who was Thutmose III, and why did it take him a while to rise to prominence?",[161,176,193],{"id":162,"data":163,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":166},"b7db9238-7098-4c72-822a-7a0400f8dd7c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":164,"audioMediaId":165},"Egypt was once divided: a chaotic mess of feeble kingdoms, where vagrants wandered the dusty streets, muttering the names of gods. But from 1550 BCE onwards, these divided kingdoms were united under an impressive dynasty of pharaohs.\n\nThe New Kingdom era, as this period became known, saw Egypt emerge as a superpower: stable and prosperous, with glittering temples and impressive levels of literacy. Egyptian writing, or hieroglyphs, had been in use for almost 2000 years, but it wasn’t until the New Kingdom era that literacy really took off.\n\n![Graph](image://798c4769-c46b-43ea-bf74-baef8f5b4119 \"Hieroglyphs. Image via Pexels\")\n\nWith such a massive rise in written sources, the New Kingdom has been widely studied by historians. Modern perceptions of Ancient Egypt are usually based on this period. Iconic pharaohs, like Tutankhamun, Ramesses II and Nefertiti, all ruled during the New Kingdom era.","9240be9f-f9b5-4f86-9b1b-39443c374d08",[167],{"id":168,"data":169,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"86a00844-6ac2-4289-83b7-2b505625e78b",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":170,"binaryCorrect":172,"binaryIncorrect":174},[171],"Which of these best describes the period preceding Egypt's New Kingdom era?",[173],"Weak, divided and chaotic",[175],"Stable, prosperous and literate",{"id":177,"data":178,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":181},"ea9cd05f-135b-497c-a9c3-7956d0fbcff1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":179,"audioMediaId":180},"One of the New Kingdom's lesser known pharaohs was Thutmose III. He was clever and charismatic, but probably not blessed with good looks. When his mummy was discovered in 1881, an Egyptologist wrote an unflattering account: “the forehead is abnormally low, the eyes deeply sunk, the jaw heavy.”\n\n![Graph](image://45ad22a2-399a-4c73-a436-19c8bb82d327 \"Thutmose III. Image: via Pixabay\")\n\nTo begin with, the heavy-jawed Thutmose III had a difficult time in power. He had to share the throne with his step mother, Hatshepsut – a fiery woman who styled herself as a strong, masculine leader. She even wore a false beard – a symbol of pharaonic power.\n\nShe wielded more political influence than Thutmose. At least, she did until she died, after 22 years of co-rule. That was the moment when Thutmose III could finally emerge from her shadow.","099fc0b4-c9f7-4309-b89c-84cb2a736749",[182],{"id":183,"data":184,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"dfd85bfc-26a3-4048-8674-6b1db2ef46ba",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":185,"multiChoiceCorrect":187,"multiChoiceIncorrect":189,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[186],"Why were the first 22 years of Thutmose's reign notable?",[188],"He shared the throne with his step-mother",[190,191,192],"He achieved seventeen military victories","He struggled with mental health issues","He pursued a romance with a low-born woman",{"id":194,"data":195,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":198},"c0dc1126-8b6d-46b4-8652-c3a43929c099",{"type":24,"markdownContent":196,"audioMediaId":197},"Free at last from his powerful step mother, Thutmose III began to forge a reputation of his own.\n\nHe became known for his fierce ability on the battlefield – in the years following Hatshepsut's death, Thutmose took part in seventeen campaigns, and devastated every military force he came up against.\n\nOn every occasion, he brought an official scribe to keep careful note of his victories. The name of this scribe was Tjaneni, and he wielded a brush and a roll of papyrus with just as much skill as Thutmose wielded a spear.\n\nThe first report that Tjaneni wrote described the world-changing Battle of Megiddo.","03c52618-a498-4bfc-9f8c-73ee1b080477",[199,217,228],{"id":200,"data":201,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"8436e9bf-a983-4656-b7d1-c81ecbe036dd",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":202,"matchPairsPairs":204,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[203],"Match these names to their descriptions.",[205,208,211,214],{"left":206,"right":207,"direction":34},"Hatshepsut","Thutmose's step-mother and co-ruler",{"left":209,"right":210,"direction":34},"Tjaneni","Thutmose's military scribe",{"left":212,"right":213,"direction":34},"Thutmose III","A pharaoh who won 17 military campaigns",{"left":215,"right":216,"direction":34},"Tutankhamun","The most famous New Kingdom pharaoh",{"id":218,"data":219,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"77f4c13b-81bf-434b-9de6-7987e97b576a",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":220,"multiChoiceCorrect":222,"multiChoiceIncorrect":224,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[221],"Has the New Kingdom era of Ancient Egypt been widely studied by historians?",[223],"Yes - because there are so many written sources",[225,226,227],"Yes - because there are so many archaeological sources","No - because there are so few written sources","No - because there are so few archaeological sources",{"id":229,"data":230,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"4ba5b5bb-73f0-4621-b218-29c21dcfaeea",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":231,"multiChoiceQuestion":235,"multiChoiceCorrect":237,"multiChoiceIncorrect":238,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":242,"matchPairsPairs":244},[232,233,234],"0ffd91a8-ebfc-4abf-b8cb-3c1ad124f1aa","f3505d39-0418-4218-8da7-9924f59d8c29","872423f8-5c46-457d-9495-9dde485c0a25",[236],"Which of these figures was employed to take note of Thutmose's military victories?",[209],[239,240,241],"Herodotus","William of Poitiers","Nicolò Barbaro",[243],"Match the pairs below:",[245],{"left":209,"right":246,"direction":34},"Wrote about the Battle of Megiddo",{"id":248,"data":249,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":251,"introPage":259,"pages":265},"cbb98be2-058d-4fcc-9225-b6bd69f11692",{"type":25,"title":250},"The Battle of Megiddo",{"id":252,"data":253,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"0529e7a2-924d-4c30-9aa3-6ff91398c624",{"type":34,"summary":254},[255,256,257,258],"The Canaanites revolted against Ancient Egypt during the reign of Thutmose III","Thutmose led 20,000 warriors to Megiddo, where the Canaanite forces were waiting","Thutmose took a narrow path through the ountains, catching the Canaanites by surprise","After a prolonged siege, the Canaanites surrendered, and Thutmose won the battle",{"id":260,"data":261,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"f3010f52-6d01-4266-8e03-85446f0fc492",{"type":52,"intro":262},[263,264],"Which group of rebels challenged the Egyptians during the reign of Thutmose III?","What strategic move did Thutmose use to surprise the rebels at Megiddo?",[266,279,296],{"id":267,"data":268,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":271},"32b608b3-9dfa-43db-9ac4-461e7e3cb757",{"type":24,"markdownContent":269,"audioMediaId":270},"At the start of the New Kingdom era, Egypt had taken control of a group of rival states called the Canaanites. They were based on the coast of the Mediterranean. A fertile area with rolling hills – perfect for farming sheep.\n\n![Graph](image://3f47c194-1dd4-4a77-a1ae-a9cbe76029e7 \"Egyptian control over Canaan. Image: ArdadN, Jeff Dahl, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nBut the Canaanites were more than just shepherds. And they didn't take kindly to losing their independence.\n\nDuring the reign of Thutmose, two of these states – Kadesh and Megiddo – revolted. They assembled a force of 15,000 warriors and a thousand horse-drawn chariots.\n\nMegiddo owned an imposing fortress at the top of a steep-sided hill. The rebel army gathered at the fortress, cracking their whips and beating their shields as they waited for Egypt to respond.\n\n![Graph](image://5940c68e-a0f3-4ec9-ac98-4ebe310b7b0d \"Modern remains of the Megiddo fortress. Image: AVRAM GRAICER, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","b1d4c60c-c718-4c30-923c-51eae512f221",[272],{"id":273,"data":274,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"6e3715ad-f1ae-4e2b-8f35-90243c8dcdeb",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":275,"activeRecallAnswers":277},[276],"During the reign of Thutmose III, which group of states decided to revolt?",[278],"The Canaanites",{"id":280,"data":281,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":284},"1ad96e96-0019-4c9d-b6fd-442a3c19ad37",{"type":24,"markdownContent":282,"audioMediaId":283},"When Thutmose heard what was happening, he mustered a force of 20,000 warriors, and marched towards Megiddo. Tjaneni, the scribe, was there to record it: “his majesty set forth in a chariot of fine gold, adorned with his accouterments of combat.”\n\nTo reach Megiddo, the Egyptians had to cross the Carmel mountains: a jagged ridge of limestone, dotted with cracks and caves.\n\n![Graph](image://d337e201-020e-430d-b8e9-a7fa259a2ff1 \"Carmel mountains. Image: user:netanel_h, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThere were three possible routes. Two were wide and safe, while the third was narrow and treacherous – a shadowy crack in the limestone ridge which was barely wide enough to squeeze the shoulders of a horse.\n\nThe Egyptians gathered at the foot of the mountains, trying to decide what to do. Thutmose's generals urged him to follow one of the wider, easier routes.\n\nBut Thutmose shook his heavy-jawed head, and led his army to the narrow route instead. He told his generals that the Canaanites would expect them to take a wider path. By taking the narrow route instead, Thutmose hoped to catch the enemy by surprise.","ce452051-34cf-439d-ad31-8d27d3952143",[285],{"id":286,"data":287,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"e380444b-2972-4468-a494-6d585d6a2f20",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":288,"multiChoiceCorrect":290,"multiChoiceIncorrect":292,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[289],"Why did Thutmose take the narrow path through the Carmel mountains?",[291],"Because he wanted to catch the Canaanites by surprise",[293,294,295],"Because the wider path was blocked by rocks","Because his generals thought it would be safer","Because he'd seen the narrow path in a dream",{"id":297,"data":298,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":301},"7a2c939a-95bf-4d45-8443-6b7b69fd60ea",{"type":24,"markdownContent":299,"audioMediaId":300},"The Egyptians squeezed along the narrow path, walking single file, with Thutmose leading the way. Their shoulders rubbed the limestone walls, and the sky was nothing but a blue-white sliver far above their heads.\n\nWhen the path finally ended, they stepped out into the open, blinking against the sun. When their eyes adjusted, they saw the Canaanites guarding the other two paths, just as Thutmose had predicted. The rebel forces didn't even notice that the Egyptian army had arrived.\n\nWith a flick of his wrist, Thutmose moved his troops into an aggressive, three-pronged formation. Then he led them on a galloping surprise attack, smashing the Canaanites from behind.\n\nThe Canaanites scattered. Some of them managed to make it back to the fortress at the top of the hill, but they were only delaying the inevitable. After a prolonged siege, the Canaanites surrendered, and Thutmose was declared victorious.\n\n![Graph](image://bcc58e94-a2be-4c73-81d8-01ac063c2273 \"Depiction of Thutmose III at the Battle of Megiddo. Image: Public domain\")","bb57fa69-359e-44ca-9718-98297db11048",[302,313,320,334],{"id":303,"data":304,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"48dbbe38-a8ba-4d67-b2ae-7507c436b464",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":305,"multiChoiceCorrect":307,"multiChoiceIncorrect":309,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[306],"After exiting the narrow path, what formation did Thutmose use to strike the Canaanite forces?",[308],"Three-pronged",[310,311,312],"One-pronged","Two-pronged","Four-pronged",{"id":314,"data":315,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"81ff4b9f-a186-474d-b5b6-63b61a185162",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":316,"clozeWords":318},[317],"When Thutmose attacked the Canaanites, some of them managed to escape into the fortress at Megiddo.",[319],"Megiddo",{"id":321,"data":322,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"6f88dbb5-c52a-45a1-ba68-2039dc89e1ab",{"type":66,"reviewType":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":35,"orderQuestion":323,"orderItems":325},[324],"Put these stages of the Battle of Megiddo in order:",[326,328,330,332],{"label":327,"sortOrder":4},"The Canaanites muster a force of 15,000 warriors",{"label":329,"sortOrder":24},"Thutmose III leads his troops along the narrow path",{"label":331,"sortOrder":25},"The Canaanites retreat into the fortress at Megiddo",{"label":333,"sortOrder":34},"The Canaanites surrender after a prolonged siege",{"id":335,"data":336,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"26c31bc5-20c3-425d-b5cf-2eed1a21735c",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":337,"multiChoiceQuestion":341,"multiChoiceCorrect":343,"multiChoiceIncorrect":345,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":349,"matchPairsPairs":350},[338,339,340],"bdcbf69c-b10e-40b0-852a-b745c8e43648","cc60d4c9-e691-4782-bee6-62f4ba848ab3","ad041cbb-712b-4ca6-9ff8-6d0f305f5b34",[342],"What was the size of the Egyptian force at the Battle of Megiddo?",[344],"20,000 soldiers",[346,347,348],"80,000 soldiers","100,000 soldiers","3 million soldiers",[243],[351],{"left":352,"right":344,"direction":34},"Egyptian force at Megiddo",{"id":354,"data":355,"type":25,"version":41,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":357,"introPage":364,"pages":370},"a5a1e0ad-8fcd-4fa2-9b6a-a7294d3b007b",{"type":25,"title":356},"The impact of Megiddo",{"id":358,"data":359,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"876130a3-956d-4dbc-96ce-d1d99d6117dd",{"type":34,"summary":360},[361,362,363],"Thutmose III's victory at Megiddo was a springboard for Ancient Egypt","They expanded into a superpower, part of a group that historians call the 'Club of Great Powers'","Tjaneni's report on Megiddo is our only source, and it might be biased towards Thutmose",{"id":365,"data":366,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"ecf43067-dc3b-4410-bfd8-afab8a38c581",{"type":52,"intro":367},[368,369],"What impact did the Battle of Megiddo have on the wider world?","What might the world have looked like if the Egyptians had lost the Battle of Megiddo instead?",[371,384,397,410],{"id":372,"data":373,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":376},"70d7f66e-ecd1-4f13-b2d7-410a6245ff23",{"type":24,"markdownContent":374,"audioMediaId":375},"After the Battle of Megiddo, Thutmose III returned to Egypt. His golden chariot gleamed in the sun, while his army carried the spoils of war: hundreds of chariots, thousands of sheep, and the royal armor of the King of Megiddo himself.\n\nBut this battle proved to be a lot more significant than a pile of Canaanite loot.\n\nRiding a wave of self-belief, Thutmose engaged in sixteen more battles over the course of his rule, and he won every single one of them. Subsequent pharaohs built on these victories, expanding north into the regions now known as Syria, Libya and Palestine.\n\n![Graph](image://8f0417e1-68fa-4a63-b3d5-42b7bd4a493b \"Egyptian Empire. Image: Public domain\")\n\nSome historians talk about ‘The Club of Great Powers’, referring to a group of empires that took shape during this period: Assyria, Babylon, the Hittites, Mitanni, and Egypt. They were the first of their kind – international superpowers with vast, complex territories.","8feafc63-0b0c-4a72-803c-456b60f76975",[377],{"id":378,"data":379,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"eb0f2781-b2f1-4884-bbe7-590e6387832a",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":380,"activeRecallAnswers":382},[381],"Assyria, Babylon, the Hittites, Mitanni, and Egypt are collectively known as what?",[383],"The Club of Great Powers",{"id":385,"data":386,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":389},"cf15847b-dbd0-47a1-9a8a-1b7fc9209380",{"type":24,"markdownContent":387,"audioMediaId":388},"The big question is this: would Egypt have still become a superpower if the Battle of Megiddo had gone differently?\n\nImagine, for a moment, that the Canaanites had predicted that Thutmose would take the narrow path. They set up an ambush, ready to strike just as soon as an Egyptian poked his head into the light. Thutmose was riding at the front of the line. When he stepped from the path, he was hit by a hundred spears at once, and died before he hit the ground.\n\nWith their pharaoh gone, Egypt could have lapsed into a period of chaos, just like the one which preceded the New Kingdom era. They would have never built an empire, and iconic pharaohs like Tutankhamen and Ramesses II would have never come to power.\n\nThis style of thinking is called counterfactual history. It helps historians to put events into perspective.","2e8107cb-52db-4b52-bdbb-25463d1d8d0d",[390],{"id":391,"data":392,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"2ee9c274-334e-4ccd-8627-6e2be4da5580",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":393,"clozeWords":395},[394],"Counterfactual history predicts what would have happened if an important event had gone differently.",[396],"Counterfactual",{"id":398,"data":399,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":402},"9dae38ea-5997-426c-9485-1d28796b651d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":400,"audioMediaId":401},"It's worth pointing out that everything we know about the Battle of Megiddo comes from Tjaneni's report. And, while it's certainly a valuable source, it does need to be treated with caution.\n\nThutmose comes across suspiciously well throughout the entire account, probably because Tjaneni wanted to boost his patron’s reputation. Maybe someone else had the clever idea to take the narrow path through the mountains. Or maybe Tjaneni’s report is true. It's hard to know either way.\n\nThutmose was evidently pleased with Tjaneni’s write up. That's why he had the words inscribed on the walls of the temple at Karnak. Tjaneni’s original papyrus scrolls have long been lost, but these walls allow us to read about the Battle of Megiddo today.\n\n![Graph](image://905f4fa6-5f3e-48a7-adc9-417f3593ad39 \"Part of Tjaneni's account. Image: Karnak_Tempel_15.jpg: Olaf Tauschderivative work: JMCC1, CC BY 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","eaed9041-296b-4ee7-bc37-2fe4a66261c8",[403],{"id":404,"data":405,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"379fab8b-9479-41fc-98c6-bd1b1d9704e4",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":406,"activeRecallAnswers":408},[407],"If Tjaneni's account hadn't painted Thutmose in such a positive light, why might modern historians have never had a chance to read it?",[409],"Because Thutmose wouldn't have had it inscribed on the walls at Karnak",{"id":411,"data":412,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":415},"c251c2ca-004d-443b-b455-f9efd5d42571",{"type":24,"markdownContent":413,"audioMediaId":414},"Whether Tjaneni's report is reliable or not, one thing is certain – the Battle of Megiddo had another interesting impact.\n\nThe *Book of Revelation*, at the end of the New Testament, describes a battle to end all battles. It takes place between the forces of good and evil: forks of lightning slash the sky, while earthquakes shudder the earth.\n\nThis battle takes place at a site called Armageddon. That word is a Greek transliteration of ‘Har Megiddo’, or ‘Mount Megiddo’ – the location of the famous Canaanite fortress that Thutmose overthrew.\n\n![Graph](image://e53f08c6-def6-4e42-a2f4-051f860d88bc \"Armageddon. Image: Public domain\")\n\nThis connection is no coincidence. The writer of Revelation probably used Tjaneni's writings as a source of inspiration. The victory of good over a coalition of evil could even be based on the Egyptian army and the coalition of Canaanite states.\n\nOne way or another, it's hard to argue that this battle didn't change the world.","73036ea4-5303-46f6-8371-0ffbc1b1bd6e",[416,427,445],{"id":417,"data":418,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"f0fb30b8-a53f-49a9-b3b4-011938615d64",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":419,"multiChoiceCorrect":421,"multiChoiceIncorrect":423,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[420],"The word 'Armageddon' is a Greek transliteration of ‘Har Megiddo’. But what does 'Har Megiddo' mean?",[422],"Mount Megiddo",[424,425,426],"Megiddo Valley","Megiddo River","Fort Megiddo",{"id":428,"data":429,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"05a2b715-d32d-41e7-8c20-1e6c9c70d6db",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":430,"matchPairsPairs":432,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[431],"Match the location to its definition.",[433,436,439,442],{"left":434,"right":435,"direction":34},"Har Megiddo","The site of the Canaanite fortress",{"left":437,"right":438,"direction":34},"Karnak","The temple where Tjaneni's account was inscribed",{"left":440,"right":441,"direction":34},"Carmel","The mountain range that Thutmose crossed",{"left":443,"right":444,"direction":34},"Mitanni","A member of the Club of Great Powers",{"id":446,"data":447,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"b629c4fc-cf7d-4412-973c-cd39aac943fc",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":448,"multiChoiceQuestion":451,"multiChoiceCorrect":453,"multiChoiceIncorrect":455,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":459,"matchPairsPairs":460},[449,450],"864b8c22-501a-48f8-bf37-2af6ec994d15","f3a81039-2bb8-43c3-a938-5f5e0081f851",[452],"What was the main consequence of the Battle of Megiddo?",[454],"It was a springboard for Egyptian expansion",[456,457,458],"It inspired a Greek golden age","It safeguarded Christian Europe","None of these",[243],[461],{"left":141,"right":454,"direction":34},{"id":463,"data":464,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":41,"orbs":467},"1e095ddc-6042-4d0d-b7c1-ec97e8bf92f4",{"type":27,"title":465,"tagline":466},"The Battle of Marathon (490 BCE)","A fight for the future of democracy",[468,565,674],{"id":469,"data":470,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":472,"introPage":480,"pages":486},"6f841e74-d23c-4349-b22e-b2aa32cf22cf",{"type":25,"title":471},"The rise of democracy",{"id":473,"data":474,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"69777a2b-c6f6-4a3e-8c85-623c2c2ab814",{"type":34,"summary":475},[476,477,478,479],"Athens created the world’s first democracy in 507 BCE, with a council of 500 citizens","The Athenians overthrew the tyrant Hippias, who had become cruel after his brother's murder","Hippias found refuge in the court of Darius the Great, the powerful emperor of Persia","Darius agreed to attack Athens for Hippias, after they supported a series of revolts in Persian cities",{"id":481,"data":482,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"2130c9a2-1e43-430c-9a00-fd6bc2a6a93b",{"type":52,"intro":483},[484,485],"What sparked the Athenians to establish the world's first democracy?","Why did the Persian empire decide to launch an attack on Athenian democracy?",[487,492,505,530],{"id":488,"data":489,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25},"6365fb28-7fbc-4b0e-9cd1-99f5350d4ece",{"type":24,"markdownContent":490,"audioMediaId":491},"In the centuries that followed the Battle of Megiddo (1457 BCE), the ancient world was shaken by thousands more battles. It's impossible to know how many – some were recorded in written sources, but many of these conflicts have been lost to the passing of time.\n\nWhile these battles raged, civilizations collapsed. In 1069 BCE, even the Egyptian New Kingdom came to an end, mainly due to a succession of weak pharaohs who had failed to match the accomplishments of rulers like Thutmose III.\n\nAt the same time, other civilizations rose. In approximately 800 BCE, one of these appeared not far from Egypt, in the region now known as Greece.\n\n![Graph](image://fd0ea5e4-b98b-44d3-b11d-49af6159fe3c \"Ancient Greece and its colonies (red). Image: Internet Archive Book Images, No restrictions, via Wikimedia Commons\")","8532b091-4eb4-45f7-9c29-600e2955aae3",{"id":493,"data":494,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":497},"1065ca92-a0df-4f3a-9b0a-48c582c8b5ed",{"type":24,"markdownContent":495,"audioMediaId":496},"When people think about Ancient Greece, they often imagine a single, unified entity. But the reality was very different.\n\nAncient Greece was a collection of independent city states, each with its own system of government. There were several hundred states in total, some more dominant than others. There was Thebes, with its famous seven-gated walls, and Sparta, with its fierce warriors.\n\nBut the most famous of Greece's ancient states was Athens: a sprawling city with the Acropolis citadel at its core.\n\nFor hundreds of years, all of these states were run by unelected leaders. But in 507 BCE, the Athenians took the brave decision to trial something new. They created the world’s first democracy, a term which derives from *demos* and *kratos*, the Greek words for ‘people’ and ‘rule’.\n\nAthenian democracy was based on the boule: a council of 500 adult citizens chosen at random from the city’s male population.\n\n![Graph](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Ancient_Athens_by_Morse.png/800px-Ancient_Athens_by_Morse.png?20150201035540 \"A depiction of Ancient Athens. Image: Public domain\")","36e4f4ad-e2f4-4d84-9941-20298e3d2817",[498],{"id":499,"data":500,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c5d36bf7-3fcd-4c48-b4e0-fa4b228c8812",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":501,"clozeWords":503},[502],"Athenian democracy was based on the boule: a council of 500 citizens chosen at random from the city’s male population.",[504],"boule",{"id":506,"data":507,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":510},"63f2a8bd-ec12-4401-b00c-22cb26ed10ea",{"type":24,"markdownContent":508,"audioMediaId":509},"When the Athenians established their system of democracy, it came at the expense of Hippias – a tyrant whose family had ruled over Athens for decades.\n\nIn his early years, Hippias was kind and mellow. But this changed when his brother was brutally murdered at an Athenian religious festival. Hippias spiraled into a state of grief, and as time went on, this grief contorted into a bitter hatred of the world.\n\n![Graph](image://5384271f-7be2-4e5e-a708-e1bd198524b0 \"Hippias. Image: Public domain\")\n\nHe took it out on the people of Athens: biting taxes, ruthless exiles, even torture and executions.\n\nEventually, the Athenians decided that enough was enough. They rose up against Hippias, and chased him away. It's no surprise that they decided to try a democratic system instead.","268eaf3b-09df-404b-8772-ec0c7acf1151",[511],{"id":512,"data":513,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"59b46144-8aa4-48a8-a50b-aeac943a5b49",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":514,"multiChoiceQuestion":518,"multiChoiceCorrect":520,"multiChoiceIncorrect":522,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":526,"matchPairsPairs":527},[515,516,517],"45a1b275-bd58-4788-bba1-aaedd4773c29","0774c872-ba1a-4f8c-a2e0-e7368d1c5848","d3f2b79d-8a20-47b1-96e2-6c72b9bef968",[519],"What was the name of the Athenian tyrant who was deposed in the name of democracy?",[521],"Hippias",[523,524,525],"Darius the Great","Clovis I","Clotilda",[243],[528],{"left":521,"right":529,"direction":34},"Athenian tyrant",{"id":531,"data":532,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":535},"0b6c5672-24b0-4f6f-a074-ecfefcf42dd0",{"type":24,"markdownContent":533,"audioMediaId":534},"When Hippias lost power, he found refuge in the court of Darius the Great. Darius was the leader of the Persian empire – a ravenous superpower that stretched all the way from India to the borders of Greece. Darius himself was tall and powerful, with long dark hair, and a heavy beard to match.\n\n![Graph](image://948ad000-1076-4e9c-8c85-13dea606c0bc \"A depiction of Darius the Great. Image: Surenae, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHippias asked Darius to help him reclaim his former position of power. Darius refused – Athens was of no concern to him.\n\nBut between 499 BCE and 493 BCE, a number of Persian-controlled cities launched popular revolts. Athens sent troops to support the cause, and Darius the Great was outraged.\n\nThat's when Hippias stepped forward again, carefully clearing his throat. This time, Darius agreed to support him. He gathered an army of 20,000 men, and sent them to launch an immediate attack on Athens.\n\n![Graph](image://1f70a65e-57f5-4289-b6fd-bcfc4da72d86 \"Extent of the Persian Empire. Image: Anton Gutsunaev, Uirauna, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","410587a7-eae4-45a6-a4f6-88b12bdece84",[536,547,554],{"id":515,"data":537,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":538,"multiChoiceQuestion":539,"multiChoiceCorrect":541,"multiChoiceIncorrect":542,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":543,"matchPairsPairs":544},[512,516,517],[540],"When Hippias fled Athens, in whose court did he manage to find refuge?",[523],[521,524,525],[243],[545],{"left":523,"right":546,"direction":34},"Persian emperor",{"id":548,"data":549,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"469a378b-5784-455d-8fc0-3d4129058d76",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":550,"activeRecallAnswers":552},[551],"Why did Darius agree to help Hippias move against Athens?",[553],"Because Athens supported the popular revolts of some Persian-controlled cities",{"id":555,"data":556,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"a3bd28b5-50dd-46d1-907e-02a04903765b",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":557,"multiChoiceCorrect":559,"multiChoiceIncorrect":561,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[558],"How many soldiers did Darius the Great assemble for the attack on Athens?",[560],"20,000",[562,563,564],"200,000","10,000","100,000",{"id":566,"data":567,"type":25,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":569,"introPage":577,"pages":583},"61494ad3-97ff-43bd-a4aa-35a35000d240",{"type":25,"title":568},"The Battle of Marathon",{"id":570,"data":571,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"e71ed3dc-d0c3-4400-b10b-a9f897dd3fca",{"type":34,"summary":572},[573,574,575,576],"The Persian army landed at Marathon in 490 BCE, aiming to overthrow Athenian democracy","The Athenians, outnumbered, elected ten generals and one civil official to lead their defense","The Athenians attacked the Persian army with an unusual formation: weak center and strong flanks","This formation allowed them to surround the Persians, who were forced to retreat from the battle",{"id":578,"data":579,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"1dc65986-b2df-434a-b630-03c73f38cc7c",{"type":52,"intro":580},[581,582],"How did the Athenians' voting system influence the outcome of the Battle of Marathon?","What was the unusual military formation used by the Athenians at the Battle of Marathon?",[584,597,612,633],{"id":585,"data":586,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":589},"82bb824f-c382-40d8-8c53-8971dd6fd2f6",{"type":24,"markdownContent":587,"audioMediaId":588},"In 490 BCE, the Persian army surged across the Mediterranean. They landed at Marathon, a scrubby plain to the west of Athens, ringed by mountains and rustling groves of olive trees. Hippias accompanied the Persian army, impatient to overthrow Athenian democracy, and reclaim his former throne.\n\n![Graph](image://5f12321c-bd0e-4393-af91-d1f2cbbbc268 \"Plain of Marathon. Image: Seisma, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAccording to Herodotus, an ancient historian, Hippias had a dream on the night of the invasion. In this dream, he “slept with his mother”, and Hippias interpreted this as a positive omen. Supposedly, it symbolized a successful reunion with his mother-city: Athens.\n\nIt's hard to know if this dream really happened, or whether it was the product of hearsay. But in either case, Hippias must have been confident of victory. He had the might of the Persian Empire behind him – a military power which was far superior to anything the Athenians could muster.","eb021d60-703f-453f-8816-aee3134e2a11",[590],{"id":591,"data":592,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"1920b81a-74ed-4000-9b8d-9523bef03566",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":593,"activeRecallAnswers":595},[594],"On the night of the Persian invasion of Athens, what did Hippias supposedly dream about?",[596],"Sleeping with his own mother",{"id":598,"data":599,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":602},"308654bb-34c6-4b18-9999-ba37295516bd",{"type":24,"markdownContent":600,"audioMediaId":601},"After hearing reports of the Persian invasion, the Athenians gathered a defensive force of 10,000 soldiers.\n\nWith half as many men as the Persians, their hopes of victory were slim. But they were desperate to protect their newfound democracy, and refused to give up without a fight. They also elected ten brave generals, along with a single civil official. This team would lead the army together, and put important decisions to a vote.\n\nThey marched to Marathon, and looked down at the Persians from the mountains at the edge of the plain. They saw a glittering mass of soldiers, with warships floating in the briny surf beyond.","07b7f29c-7c77-4037-8c55-b90101d21294",[603],{"id":604,"data":605,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"2cc7ab2f-9188-493e-8c85-0444c2987856",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":606,"binaryCorrect":608,"binaryIncorrect":610},[607],"Who was in charge of the Athenian army?",[609],"Ten generals, and one civil official",[611],"One general, and ten civil officials",{"id":613,"data":614,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":617},"9bb1cfe9-fc51-4a6b-9d02-2f72bb447740",{"type":24,"markdownContent":615,"audioMediaId":616},"The Athenian generals gathered together. Now that the Persian army was in sight, they needed to make a choice.\n\nThey could launch an immediate attack on the Persians, potentially catching the enemy by surprise. Or they could set up defensively at the top of the mountains, and wait for the Persians to make the first move. After a tense discussion, the ten generals put this decision to a vote.\n\nIt resulted in a fifty-fifty split. So the deciding vote was given to the civil official. He drew a breath... then voted to launch an immediate surprise attack.","5ac0e443-ad58-48a2-b6fe-f3d8ce673f18",[618],{"id":619,"data":620,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"cbb1499a-74fe-4f66-80a8-7198f86b6b74",{"type":66,"reviewType":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":35,"orderQuestion":621,"orderItems":623},[622],"Put these events at the Battle of Marathon in order:",[624,627,629,631],{"label":625,"reveal":626,"sortOrder":4},"Darius agrees to help Hippias","",{"label":628,"reveal":626,"sortOrder":24},"The Persian army reaches Marathon",{"label":630,"reveal":626,"sortOrder":25},"The Athenian army reaches Marathon",{"label":632,"reveal":626,"sortOrder":34},"The Athenian generals vote for an immediate attack",{"id":634,"data":635,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":638},"3ba877ae-07b0-4806-a67f-2f93ab823320",{"type":24,"markdownContent":636,"audioMediaId":637},"The Athenians surged down the mountainside, driving towards the Persian army where it camped at the edge of the plain.\n\n![Graph](image://2d25452f-a7c6-4349-aada-da5f195b8ddd \"The Athenian attack. Image: Public domain\")\n\nAs they went, the Athenians twisted into an unusual military formation. They deliberately weakened the center of the army, overloading the wings instead.\n\nThis formation meant that the startled Persians found themselves sucked towards the soft center of the army, where Athenian resistance was weakest. Spears clattered shields, and battle cries filled the air.\n\nBut while the Persians clashed with the Athenians at the center, the overloaded flanks wheeled in from both sides. The Persians found themselves surrounded – and to their horror, they were forced to run back to the ships in a hasty, ragged retreat.\n\nMore than 6000 Persians were killed at Marathon, while the Athenians lost fewer than 200. Hippias managed to reach the ships, but he was injured on the way, and died, gasping, on the journey back to Persia.\n\n![Graph](image://7d53c4d0-4b06-41ea-a2ca-5d71cb4d49c3 \"Another depiction of the battle. Image: Public domain\")","ef31dfc4-f41b-4939-8570-11b2a0d73e0a",[639,653,662],{"id":640,"data":641,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c775f01f-4560-4331-bff1-00d4126227cf",{"type":66,"reviewType":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":35,"orderQuestion":642,"orderItems":644},[643],"Put these stages of the Athenian attack in order:",[645,647,649,651],{"label":646,"sortOrder":4},"The Athenians attack with a weakened center and overloaded wings",{"label":648,"sortOrder":24},"The Persians find themselves sucked towards the weakened center",{"label":650,"sortOrder":25},"The Athenian wings wheel in from both sides",{"label":652,"sortOrder":34},"The Persians find themselves surrounded",{"id":654,"data":655,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"d8c481b6-5b16-4a0e-950c-6312d6b2a73b",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":656,"binaryCorrect":658,"binaryIncorrect":660},[657],"What happened to Hippias at the Battle of Marathon?",[659],"He was injured, and died on the way back to Persia",[661],"He was captured, and brought back to Athens",{"id":125,"data":663,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":664,"multiChoiceQuestion":665,"multiChoiceCorrect":667,"multiChoiceIncorrect":668,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":670,"orderItems":671},[122,126,127,128],[666],"When was the Battle of Marathon?",[134],[135,136,669],"1453 CE",[138],[672],{"label":673,"reveal":134,"sortOrder":24},"Battle of Marathon",{"id":675,"data":676,"type":25,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":678,"introPage":685,"pages":691},"8a27d1c8-1b04-41b3-9b0a-1c5cb207cb56",{"type":25,"title":677},"The impact of Marathon",{"id":679,"data":680,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"30098416-ff87-45ac-b807-3819f07a891e",{"type":34,"summary":681},[682,683,684],"The Battle of Marathon validated Athenian democracy, and sparked a Golden Age in Ancient Greece","The Greek Golden Age influenced modern democracy when scholars looked back at it centuries later","If Athens had lost at Marathon, democracy might have been dismissed as a failed experiment",{"id":686,"data":687,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"8f79c94b-9405-4577-b4d6-34450658faf6",{"type":52,"intro":688},[689,690],"What impact did the Battle of Marathon have on the wider world?","What might the world have looked like if the Athenians had lost the Battle of Marathon instead?",[692,707,735,755],{"id":693,"data":694,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":697},"c3ec34c5-edef-40c4-8f4e-c6036d64ca45",{"type":24,"markdownContent":695,"audioMediaId":696},"When the Athenian army traveled home from Marathon, they were greeted as returning heroes. The battle hadn't just saved their democratic system – it had also *validated* that democratic system, and proved it could compete with autocratic entities like the Persians.\n\nOther cities took note, and democracy began to spread through Greece like wildfire. Wherever it went, culture flourished, as people were empowered to express their thoughts and open their minds to others. Classical philosophers like Aristotle and Socrates were children of democratic society. Because of all this, many historians view the victory at Marathon as the start of an Ancient Greek ‘golden age’.\n\n![Graph](image://0eb03d03-7b7c-4dce-a10d-9fa4ac7bf0f7 \"The Greek golden age. Image: Public domain\")\n\nBack in Persia, when Darius heard what had happened, he let out a roar of anger. He started to gather another army. This time, he planned to lead the troops himself. But before he had the chance to attack, he succumbed to illness, and abruptly passed away.","a2ac5e03-5c14-41dd-80a6-49b6c727e3c9",[698],{"id":699,"data":700,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"84855806-c54f-4eae-a45a-025ef17bad9f",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":701,"binaryCorrect":703,"binaryIncorrect":705},[702],"Why was the Battle of Marathon so significant?",[704],"It validated democracy, and led to a 'golden age' for Ancient Greece",[706],"It invalidated tyranny, and allowed Athens to conquer Persia",{"id":708,"data":709,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":712},"1849f6ef-2a3b-4435-854e-6d5adf1ff3d3",{"type":24,"markdownContent":710,"audioMediaId":711},"Our main source of information about the Battle of Marathon comes from Herodotus. He is often called the ‘Father of History’, because his adherence to research and reliable sources was unlike anything that came before him.\n\nHe wasn’t actually present at the Battle of Marathon, but he interviewed a number of witnesses, and used their testimony to build his account. Because of this, his writings are generally well respected by historians.\n\n![Graph](image://3a7e2de4-9b54-4a7c-a7b2-772f928290b6 \"Modern copy of Herodotus' writings. Image: Public domain\")\n\nHerodotus’ modern approach to history also owes itself to the Golden Age which flourished after Marathon. Without the open-mindedness of democratic society, his ground-breaking *Histories* might never have been written, at least not in quite the same way.","f79d5a8c-0977-4251-9a17-ebd7048f7ba0",[713,724],{"id":232,"data":714,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":715,"multiChoiceQuestion":716,"multiChoiceCorrect":718,"multiChoiceIncorrect":719,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":720,"matchPairsPairs":721},[229,233,234],[717],"Which of these wrote about the Battle of Marathon?",[239],[209,240,241],[243],[722],{"left":239,"right":723,"direction":34},"Wrote about the Battle of Marathon",{"id":725,"data":726,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"44d03294-e490-4781-bd9c-d05596dc59c2",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":727,"multiChoiceCorrect":729,"multiChoiceIncorrect":731,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[728],"Do modern historians trust Herodotus' account of the Battle of Marathon?",[730],"Yes - because he interviewed eye witnesses",[732,733,734],"Yes - because he was present at the battle","No - because he wasn't present at the battle","No - because he was trying to flatter his patron",{"id":736,"data":737,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":740},"33e8dc2f-7289-4675-b2ef-2f95183dba95",{"type":24,"markdownContent":738,"audioMediaId":739},"The golden age of democratic Greece continued for hundreds of years. But it didn't last forever. Greece was eventually colonized by the Romans, who reinstituted autocratic rule in its place.\n\nFor many Greeks, this transition was painful. But democracy wasn’t truly dead.\n\nMore than two thousand years later, in the 18th century, scholars began to cast admiring glances back towards Ancient Greece. In many countries, a form of democracy was introduced for the very first time, inspired by the system formerly used in Athens.\n\nIsaac Asimov, writing in 1985, said that Ancient Greece was a “peak whose fruits we moderns have inherited.”\n\n![Graph](image://036ceb38-f1b8-439c-96b2-24a55cf0cce0 \"Ruins in modern Greece. Image: Harrieta171, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","62368fc6-ae0e-4427-bfeb-4c59be9992bb",[741],{"id":742,"data":743,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"1c1e0778-9d04-466c-a5dc-e4951777d3f5",{"type":66,"reviewType":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":35,"orderQuestion":744,"orderItems":746},[745],"Put these stages of democracy in order:",[747,749,751,753],{"label":748,"sortOrder":4},"Autocracy was the standard form of government",{"label":750,"sortOrder":24},"Democracy spread through Ancient Greece",{"label":752,"sortOrder":25},"The Romans replaced democracy with autocracy",{"label":754,"sortOrder":34},"18th century scholars were inspired by Greek democracy",{"id":756,"data":757,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":760},"6e47e100-83fa-4144-999d-9307c253c703",{"type":24,"markdownContent":758,"audioMediaId":759},"So what would have happened if the Battle of Marathon had gone differently?\n\nImagine, for a moment, that the civil official had voted to let the Persians make the first move. The Persians surged forward, overwhelmed the Athenians, and went on to claim the city. Hippias regained his former throne, and lashed out at all who'd opposed him.\n\nOther states would have come to see Athenian democracy as a failed system – a reckless experiment that doomed the Athenians to defeat. The Greek Golden Age might never have happened, and modern scholars looking back on the era could have dismissed democracy too. Instead of switching systems, these modern countries might have pushed ahead with an autocratic approach.\n\nGeorg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, the German philosopher, had this to say about Marathon: “history hung trembling in the balance.” This view is common among historians. If the Persians had defeated the Athenians, the world wouldn't have been the same.\n\n![Graph](image://43d5faf8-e8e6-49fb-a237-6fd9c6a192e6 \"Image via Pexels\")","bbbbbbd4-56d0-4de1-bc8b-965eff285dbc",[761,770,777],{"id":762,"data":763,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"bd1179c5-666f-4bd5-87d0-1128ca672ba6",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":764,"binaryCorrect":766,"binaryIncorrect":768},[765],"If the Persians had won the Battle of Marathon, what might people have assumed?",[767],"Democracy can't compete with autocracy",[769],"Autocracy can't compete with democracy",{"id":771,"data":772,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"1a0df5ca-ddfa-4ede-8b6d-08eac42b931b",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":773,"clozeWords":775},[774],"Hegel said this about the Battle of Marathon: “history hung trembling in the balance.”",[776],"history",{"id":449,"data":778,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":779,"multiChoiceQuestion":780,"multiChoiceCorrect":782,"multiChoiceIncorrect":783,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":784,"matchPairsPairs":785},[446,450],[781],"Which of these was an important consequence of the Battle of Marathon?",[456],[454,457,458],[243],[786],{"left":673,"right":456,"direction":34},{"id":788,"data":789,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":41,"orbs":792},"3a05589b-7425-47e2-84f3-b43cb386127f",{"type":27,"title":790,"tagline":791},"The Battle of Tours (732 CE)","A fight for the future of Europe",[793,894,979,1112],{"id":794,"data":795,"type":25,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":797,"introPage":805,"pages":811},"0a3c034a-33e2-4cf2-a767-2f13637c5807",{"type":25,"title":796},"The rise of Francia",{"id":798,"data":799,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"0c3706fb-b727-41ba-b711-355e3d952137",{"type":34,"summary":800},[801,802,803,804],"The Franks founded the kingdom of Francia after the fall of Rome","Francia was a well-run state with strong agriculture and commerce","The Merovingian kings of Francia grew their hair long as a symbol of their rule","Clovis I, pushed by his wife Clotilda, converted Francia to mainstream Christianity",{"id":806,"data":807,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"68f8f5dd-6fd7-44cc-bca2-dcdfc302e704",{"type":52,"intro":808},[809,810],"Who were the Merovingian kings, and why were they famed for their long hair?","When and why did the Merovingian kings convert to mainstream Christianity?",[812,841,846,859],{"id":813,"data":814,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":817},"e2ff3e36-8a08-400d-8bfc-e449c9ffa382",{"type":24,"markdownContent":815,"audioMediaId":816},"The Battle of Megiddo and the Battle of Marathon both took place in the ancient period. This era was defined by civilizations like the Egyptians, the Greeks, and other powerful entities like the Roman Empire.\n\nBut none of these powerful civilizations were able to last forever. The Greeks and the Egyptians were actually conquered by the Roman Empire in 146 BCE and 30 BCE respectively. As for the Roman Empire, their capital in Rome was overthrown by barbarian forces from northern Europe in 476 CE.\n\nThe fall of Rome is actually used by modern historians to mark the end of the ancient period. After that, the world entered the medieval period: a brand new chapter of history.\n\nIn a lot of ways, the medieval period was different to the ancient period. But some things never change: people still went to war.","d8c1abf5-2cc6-4ed0-800d-f39b5c8ff767",[818,825],{"id":819,"data":820,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"35b6895b-ccae-4bfb-b6a5-403e4170746f",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":821,"activeRecallAnswers":823},[822],"What event do historians typically use to mark the end of the ancient period?",[824],"The fall of Rome",{"id":826,"data":827,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"22d62d5e-b5fc-4d5c-9361-ae69a72cc798",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":828,"matchPairsPairs":829,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[243],[830,833,836,839],{"left":831,"right":832,"direction":34},"Romans conquer the Greeks","146 BCE",{"left":834,"right":835,"direction":34},"Romans conquer the Egyptians","30 BCE",{"left":837,"right":838,"direction":34},"Rome overthrown by barbarians","476 CE",{"left":458,"right":840,"direction":34},"38 CE",{"id":842,"data":843,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34},"d6669031-949a-48a5-b978-b82b057cc692",{"type":24,"markdownContent":844,"audioMediaId":845},"When Rome collapsed, a number of different barbarian groups seized chunks of territory for themselves.\n\nOne of these groups was the Franks, who originated in modern day Germany. They established the kingdom of Francia, which roughly aligned with the region now known as France.\n\n![Graph](image://284e4f8c-7a29-4979-8750-f4673a75227a \"Barbarian kingdoms after fall of Rome (Francia in yellow). Image: Public domain\")\n\nToday, the word 'barbarian' has negative connotations. It's usually associated with brutish, uncivilized tribes. But that isn't really a fair description of these groups.\n\nFrancia, for example, was a well-run state with an impressive system of agriculture and commerce. It wasn't as sophisticated as the Roman Empire, but it wasn't brutish and uncivilized either.","39fae27d-dcaf-412d-afb9-200cdc529247",{"id":847,"data":848,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":851},"7d26e68f-63ff-4eaf-b906-126e2ac01283",{"type":24,"markdownContent":849,"audioMediaId":850},"The Franks were ruled by a line of kings called the Merovingians. These kings were renowned for an unusual custom: they let their hair grow long and thick. Supposedly, if a rival cut off a Merovingian’s hair, he would no longer be allowed to rule.\n\nReligion was important to the Merovingians. When their kingdom was first established, they practiced Arianism. This was technically a branch of Christianity, but generally condemned by the mainstream church, who thought it deviated too far from acceptable Christian doctrine.\n\nLater, the Merovingians converted to mainstream Christianity. The first king to do this was called Clovis I. His conversion was pushed by his wife, Clotilda, who had been raised as a mainstream Christian herself.\n\n![Graph](image://2eeb4762-fb7e-468e-ac37-6573b97f84c6 \"A depiction of the long-haired Clovis. Image: Public domain\")","0e0f51c8-7ca8-4f85-978b-e473ae6bf408",[852],{"id":853,"data":854,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"11c925fd-1bbe-41f6-8e38-40f7c38abee3",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":855,"activeRecallAnswers":857},[856],"Supposedly, if a rival cut off a Merovingian king's hair, what would happen?",[858],"He would no longer be allowed to rule",{"id":860,"data":861,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":864},"757a6fa7-09ba-403c-8701-f1c5aaae04fa",{"type":24,"markdownContent":862,"audioMediaId":863},"The long-haired successors of Clovis I continued to practice mainstream Christianity. Over time, this faith also started to spread through the general population of Francia.\n\nBy the end of the 7th century – about two hundred years after the fall of Rome – Francia was a fully fledged Christian kingdom.\n\nBut Christianity wasn't the only religion on the rise in the medieval period. While the Merovingians were ruling in the kingdom of Francia, a brand new faith was taking shape on the distant Arabian peninsula. The name of this faith was Islam – and it wouldn't be long until its followers started to knock on Francia's door.","6a838982-aacf-43e2-84e1-0d9866f95622",[865,876,887],{"id":516,"data":866,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":867,"multiChoiceQuestion":868,"multiChoiceCorrect":870,"multiChoiceIncorrect":871,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":872,"matchPairsPairs":873},[512,515,517],[869],"Which of these was a Frankish king?",[524],[521,523,525],[243],[874],{"left":524,"right":875,"direction":34},"Frankish king",{"id":517,"data":877,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":878,"multiChoiceQuestion":879,"multiChoiceCorrect":881,"multiChoiceIncorrect":882,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":883,"matchPairsPairs":884},[512,515,516],[880],"Which of these was a Frankish queen?",[525],[521,523,524],[243],[885],{"left":525,"right":886,"direction":34},"Frankish queen",{"id":888,"data":889,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"be0488b0-8f78-4306-8261-88c3343bb939",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":890,"clozeWords":892},[891],"Clotilda persuaded Clovis I to convert from Arianism to mainstream Christianity.",[893],"Arianism",{"id":895,"data":896,"type":25,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":898,"introPage":906,"pages":912},"7d291627-db8d-47e9-ad98-433b74a5e3d8",{"type":25,"title":897},"The rise of the Umayyads",{"id":899,"data":900,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"c13bb242-b09e-4a20-ab23-577f1b739037",{"type":34,"summary":901},[902,903,904,905],"Islam was founded by the Prophet Muhammad in 610 CE","The Umayyads won the struggle for succession in 661 CE, and established the Umayyad Caliphate","The Umayyads expanded their empire into Iran and North Africa, spreading Islam","By 714 CE, the Umayyads had conquered the Visigothic Kingdom in Spain",{"id":907,"data":908,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"85d1701e-2318-41d0-ba8f-937c8233ae40",{"type":52,"intro":909},[910,911],"Who were the Umayyads, and where did they come from?","How did the Umayyads manage to conquer the Visigothic Kingdom?",[913,935,955],{"id":914,"data":915,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":918},"cebb706c-3dd2-4a06-bc1c-81975477b229",{"type":24,"markdownContent":916,"audioMediaId":917},"Islam is younger than Christianity. The religion was founded by the Prophet Muhammad in 610 CE, while Christianity was established more than five-hundred years earlier.\n\nMuhammad was the official leader of the faith until he passed away in 632 CE. His death was followed by a struggle for succession, as three main groups all wanted to take over: the Rashiduns, the Kharijites, and the Umayyads.\n\nIn 661 CE, the Umayyads emerged victorious. And they didn't just want to be leaders of the faith. They also established a well-organized state, with a capital in the city of Damascus. This nation called itself the Umayyad Caliphate, and it flourished across the Arabian peninsula while the kingdom of Francia was still going strong in Europe.\n\n![Graph](image://80a287c6-8ab9-4372-a9f3-867b40d706f6 \"A depiction of Damascus. Image: Public domain\")","d0c0d270-13fe-480b-8c55-1f620f3fe653",[919],{"id":920,"data":921,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"fca00d60-aa85-40e8-87cb-fd8f784ce3a3",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":922,"matchPairsPairs":923,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[243],[924,927,930,933],{"left":925,"right":926,"direction":34},"Muhammad founds Islam","610 CE",{"left":928,"right":929,"direction":34},"Muhammad passes away","632 CE",{"left":931,"right":932,"direction":34},"Umayyads win struggle for succession","661 CE",{"left":458,"right":934,"direction":34},"645 CE",{"id":936,"data":937,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":940},"025bad72-3232-440e-a8f4-5fce319ba571",{"type":24,"markdownContent":938,"audioMediaId":939},"The Umayyad Caliphate had a burning desire: they wanted to spread the religion of Islam to other parts of the world.\n\nThey started to expand the edges of their territory, spreading east into Iran and west across the north of Africa. As they conquered these regions, they united people under the banner of Islam, with mass conversions taking place in many important cities and towns.\n\nThis expansion was quick and efficient. And by 710 CE, only the Strait of Gibraltar – a sliver of sea between Morocco and Spain – separated the edge of the Umayyad empire from the shores of Christian Europe.\n\n![Graph](image://bf77e2f9-d2e2-4d8c-81ee-60dddd41dca1 \"Umayyad territory in 710 CE. Image: Khateeb88, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","5da73a28-8b20-4170-a9d1-388a9017b528",[941,948],{"id":942,"data":943,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"0dbb583a-6909-42ab-88ed-c88b8b0e1714",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":944,"clozeWords":946},[945],"The Umayyad Caliphate had a burning desire: to spread Islam to other parts of the world.",[947],"Islam",{"id":949,"data":950,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"015cf516-cd8f-4356-b7c7-1f12011c2c2d",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":951,"activeRecallAnswers":953},[952],"By 710 CE, what was the only thing separating the Umayyad empire from the shores of Christian Europe?",[954],"The Strait of Gibraltar",{"id":956,"data":957,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":960},"0e008be8-3372-4928-8ad5-bfc4cc06c381",{"type":24,"markdownContent":958,"audioMediaId":959},"At that time, the region now known as Spain was home to the Visigothic Kingdom. Just like the Franks, in the neighboring Francia, the Visigoths were one of the barbarian groups who had established a kingdom after the fall of the Roman Empire. Also like the Franks, they just so happened to be followers of Christianity.\n\nThe Umayyads wanted to claim this region, and convert them to Islam instead. And as it happened, the Umayyads had arrived on the scene at quite an opportune time.\n\nIn 710 CE, the Visigoth king had just been usurped by a local rival, and the country had fallen into a state of civil war. The Umayyads crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and caught the in-fighting Visigoths by surprise. The Umayyads surged through this Christian kingdom, claiming and converting swathes of land as they went.\n\nBy 714 CE, the Visigoths had been successfully conquered. And the Umayyads arrived at the border of Francia – the kingdom of the long-haired kings.\n\n![Graph](image://a37def60-c6c6-4185-8ba3-32814c88720a \"Umayyad territory in 714 CE. Image: Omicroñ'R, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","5a3b26a1-8457-497c-8e95-6c675947dfff",[961,972],{"id":962,"data":963,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"efb40f7c-bf2d-455a-939c-2b8f4ceeeb52",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":964,"multiChoiceCorrect":966,"multiChoiceIncorrect":968,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[965],"After the fall of Rome, which barbarian people had established a kingdom in the region now known as Spain?",[967],"Visigoths",[969,970,971],"Ostrogoths","Franks","Anglo-Saxons",{"id":973,"data":974,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"fc00b81f-566d-4d64-af09-2cf024406da4",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":975,"activeRecallAnswers":977},[976],"Why was the Visigothic Kingdom easy for the Umayyads to claim?",[978],"They were in the midst of a civil war",{"id":980,"data":981,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":983,"introPage":991,"pages":997},"0d75959d-b2a4-4a62-ab2d-0854ae826bda",{"type":25,"title":982},"The Battle of Tours",{"id":984,"data":985,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"a6658193-a588-4871-8699-1a653f4014f7",{"type":34,"summary":986},[987,988,989,990],"After conquering the Visigothic Kingdom in Spain, the Umayyads wanted to continue north into Aquitaine","Odo the Great, leader of Aquitaine, was defeated by the Umayyads but escaped to seek help from the Franks","Charles Martel, known as 'the Hammer', led a Frankish army to face off against the Umayyads","The Battle of Tours saw the Franks defeat the Umayyads, halting their advance into Europe",{"id":992,"data":993,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"124e3646-718b-4cf7-9673-350b53a08a68",{"type":52,"intro":994},[995,996],"Who was Odo the Great, and why did he seek help from Charles Martel?","What was the unexpected strategy used by the Franks at the Battle of Tours?",[998,1032,1049,1062],{"id":999,"data":1000,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1003},"b64a0f70-00ff-4344-b91b-0bd1a1d948b5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1001,"audioMediaId":1002},"When the Umayyads conquered the Visigothic Kingdom, in modern day Spain, it was the very first time that the Muslim faith had penetrated western Europe. It was a major moment in world history – but an even bigger moment was still to come.\n\nFrom their foothold in Europe, the Umayyads now wanted to seize the kingdom of Francia.\n\nBut first, in 732 CE, they launched an attack on Aquitaine – an independent region just to the south of Francia. The leader of Aquitaine was Odo the Great, who some historians believe was ethnically Roman, a remnant of the former empire. At the time of the Umayyad invasion, Odo was close to 80 years old, but he was still a fierce military leader.\n\n![Graph](image://a0daf1cb-1484-4d04-aa9a-398bc4b38f9d \"Odo the Great. Image: Public domain\")","5a58650c-32fe-4385-8d62-c37c11f5e009",[1004,1023],{"id":1005,"data":1006,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"d5f87054-e0cd-4f11-a55e-42b0ef7fd88b",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1007,"multiChoiceQuestion":1011,"multiChoiceCorrect":1013,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1015,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1019,"matchPairsPairs":1020},[1008,1009,1010],"67dc841d-0368-43dd-bfc7-5c25af668a76","a05c07fc-5c4b-48d6-96bb-06d14db46ab6","64936bc3-283a-4b36-a78a-b1410bb3c321",[1012],"Who was the leader of Aquitaine when the Umayyads attacked?",[1014],"Odo the Great",[1016,1017,1018],"Charles Martel","Pepin the Younger","Charlemagne",[243],[1021],{"left":1014,"right":1022,"direction":34},"Defeated by the Umayyads in Aquitaine",{"id":1024,"data":1025,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"30117d5a-4125-434a-9ac5-69899a179f5d",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1026,"binaryCorrect":1028,"binaryIncorrect":1030},[1027],"Some historians believe that Odo the Great was what?",[1029],"Ethnically Roman",[1031],"Ethnically Greek",{"id":1033,"data":1034,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1037},"9de796a3-f7cf-4273-81e7-403694e06656",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1035,"audioMediaId":1036},"When the Umayyads attacked Aquitaine, Odo's army put up a spirited defense. But it wasn’t enough, and the battle ended with a resounding Muslim victory. The Chronicle of 754, an anonymous source written decades later, declared that 'God only knows the number of those who died or fled.'\n\nOdo the Great was one of the few who did manage to escape. He reorganized the scattered remains of his forces, then hurried north to search for help.\n\nHe entered the kingdom of Francia, and arrived on the doorstep of a Frankish noble named Charles Martel. Charles wasn't one of the long-haired kings, but he was a powerful figure who effectively acted as a Merovingian commander in chief. Martel translates as ‘hammer’, a nickname based upon his devastating military prowess.\n\n![Graph](image://52acfcf7-32e4-4545-ac27-55e522ea4545 \"Charles Martel (seated). Image: Public domain\")","af672531-8489-4b5b-9685-bfd2c470ebfb",[1038],{"id":1039,"data":1040,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"d0d26030-6d13-4681-8f2b-ca1eab04f6de",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1041,"multiChoiceCorrect":1043,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1045,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1042],"When Odo the Great came to the Franks for help, who did he meet with?",[1044],"Charles Martel (a Frankish noble)",[1046,1047,1048],"Charles Martel (a Frankish king)","Charlemagne (a Frankish noble)","Charlemagne (a Frankish king)",{"id":1050,"data":1051,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1054},"0506de55-4799-4130-be11-eafbdba5ba6a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1052,"audioMediaId":1053},"When Odo told Charles Martel what had happened, this powerful noble didn’t hesitate. He sent his army south to defend against the next wave of Umayyad attacks.\n\nIt seems as though the Umayyads weren't aware of Charles' strength. After their successful seizure of the Visigothic Kingdom, and the defeat of Odo at the Battle of Bordeaux, they probably underestimated the Franks – and the arrival of a powerful, well-trained army caught them by surprise.\n\nThe two armies met outside the city of Tours, just south of the border between Francia and Aquitaine. This battle wasn't just between the Franks and the Umayyads – it was also a clash between Chrisitanity and Islam.\n\n![Graph](image://9cc421d8-4fef-48f3-83d4-83d12028091c \"A depiction of the armies at Tours (Umayyads left, Franks right). Image:: Public domain\")","852b8bba-557d-4c89-9185-75aa640c01b6",[1055],{"id":1056,"data":1057,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"2db590e5-fcf9-4086-88f3-c441bf49052e",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1058,"activeRecallAnswers":1060},[1059],"What was the nickname of Charles Martel?",[1061],"The Hammer",{"id":1063,"data":1064,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1067},"8b1a075b-3b27-40b8-b74e-21307bd42622",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1065,"audioMediaId":1066},"The exact events at the Battle of Tours are shrouded in mystery. Primary sources are non-existent, and no archaeological site has ever been found. The closest thing to a reliable source is the Chronicle of 754.\n\nAccording to this source, the battle lasted for 'seven days'. To begin with, the Franks formed an 'immobile \\[...\\] wall', and fended off Umayyad attacks. Then all of a sudden, the Franks exploded out from their formation, and 'annihilated the Arabs with the sword.'\n\n![Graph](image://1df8839d-59aa-4643-872d-0ef86793407c \"Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours. Image: Public domain\")\n\nThe Chronicle of 754 was written 22 years after the actual battle, and there's nothing to indicate that the anonymous writer was present at the actual event. But whatever the exact events of the battle, there's one thing we know for certain. The Christian forces emerged victorious, and the Umayyads were sent retreating into Spain.","4cf0e02f-4354-46ad-83f9-4f1d9b176bd7",[1068,1079,1090,1098],{"id":1008,"data":1069,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1070,"multiChoiceQuestion":1071,"multiChoiceCorrect":1073,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1074,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1075,"matchPairsPairs":1076},[1005,1009,1010],[1072],"Which of these led the Franks to victory over the Umayyad forces at Tours?",[1016],[1014,1017,1018],[243],[1077],{"left":1016,"right":1078,"direction":34},"Defeated the Umayyads at Tours",{"id":126,"data":1080,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1081,"multiChoiceQuestion":1082,"multiChoiceCorrect":1084,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1085,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":1086,"orderItems":1087},[122,125,127,128],[1083],"When was the Battle of Tours?",[135],[136,669,132],[138],[1088],{"label":1089,"reveal":135,"sortOrder":25},"Battle of Tours",{"id":1091,"data":1092,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"7bbf4215-cc6c-4d60-a62f-d95416e8a2ea",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1093,"activeRecallAnswers":1095},[1094],"According to the Chronicle of 754, what two-step tactic did the Franks use against the Umayyads?",[1096,1097],"First, they formed an 'immobile wall'","Second, they exploded out from their formation, and 'annihilated the Arabs with the sword'",{"id":1099,"data":1100,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"70eca87e-36c2-4368-91ef-76aedbfd5dab",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1101,"matchPairsPairs":1103,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1102],"In which modern day country did each of these battles take place?",[1104,1106,1108,1110],{"left":141,"right":1105,"direction":34},"Israel",{"left":673,"right":1107,"direction":34},"Greece",{"left":1089,"right":1109,"direction":34},"France",{"left":458,"right":1111,"direction":34},"Germany",{"id":1113,"data":1114,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1116,"introPage":1124,"pages":1130},"ce714070-b38a-47de-8473-a26f1a84fcb9",{"type":25,"title":1115},"The impact of Tours",{"id":1117,"data":1118,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"60534962-0232-4590-b909-809ab87b69cc",{"type":34,"summary":1119},[1120,1121,1122,1123],"The Battle of Tours stopped the Umayyad advance into Europe","Charles Martel's victory at Tours boosted his power, and led to the Carolingian dynasty","Charlemagne, Martel's grandson, was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800 CE","If the Umayyads had won, the rest of Europe might have become an Islamic empire",{"id":1125,"data":1126,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"66a5237f-c33a-4ca1-989a-7468034455b7",{"type":52,"intro":1127},[1128,1129],"What impact did the Battle of Tours have on the wider world?","What might the world have looked like if the Franks had lost the Battle of Tours instead?",[1131,1156,1184,1189],{"id":1132,"data":1133,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1136},"b4d5d6ce-16f9-41cd-bbfe-393e26429892",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1134,"audioMediaId":1135},"The Battle of Tours was a decisive moment in European history. For the very first time, someone had managed to halt the Umayyad advance. They continued to occupy modern day Spain, but never made it further north.\n\nIn Francia, the powerful Charles Martel was celebrated as the defender of Christianity. And his reputation started to outshine the Merovingian line of kings. In his later life, he effectively ruled as the leader of Francia – a king in all but name.\n\nHis son, Pepin the Younger, *did* become king, after inheriting his father's power. He ordered for the ruling Merovingian king to have his hair cut off, then sent to live in a monastery. This marked the start of a new Frankish dynasty, with the blood of Charles Martel now running through their veins. This new line of kings was known as the Carolingians.\n\n![Graph](image://40e078da-6fb6-4d1e-9ac8-969b59713f9e \"Pepin the Younger. Image: Public domain\")","9eb5993a-3612-4a89-8a7c-d090630d77bb",[1137,1147],{"id":450,"data":1138,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1139,"multiChoiceQuestion":1140,"multiChoiceCorrect":1142,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1143,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1144,"matchPairsPairs":1145},[446,449],[1141],"What was the main consequence of the Battle of Tours?",[457],[456,454,458],[243],[1146],{"left":1089,"right":457,"direction":34},{"id":1148,"data":1149,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"8aacd3c7-cc92-4e7c-a68e-a9556c5e705d",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1150,"binaryCorrect":1152,"binaryIncorrect":1154},[1151],"Did Charles Martel become king of Francia after the Battle of Tours?",[1153],"No - but he became king in all but name",[1155],"Yes - he became king of Francia",{"id":1157,"data":1158,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1161},"a0019908-5522-4a61-b804-a6e5b0ea8dea",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1159,"audioMediaId":1160},"After the death of Pepin, in 768 CE, he was succeeded by his son. This son was called Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, and he turned out to be even more influential than his grandfather, Charles Martel.\n\n![Graph](image://e7f8edf2-ce2f-4b6a-95ec-567f193cebe9 \"Charlemagne. Image: Public domain\")\n\nFor three decades, he worked to expand the borders of the Frankish kingdom, striving to turn the European continent into a single, Christian empire. His work caught the attention of Pope Leo III. In 800 CE, he met with Charlemagne, and crowned him Holy Roman Emperor – the first person ever to hold such a title.\n\n![Graph](image://9543bfb5-5f9a-49fe-8d97-d5e0bc40492c \"Charlemagne's empire (dark purple). The Umayyads still controlled Spain. Image: Public domain\")\n\nWith the Pope’s blessing, Charlemagne ushered in a period of European stability, while promoting improvements in education, scholarship, and culture. He is sometimes referred to as the ‘Father of Europe’. Without his influence, the modern continent wouldn’t have looked the same.","5a80cf77-79cd-4fad-a9c4-159dc6481a0c",[1162,1173],{"id":1009,"data":1163,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1164,"multiChoiceQuestion":1165,"multiChoiceCorrect":1167,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1168,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1169,"matchPairsPairs":1170},[1005,1008,1010],[1166],"Who was the first king of the Carolingian dynasty?",[1017],[1014,1016,1018],[243],[1171],{"left":1017,"right":1172,"direction":34},"The first Carolingian king",{"id":1010,"data":1174,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1175,"multiChoiceQuestion":1176,"multiChoiceCorrect":1178,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1179,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1180,"matchPairsPairs":1181},[1005,1008,1009],[1177],"Who was the first ever Holy Roman Emperor?",[1018],[1014,1016,1017],[243],[1182],{"left":1018,"right":1183,"direction":34},"The first Holy Roman Emperor",{"id":1185,"data":1186,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25},"52b9898d-fa17-43e2-b849-01f4372bf2e0",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1187,"audioMediaId":1188},"But what if the Umayyads had won? There's every chance they would have continued north, uniting Europe under the flag of Islam, instead of a Holy Roman Empire.\n\nArabic might have become the continent’s dominant language. Towns and villages could have been dotted with mosques instead of churches. And centuries later, important events like Christopher Columbus’ voyage to America might never have taken place. His journey was funded by Catholic monarchs, and there's no way to know whether a Muslim ruler would have shown the same support.\n\nThis doesn't mean that Europe would have been worse off. Not so long after the Battle of Tours, the Islamic world enjoyed a brilliant golden age, which actually outshone a lot of the changes that Charlemagne oversaw in Europe. If the Umayyads had won at the Battle of Tours, this Islamic golden age might have blossomed in Europe too.\n\n![Graph](image://bdaa0d10-576e-41e5-aa83-82064a368382 \"Islamic golden age. Image: Public domain\")","d093a0ac-252c-4412-ae10-6f31b7d37740",{"id":1190,"data":1191,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1194},"781e3628-16d1-4ea7-83ce-efc5092102a1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1192,"audioMediaId":1193},"Hans Delbrück, a 19th century German historian, declared that 'there was no more important battle in the history of the world.'\n\nBut it's worth pointing out that Muslim historians have generally downplayed the Battle of Tours. They point instead to other events; for example, in 718 CE, the Umayyads also tried to enter Europe through Turkey, and were defeated more dramatically than they were in Francia. This moment, according to Muslim historians, was far more important than the Battle of Tours in deciding the fate of Europe.\n\nIt's an interesting argument. And maybe Tours has been overstated by Western historians. Maybe it's been overstated since the days of Charles Martel – he might have intentionally over-hyped the battle in a careful effort to present himself as the defender of Christianity.\n\nIt's impossible to know for certain. Just like the battles it so often describes, history often has two sides.","a82c710c-0615-4158-9b35-4e42fb30b50a",[1195,1204],{"id":1196,"data":1197,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"8287266f-6428-4ed6-b297-44d0f5504e37",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1198,"multiChoiceCorrect":1200,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1201,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1199],"Who was Charlemagne's grandfather?",[1016],[1017,1202,1203],"Constantine the Great","Pope Leo III",{"id":1205,"data":1206,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"211b9936-9e73-429e-8f70-6d95fdf66145",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1207,"activeRecallAnswers":1209},[1208],"Which other event have some historians argued was more important than the Battle of Tours?",[1210],"The Umayyads' failed attempt, in 718 CE, to enter Europe through Turkey",{"id":1212,"data":1213,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"orbs":1216},"ff08c613-6e5e-4548-8802-b51ed77f9891",{"type":27,"title":1214,"tagline":1215},"The Battle of Hastings (1066 CE)","A fight for the British throne",[1217,1329,1462],{"id":1218,"data":1219,"type":25,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1221,"introPage":1229,"pages":1235},"973be917-873f-42d8-a97f-6a17c3eb6a6e",{"type":25,"title":1220},"Anglo-Saxon Britain",{"id":1222,"data":1223,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"be55f776-fcf6-458f-997d-0ab69ae90c9b",{"type":34,"summary":1224},[1225,1226,1227,1228],"When Rome fell in 476 CE, the Anglo-Saxons took control of Britain","Edward the Confessor, a pious king, ruled in 1042 CE, but failed to produce an heir","Edward's death in 1066 left four contenders for the throne, including Harold Godwinson and William of Normandy","A royal council (the Witan) chose Harold Godwinson to become King of England on January 6th, 1066",{"id":1230,"data":1231,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"f02be509-0550-48e0-aacd-253497f0d8b6",{"type":52,"intro":1232},[1233,1234],"Who were the four main candidates for the British throne after Edward the Confessor's death?","Why did the Witan choose Harold Godwinson as the new King of England?",[1236,1251,1287,1300],{"id":1237,"data":1238,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1241},"f127ac68-587e-443e-a010-575f44d85b2b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1239,"audioMediaId":1240},"For four centuries or so, Britain was part of the Roman Empire. When Rome collapsed, in 476 CE, the region was taken over by people from northern Europe.\n\nIt's the same thing that happened in places like Francia and modern day Spain: migrating groups arrived on the scene to fill the void left behind by the Romans.\n\nIn Britain, these groups were collectively known as the Anglo-Saxons, and Britain was transformed under their rule. They introduced kings and queens, and the Old English language, from which Modern English is derived.","74a7f3a5-9fa6-4efd-baa5-2c9577d04898",[1242],{"id":1243,"data":1244,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"daf1a135-8b82-43a3-abeb-acbd6104f948",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1245,"multiChoiceCorrect":1247,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1248,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1246],"What name was given to the migrating peoples from Germany and Denmark who claimed Britain after the fall of Rome?",[971],[1249,967,1250],"Normans","Vikings",{"id":1252,"data":1253,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1256},"1e1a13d0-7ff2-417b-ba4c-0726697c3232",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1254,"audioMediaId":1255},"In 1042 CE, after several centuries of Anglo-Saxon rule, a new king ascended to the throne. His name was Edward the Confessor, and he's mainly remembered for being a devout, pious Christian.\n\n![Graph](image://8d7bc37f-8316-463e-955f-baefe67faa81 \"Edward the Confessor. Image: Public domain\")\n\nDespite being king, Edward wasn’t the richest man in the country. This position was held by a powerful lord: Godwin, the Earl of Wessex. Godwin knew he was the richest man in Britain. He also fancied himself as the most powerful. And in 1045 CE, he arranged for his daughter, Edith, to marry Edward.\n\nGodwin wanted his daughter to produce a royal heir. That way, the Godwin bloodline would ascend to the throne. But Edith and Edward never had a child.","29dc7b15-8ff3-4a48-a1d5-38a003bf9299",[1257,1276],{"id":1258,"data":1259,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"3ed307bd-758b-4377-8c00-2cf393f19689",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1260,"multiChoiceQuestion":1264,"multiChoiceCorrect":1266,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1268,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1272,"matchPairsPairs":1273},[1261,1262,1263],"c0564b1e-47df-4897-8865-a1c37694d712","8a3e290e-d7e0-443f-97a2-f28d06257c98","3a01034d-630e-42d7-9321-f9133f695774",[1265],"Which Anglo-Saxon king ascended to the throne in 1042 CE?",[1267],"Edward the Confessor",[1269,1270,1271],"Godwin","Osman I","Mehmed II",[243],[1274],{"left":1267,"right":1275,"direction":34},"King of England",{"id":1261,"data":1277,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1278,"multiChoiceQuestion":1279,"multiChoiceCorrect":1281,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1282,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1283,"matchPairsPairs":1284},[1258,1262,1263],[1280],"Which of these was the Earl of Wessex in 1042 CE?",[1269],[1267,1270,1271],[243],[1285],{"left":1269,"right":1286,"direction":34},"Earl of Wessex",{"id":1288,"data":1289,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":1292},"8801c0d1-15cf-4d6c-b6a0-56172af51e9b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1290,"audioMediaId":1291},"It's hard to know why Edward and Edith never had a child. Norman sources said that the pious king had previously taken a vow of celibacy, but modern historians have another theory. They believe that Edward the Confessor hated Earl Godwin, and refused to give him the satisfaction of an heir to the British throne.\n\nWhatever the reason, this lack of heir turned out to be a bit of a problem.\n\nEdward the Confessor passed away at the beginning of 1066. And without a clear heir, people weren't sure who should replace him on the British throne. A royal council – the Witan – was hastily assembled, and given the urgent task of selecting England’s next king. The Witan had four main candidates to choose from.","06c97e18-1f4f-4b0a-81f0-49627d503bb0",[1293],{"id":1294,"data":1295,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"924d58b9-8842-40e6-987e-056dabfc0130",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1296,"activeRecallAnswers":1298},[1297],"When Edward the Confessor died without an heir, which royal council was called to choose England's next king?",[1299],"The Witan",{"id":1301,"data":1302,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1305},"87c58c56-69b2-40cb-bde8-1bce45d1eb5f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1303,"audioMediaId":1304},"Candidate #1 was Harold Godwinson. He was the son of Earl Godwin, but unlike his father, his relationship with Edward had been positive. Edward had actually promised him the throne while lying on his deathbed. Candidate #2 was William of Normandy, an ambitious duke from northern France. He was Edward's cousin, and claimed that Edward had promised him the throne when he'd visited England a couple of years earlier.\n\nCandidate #3 was Harald Hardrada, the current King of Norway. He believed that Britain was rightfully his, as the country had been ruled by Scandinavian kings in the decades before Edward the Confessor. Candidate #4 was Edgar Atheling, the great-nephew of Edward. Unfortunately for him, he was only a teenager at the time, and probably too weak to hold a royal throne.\n\nIt didn't take long for the Witan to come to a decision. On January 6th, just a single day after Edward’s death, Harold Godwinson was crowned the new King of England.","c351be4a-01d4-438e-8013-29cbf5809152",[1306,1323],{"id":1307,"data":1308,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"0ce98e4e-c063-45a9-b4f3-c77dfe3ef3b5",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1309,"matchPairsPairs":1310,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[243],[1311,1314,1317,1320],{"left":1312,"right":1313,"direction":34},"Harold Godwinson","Edward the Confessor's brother-in-law",{"left":1315,"right":1316,"direction":34},"William of Normandy","Edward the Confessor's cousin",{"left":1318,"right":1319,"direction":34},"Harald Hardrada","No relation to Edward the Confessor",{"left":1321,"right":1322,"direction":34},"Edgar Atheling","Edward the Confessor's nephew",{"id":1324,"data":1325,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"b9f15f1d-dd87-46cd-90e5-33559afb3f99",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1326,"activeRecallAnswers":1328},[1327],"Who was crowned King of England after Edward the Confessor's death?",[1312],{"id":1330,"data":1331,"type":25,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1333,"introPage":1341,"pages":1347},"9cb38914-cf85-4631-ac32-de68b90cde32",{"type":25,"title":1332},"The Battle of Hastings",{"id":1334,"data":1335,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25},"e559e259-6020-4de9-858d-8a9d405a0884",{"type":34,"summary":1336},[1337,1338,1339,1340],"The other contenders for the English throne were unhappy with the Witan's decision to crown Harold Godwinson","Harald Hardrada invaded the country in the north, but Harold Godwinson defeated his forces, and Harald Hardrada was killed","At the same time, William of Normandy invaded the country in the south, and Harold Godwinson had to march to face them too","King Harold was killed in the Battle of Hastings, leading to a Norman victory and William becoming king",{"id":1342,"data":1343,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"2410fb42-c5a8-49ec-88e1-2595394b0c4c",{"type":52,"intro":1344},[1345,1346],"How did Harold Godwinson react when his his country was invaded by two enemies at once?","What trick did William of Normandy use to break apart the English army at Hastings?",[1348,1373,1393,1413,1426,1431],{"id":1349,"data":1350,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1353},"6436e8fc-81ee-488a-9f24-55b9fa72fc18",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1351,"audioMediaId":1352},"It's easy to see why the Witan chose Harold Godwinson rather than the other candidates for the crown. As the son of Earl Godwin, he was already rich and powerful in his own right. He also had Edward the Confessor's blessing, while his sister, Edith, had been Edward the Confessor's wife.\n\nHowever, despite the Witan's decision, the other candidates for the throne refused to give up without a fight.\n\nIn the September of 1066 CE, Harald Hardrada, the King of Norway, assembled an army of 10,000 men. He landed in the north of England, captured the city of York, then prepared to launch an attack on the rest of the kingdom. Harold Godwinson was forced to launch an immediate defense of his new throne.","eeac28b1-cda8-4d87-9033-a4a90435d29d",[1354,1366],{"id":1355,"data":1356,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"e913203d-feb6-4fff-a506-3c50a92c2145",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1357,"multiChoiceCorrect":1359,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1363,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1358],"Why did the Witan crown Harold Godwinson?",[1360,1361,1362],"He was the son of a powerful earl","He had Edward the Confessor's blessing","His sister had been Edward the Confessor's wife",[1364,1365],"He was married to Edward the Confessor's sister","His grandfather was king before Edward the Confessor",{"id":1367,"data":1368,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"19387865-d728-4e7b-bfb3-f87abc88ddc7",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1369,"binaryCorrect":1371,"binaryIncorrect":1372},[1370],"Which other candidate for the English throne sent an army to challenge Harold Godwinson at York?",[1318],[1315],{"id":1374,"data":1375,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1378},"ac4cb2bb-a3d0-42d5-a6bf-0914bef23a2c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1376,"audioMediaId":1377},"Harold Godwinson led his army to York with astonishing speed, traveling 185 miles in just 4 days, and caught the Norwegian forces by surprise. In a decisive victory, the majority of the Norwegian soldiers were killed, including Harald Hardrada himself. King Harold, meanwhile, only lost one third of his total force.\n\n![Graph](image://c74a4523-dc3f-4a5e-9d2c-ff0cba49b648 \"Harald Hardrada. Image: Colin Smith, CC BY-SA 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nBut this battle was only the beginning. As the fighting drew to a close, Harold received word that another one of his rivals, William of Normandy, had arrived in the south of England.\n\nHarold was forced to march back south for another round of fighting. But his army was pretty exhausted now, and teetering on the brink of collapse. Many of his soldiers didn’t make it back south, and Harold had to recruit new men from towns and villages along the way. These men were generally farmers and laborers with no previous fighting experience.","860cae65-bdad-42fd-a570-90809b7a2911",[1379,1386],{"id":1380,"data":1381,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"73bb2b50-af2d-4ce8-b7ce-265400eb9c81",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1382,"binaryCorrect":1384,"binaryIncorrect":1385},[1383],"Who emerged victorious when their armies clashed at York?",[1312],[1318],{"id":1387,"data":1388,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"9a50d907-ffda-4507-b3a7-ea6c4d88f159",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1389,"binaryCorrect":1391,"binaryIncorrect":1392},[1390],"Which other candidate for the English throne sent an army to challenge Harold Godwinson at Hastings?",[1315],[1318],{"id":1394,"data":1395,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1398},"7b6f20ec-599b-4e32-b0c3-4aa5eddd3b59",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1396,"audioMediaId":1397},"When they arrived at Hastings, in the south of England, Harold urged his ragtag army to take a defensive position on a small hill. He managed to arrange them into an impressive shield wall, before waiting for the Normans to attack.\n\nWilliam of Normandy ordered his archers to fire at Harold’s army, but the shield wall prevented damage. William launched his infantry, then his cavalry, but these attacks were failures too.\n\nAt one point, the Normans panicked, after hearing rumors that William had died. But William quickly rode to the front of the army and lifted his helmet to show his men that he was still alive. He proceeded to lead another attack on the shield wall, but it was no more successful than the others.","c97dcb23-cf11-4377-86b0-ec637c7dd9b7",[1399],{"id":1400,"data":1401,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"8304a956-2711-4d49-bac7-f00e8a784124",{"type":66,"reviewType":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":35,"orderQuestion":1402,"orderItems":1404},[1403],"Put these stages of the buildup to the Battle of Hastings in order:",[1405,1407,1409,1411],{"label":1406,"sortOrder":4},"Harold Godwinson defeated Harald Hardrada at York",{"label":1408,"sortOrder":24},"William of Normandy arrived in Hastings",{"label":1410,"sortOrder":25},"Harold Godwinson's exhausted army marched south",{"label":1412,"sortOrder":34},"Harold Godwinson's exhausted army formed a shield wall",{"id":1414,"data":1415,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1418},"a2ad399d-a25b-4f52-95ed-db2e5917b723",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1416,"audioMediaId":1417},"After failing to break the English shield wall, William tried another strategy: something known as a feigned retreat.\n\nEssentially, this meant pretending to flee from the field of battle in the hope that the enemy would take chase. Under normal circumstances, this might not have worked, but some of Harold’s less experienced soldiers made the mistake of breaking rank. They were tired of enduring all that enemy fire, and wanted to take this opportunity to chase the Norman invaders away.\n\nThe shield wall crumbled. Then the Normans spun back around. Before the English could get into position again, the invaders launched another attack.","4e49abf5-66f2-406e-96e9-a3a5ad238917",[1419],{"id":1420,"data":1421,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"2d045337-6252-4b6a-bdfa-7d707b75e2b0",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1422,"activeRecallAnswers":1424},[1423],"What tactic did William of Normandy use to break Harold Godwinson's shield wall?",[1425],"Feigned retreat",{"id":1427,"data":1428,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25},"4f7d2c94-a69d-4202-93ff-b61b48696629",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1429,"audioMediaId":1430},"In the chaos that followed, an arrow killed King Harold, who was fighting with his men on foot. He is commonly believed to have been pierced through the eye, but this claim has been questioned by a number of historians. His exact cause of death remains a topic of scholarly debate.\n\n![Graph](image://67755a4c-bbf5-439b-8f6d-c8d5fe475345 \"The Bayeux Tapestry. Image: Public domain\")\n\nWhatever it was that killed him, the loss of Harold was a devastating blow. The English army lost their discipline, and most of them were massacred by the Norman forces in a decisive, bloody victory.\n\nThe site of the battle became known as Senlac – ‘blood-lake’ in Norman French.","edd35511-eedc-4b2f-a19c-91ab7ca53652",{"id":1432,"data":1433,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1436},"b49e18af-3195-42a8-a876-d81c86837fe1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1434,"audioMediaId":1435},"After defeating the forces of Harold Godwinson, William of Normandy, now William the Conqueror, marched to London. On Christmas Day in 1066, the Witan reluctantly crowned him king.\n\nSome people in England tried to resist this appointment, but King William brutally repressed this opposition, slaughtering thousands along the way.\n\n![Graph](image://86b66253-c303-4b63-9c31-2242fe103ab7 \"Norman church. Image: Mickyflick, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","e0a0c20a-e5c3-4376-a7a5-ba9e70315dba",[1437,1444,1451],{"id":1438,"data":1439,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"bce18af8-7d6a-44d8-9d57-fef162e114e0",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1440,"activeRecallAnswers":1442},[1441],"Supposedly, how did Harold Godwinson die at the Battle of Hastings?",[1443],"He was pierced through the eye by an arrow",{"id":1445,"data":1446,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"fa57bf88-14c6-4da1-91ad-fa6e947a0877",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1447,"clozeWords":1449},[1448],"After defeating Harold Godwinson, William of Normandy, now William the Conqueror, was crowned king.",[1450],"Conqueror",{"id":127,"data":1452,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1453,"multiChoiceQuestion":1454,"multiChoiceCorrect":1456,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1457,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":1458,"orderItems":1459},[122,125,126,128],[1455],"When was the Battle of Hastings?",[136],[669,132,134],[138],[1460],{"label":1461,"reveal":136,"sortOrder":34},"Battle of Hastings",{"id":1463,"data":1464,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1466,"introPage":1473,"pages":1479},"48a720f5-5439-4a75-99b8-d0c4060e13ad",{"type":25,"title":1465},"The impact of Hastings",{"id":1467,"data":1468,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"b96122f1-9ade-44ba-b634-43af8a26a794",{"type":34,"summary":1469},[1470,1471,1472],"The Normans soldified their power by building nearly 700 castles in the first 20 years after Hastings","William the Conquerer also reduced the power of earls in an effort to secure his throne","William's consolidation of power was successful, with his descendants sitting on the British throne ever since",{"id":1474,"data":1475,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"1eefb4a4-9380-4161-af26-cfdbe225f8a8",{"type":52,"intro":1476},[1477,1478],"What impact did the Battle of Hastings have on the wider world?","What might the world have looked like if the Normans had lost the Battle of Hastings instead?",[1480,1503,1520],{"id":1481,"data":1482,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1485},"e8ebfc6e-8496-406d-8aa8-21c9f5c47829",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1483,"audioMediaId":1484},"After emerging victorious from the Battle of Hastings, the Normans proceeded to transform the British kingdom.\n\nIn the first 20 years, they built nearly 700 castles, many of which can still be seen today. They tore down Anglo-Saxon churches, replacing them with versions built in the Norman style, with large towers and decorative arches. These buildings were a symbol of Norman strength: the castles represented military power, while the churches signified religious authority.\n\nThey also made changes to the system of government, with William reducing the power of earls, so that nobody could challenge him in the way that Earl Godwin had challenged Edward the Confessor. This change was effective, allowing William’s descendants to hold the throne for almost a thousand years. Even the current monarch, King Charles III, is William’s direct descendant.","34477cfb-22f9-46fd-9d87-b81e0105d96a",[1486],{"id":1487,"data":1488,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"7e7d5130-1e1e-47bd-8e5f-616a81d1b580",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1489,"matchPairsPairs":1491,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[1490],"After William the Conqueror came to power, how did the Normans consolidate their power?",[1492,1495,1498,1501],{"left":1493,"right":1494,"direction":34},"Built large stone castles","These symbolized military power",{"left":1496,"right":1497,"direction":34},"Built large stone churches","These symbolized religious authority",{"left":1499,"right":1500,"direction":34},"Reduced power of earls","This reduced challengers to the throne",{"left":1502,"right":458,"direction":34},"Reduced power of clergy",{"id":1504,"data":1505,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1508},"a34ea4a1-dc36-433f-b0b4-1c658742a743",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1506,"audioMediaId":1507},"In contrast to a lot of earlier battles, the Battle of Hastings was recorded by a number of contemporary sources, including one possible eyewitness account. The Anglo-Saxons and the Normans both valued literacy, with their priests and monks making an effort to keep records of important events.\n\nWilliam of Poitiers was a Catholic priest who worked closely with William the Conqueror. It's difficult to know for certain, but there is every chance that he was present at the Battle of Hastings. In *The Deeds of King William*, he wrote an extensive report of the battle, describing how William confronted the 'vast forces of English' and 'was the first to charge forward, sword flashing.'\n\n![Graph](image://57f4f205-3418-4ebf-8168-1fb3760171e7 \"William of Poitiers. Image: Public domain\")\n\nWilliam of Poitiers might have overstated the size of the English army. Anglo-Saxons spoke differently of the battle, with William of Malmesbury, an English historian, explaining how the English were 'few in number.' This discrepancy is easy to explain: the Normans wanted to exaggerate the scale of their victory, while the Anglo-Saxons wanted to downplay it as much as possible.","21719a50-b52e-42aa-9280-20210fc722d7",[1509],{"id":233,"data":1510,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1511,"multiChoiceQuestion":1512,"multiChoiceCorrect":1514,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1515,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1516,"matchPairsPairs":1517},[229,232,234],[1513],"Which Catholic priest was one of the most well-known sources for the Battle of Hastings?",[240],[209,239,241],[243],[1518],{"left":240,"right":1519,"direction":34},"Wrote about the Battle of Hastings",{"id":1521,"data":1522,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1525},"026b6195-e61d-4c18-ba24-177f0e29e209",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1523,"audioMediaId":1524},"If Harold Godwinson had defeated William at the Battle of Hastings, this Normanization of the British kingdom would never have taken place. The great, stone castles which litter the country would never have been constructed, while churches and cathedrals would have remained in an Anglo-Saxon style.\n\nAnd the line of monarchs descended from King William would never have ruled the country. King Henry VIII would never have created the Church of England. James I would never have unified England and Scotland. Queen Elizabeth I would never have started the British Empire, and Queen Victoria would never have ruled it at the height of its power.\n\nIf the descendants of Harold Godwinson had ruled in the place of these famous monarchs, there's no way of knowing what the world would have looked like. But one thing is certain: it wouldn’t have been the same.","3c5cdbf8-c059-46de-8d41-7b72665dd224",[1526,1537,1553],{"id":1527,"data":1528,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"0f6aa61d-0b3f-4b02-a6e1-5a4de448bb75",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1529,"multiChoiceCorrect":1531,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1536,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1530],"Which of these monarchs are directly descended from William the Conqueror?",[1532,1533,1534,1535],"Queen Victoria","King Henry VIII","Queen Elizabeth I","King Charles III",[1267],{"id":1538,"data":1539,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"d5373ab1-4d6a-4ffb-82c7-e1eafb39f386",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1540,"multiChoiceQuestion":1543,"multiChoiceCorrect":1545,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1547,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1550,"matchPairsPairs":1551},[1541,1542],"d3ff50ca-2de9-4cc0-9685-343bbef72c11","89c332cd-ff08-433e-b0cc-36380942b7fd",[1544],"What was the main consequence of the Battle of Hastings?",[1546],"Normanized Britain",[1548,1549,458],"European Renaissance","Spanish empire",[243],[1552],{"left":1461,"right":1546,"direction":34},{"id":1554,"data":1555,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"930486fd-1b57-45ad-8370-98cf2aa29766",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1556,"activeRecallAnswers":1558},[1557],"Why might Norman sources have overstated the size of the English army at the Battle of Hastings?",[1559],"The Normans wanted to exaggerate the scale of their victory",{"id":1561,"data":1562,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":41,"orbs":1565},"2ecfc8ac-0d1c-4dcd-92ab-3aebc14f819f",{"type":27,"title":1563,"tagline":1564},"The Fall of Constantinople (1453 CE)","The rise of gunpowder weaponary",[1566,1642,1708,1820],{"id":1567,"data":1568,"type":25,"version":41,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1570,"introPage":1577,"pages":1583},"60ec7a7a-bd15-49d4-8b3e-5a844f78c159",{"type":25,"title":1569},"The Byzantine Empire",{"id":1571,"data":1572,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"acaa0e7b-3f1f-4b2b-b475-5d7fec16018c",{"type":34,"summary":1573},[1574,1575,1576],"In 330 CE, the Roman Empire established a second capital at Constantinople, to run the eastern portion of the empire","Constantinople's massive walls helped it survive when Rome fell to barbarian forces in 476 CE","The eastern portion of the Roman Empire, with Constantinople at the heart, became known as the Byzantine Empire",{"id":1578,"data":1579,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"d28e0c44-d55f-40b7-b8f7-35ff5317d7de",{"type":52,"intro":1580},[1581,1582],"Why did Emperor Constantine build a second Roman capital, and where was it located?","What happened to the second Roman capital after the fall of Rome?",[1584,1601,1618],{"id":1585,"data":1586,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":1589},"71dac654-09d2-432b-bc5f-8b17a3c40292",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1587,"audioMediaId":1588},"So far, we've talked a lot about the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE. This collapse left behind a power vacuum which was quickly filled by groups of people like the Franks, the Visigoths and the Anglo-Saxons.\n\nHowever, it's important to understand that this only happened in Europe. Further east, a portion of the Roman Empire actually managed to survive.\n\nMore than a century earlier, in 330 CE, the Roman Empire had stretched all the way from the shores of Britain to the sands of Egypt. The capital at that time had been the city of Rome, which was well-positioned to rule the western portion of this territory. But it was a lot less convenient for ruling lands in the east.\n\nTo solve this problem, Emperor Constantine ordered the construction of a second capital – New Rome (Nova Roma) – at the edge of modern Turkey. This city would be later renamed Constantinople.\n\n![Graph](image://67aca142-0b7e-4f5a-bdbb-8966e3ae8039 \"Ruins of Constantinople. Image: Carole Raddato from FRANKFURT, Germany, CC BY-SA 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","4e45b303-baf2-49bb-9b7e-4a70071736f1",[1590],{"id":1591,"data":1592,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"d1002d40-c1d5-423b-9bbd-de7c781c8a51",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1593,"multiChoiceCorrect":1595,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1597,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1594],"Who ordered the construction of Constantinople as an eastern Roman capital?",[1596],"Emperor Constantine",[1598,1599,1600],"Emperor Augustus","Emperor Nero","Emperor Trajan",{"id":1602,"data":1603,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":1606},"46fd18c1-d19d-4b0d-8d57-488cc78eab39",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1604,"audioMediaId":1605},"Constantinople became a magnificent seat from which Roman emperors could rule the eastern portion of their empire. It was famed for its vibrant culture, scholarly attitudes, and colossal, fortified walls. And when the city of Rome was overrun by barbarian forces, Constantinople stood firm.\n\nBecause of this, when we talk about the collapse of the Roman Empire in 476 CE, we're only really telling one half of the story. A version of the Roman Empire survived in Constantinople, safely protected by those vast, fortified walls.\n\nIt later became known as the Byzantine Empire, named after a Greek colony, Byzantium, which had previously existed in the place where Constantinople was built.","7d921138-126c-47ab-a84f-8e4a660c05ea",[1607],{"id":1608,"data":1609,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"d0e084da-c9d1-447e-a7bd-4419879df34e",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1610,"multiChoiceCorrect":1612,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1614},[1611],"True or false? The Roman Empire collapsed in 476 CE.",[1613],"False - the eastern part of the empire survived",[1615,1616,1617],"True - the entire empire was overrun by barbrians","False - the western part of the empire survived","True - the entire empire was overrun by the Ottomans",{"id":1619,"data":1620,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1623},"9343b73a-40ec-44fa-a500-e226e8da0116",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1621,"audioMediaId":1622},"The Byzantines ruled in Constantinople as late as 1453 CE. In other words, this eastern portion of the Roman Empire survived for almost a thousand years beyond the fall of the city of Rome.\n\nBut the Byzantines weren't the only people living in this part of the world. In the 13th century, a new force began to stir.\n\nThis force was small but ambitious: a Muslim tribe who lived on the outskirts of the Byzantine Empire. They were known as the Ottomans, a term derived from the name of their leader: Osman I.","2ec209b6-8e1e-494d-9535-4eff4e6f552c",[1624,1635],{"id":1625,"data":1626,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"71f9f2bb-060a-44e1-a590-d2d1124e657e",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1627,"multiChoiceCorrect":1629,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1631,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1628],"Which Muslim tribe lived on the outskirts of the Byzantine Empire in the 13th century?",[1630],"The Ottomans",[1632,1633,1634],"The Byzantines","The Safavids","The Umayyads",{"id":1636,"data":1637,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"43f81315-7259-4b3d-bc9b-44d4d473ac85",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1638,"activeRecallAnswers":1640},[1639],"Which defensive structure was the city of Constantinople famous for?",[1641],"Vast, fortified walls",{"id":1643,"data":1644,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1646,"introPage":1653,"pages":1659},"50fda1cc-aa12-4dbb-b067-86520ebabd03",{"type":25,"title":1645},"The rise of the Ottomans",{"id":1647,"data":1648,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"b8c6b139-5b04-4f4d-8607-0d58c659515c",{"type":34,"summary":1649},[1650,1651,1652],"At the start of the 14th century, Osman I led the Ottoman tribe through a period of rapid expansion","Osman I died in 1324, probably from a sever case of gout","His successors continued to expand the empire, spreading into Europe, but struggling to capture Constantinople",{"id":1654,"data":1655,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"04f39a4d-8d5f-4768-ae12-5bd8eb31254d",{"type":52,"intro":1656},[1657,1658],"According to legend, what motivated Osman I to start the Ottoman Empire?","Why was Constantinople such a significant target for the Ottomans?",[1660,1684],{"id":1661,"data":1662,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1665},"a6475ec4-b5e1-4516-895f-947bc8c6bda6",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1663,"audioMediaId":1664},"Osman I was a powerful and charismatic leader. Little is known about his childhood, but some historians think that he started life as a poor, humble shepherd.\n\nThroughout 19 years of rule, he led the Ottoman tribe on a course of rapid territorial expansion. Supposedly, he started this expansion after dreaming about a tree whose branches stretched out to cover the entire world.\n\nThere are no surviving accounts of these events, and historians don’t know how such a minor tribe managed to expand so ferociously. But the Ottomans managed to seize control of several regions, including a number of Byzantine towns.\n\n![Graph](image://e9864f63-379e-4d72-b630-342189158f19 \"Osman I. Image: Public domain\")","855ccce2-d026-4bed-a710-21086ba6a510",[1666,1677],{"id":1262,"data":1667,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1668,"multiChoiceQuestion":1669,"multiChoiceCorrect":1671,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1672,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1673,"matchPairsPairs":1674},[1258,1261,1263],[1670],"Who was the charismatic founder of the Ottoman Empire?",[1270],[1267,1269,1271],[243],[1675],{"left":1270,"right":1676,"direction":34},"Founder of Ottoman Empire",{"id":1678,"data":1679,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"64eb3e77-6def-4dab-9710-7d14b45f1f6f",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1680,"clozeWords":1682},[1681],"Some historians think that Osman I started life as a poor, humble shepherd.",[1683],"shepherd",{"id":1685,"data":1686,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1689},"e34054ea-b897-4e37-a11c-0ddc9fd33307",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1687,"audioMediaId":1688},"Osman I probably passed away in 1324. He went out in great pain, but it wasn’t a battle wound that killed him. Historians think that Osman was killed by a severe case of gout.\n\nDespite the loss of Osman, his successors continued what he'd started. The Ottomans managed to expand into Europe, claiming territory in Macedonia, Kosova, Bulgaria, Hungary, Serbia and Greece.\n\nThey also set their sights on Constantinople, the glittering jewel of the Byzantine Empire. But for decades, this city eluded them. Its colossal walls were unsiegeable, and any attempt to attack the city would have surely ended in defeat.","684a7a2c-3da1-4ecf-87df-32406a78c27e",[1690,1701],{"id":1691,"data":1692,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"9ada9f18-5c7e-4372-bf07-6059244257f7",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1693,"multiChoiceCorrect":1695,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1697,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1694],"How do historians believe that Osman I was killed?",[1696],"Severe gout",[1698,1699,1700],"Arrow through eye","Old age","Murdered by son",{"id":1702,"data":1703,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"0dadeb76-de3c-4fb1-ade7-b078a812c845",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1704,"activeRecallAnswers":1706},[1705],"After the death of Osman I, his successors managed to expand into which continent?",[1707],"Europe",{"id":1709,"data":1710,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1712,"introPage":1719,"pages":1725},"23d7502a-2de2-41fe-8915-171265d14bab",{"type":25,"title":1711},"The Siege of Constantinople",{"id":1713,"data":1714,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"08ded0a5-2077-415b-be8b-ca0f419541e6",{"type":34,"summary":1715},[1716,1717,1718],"In 1453, Mehmed II was approached by an expert Hungarian engineer named Orbán","Orbán built a set of cannons for the Ottomans, with the power to break through Constantinople's famous walls","The Ottomans launched a massive siege, which lasted 53 days, and ended with the fall of Constantinople",{"id":1720,"data":1721,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"25f69e8b-2b30-4d6b-94c5-ad6abb6c90b3",{"type":52,"intro":1722},[1723,1724],"Which new technology played an essential role in the Siege of Constantinople?","What does Nicolò Barbaro's famous diary tell us about the siege?",[1726,1743,1758,1786,1803],{"id":1727,"data":1728,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1731},"34703d93-caa9-4cce-99bb-801770366f1d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1729,"audioMediaId":1730},"In 1444 CE, Mehmed II, a direct descendant of Osman I, ascended to the Ottoman throne.\n\nHe was young and ambitious, and probably gay; he enjoyed collecting beautiful men and keeping them as personal prisoners. Like many before him, Mehmed aspired to invade Constantinople, but he knew it would be useless to send his forces thrashing against the city’s walls.\n\n![Graph](image://75166783-88d7-4b84-9c0d-1c019ad2b73d \"Mehmed II. Image: Public domain\")\n\nBut everything changed in 1453 CE, when Mehmed was approached by a Hungarian engineer named Orbán.","51766a7b-7eae-462a-9999-408db7be4d1f",[1732],{"id":1263,"data":1733,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1734,"multiChoiceQuestion":1735,"multiChoiceCorrect":1737,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1738,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1739,"matchPairsPairs":1740},[1258,1261,1262],[1736],"In 1444 CE, who ascended to the Ottoman throne?",[1271],[1267,1269,1270],[243],[1741],{"left":1271,"right":1742,"direction":34},"Conqueror of Constantinople",{"id":1744,"data":1745,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1748},"17c2e8f9-dfa0-4b01-8608-6082d3fec585",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1746,"audioMediaId":1747},"Orbán was an expert in gunpowder weaponry, a new technology which had only arrived in Europe during the 13th century.\n\nHe offered to build a set of cannons for the Ottomans: weapons more powerful than anything the world had ever seen before. They had enough strength to shatter even the tallest walls – for the first time in history, Constantinople was under threat.\n\nMehmed grabbed this opportunity, paying Orbán handsomely for his work. Orbán built the cannons in three months.\n\nThe largest cannon was named Basilic. It had the power to fire hefty cannonballs over a distance of more than a mile. It was so large that it needed 63 oxen and 400 men to drag it to Constantinople.","d7f756d1-5aac-4b14-8dcd-a531ea95a7fd",[1749],{"id":1750,"data":1751,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"02817277-7417-439e-a25c-243992aa85e6",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1752,"binaryCorrect":1754,"binaryIncorrect":1756},[1753],"Who was the Hungarian engineer that offered to build a set of cannons for Mehmed II?",[1755],"Orbán",[1757],"Seljuk",{"id":1759,"data":1760,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1763},"6c572318-5a75-4e24-b3bb-8bf2ba868722",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1761,"audioMediaId":1762},"Armed with his powerful gunpowder cannons, Mehmed II attacked Constantinople on April 6th, 1453.\n\nHis forces heavily outnumbered the Byzantine defenders: 80,000 Ottomans against 40,000 Byzantines, the majority of which were armed civilians rather than professional soldiers.\n\nUnder normal circumstances, the Byzantines would still have been confident of defending their fortified city. But the Basilic cannon blasted through the walls of this ancient stronghold, just as Orbán had promised.","7f2d75ed-b2f8-4103-a391-b218c8b24b5f",[1764,1775],{"id":128,"data":1765,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1766,"multiChoiceQuestion":1767,"multiChoiceCorrect":1769,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1770,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":1771,"orderItems":1772},[122,125,126,127],[1768],"When did Mehmed II launch the Siege of Constantinople?",[669],[132,134,135],[138],[1773],{"label":1774,"reveal":669,"sortOrder":41},"Siege of Constantinople",{"id":338,"data":1776,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1777,"multiChoiceQuestion":1778,"multiChoiceCorrect":1780,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1781,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1782,"matchPairsPairs":1783},[335,339,340],[1779],"What was the size of the Ottoman force at the Siege of Constantinople?",[346],[344,347,348],[243],[1784],{"left":1785,"right":346,"direction":34},"Ottoman force at Constantinople",{"id":1787,"data":1788,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1791},"4022c9ff-f045-46f0-b696-587dd372c2aa",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1789,"audioMediaId":1790},"The Byzantine defenders managed to hold the breach, but the Ottomans simply blasted another hole.\n\nAgain, the defenders managed to hold, but the Ottomans blasted another. The bombardment lasted for 53 days, until there were too many breaches for the Byzantine forces to defend. Their resistance crumbled, and the Ottomans entered the city.\n\nThe Byzantine emperor was killed in battle, and Mehmed claimed the city as his own. After a period of almost 1500 years, the final bastion of the Roman Empire had collapsed.","c05ddb32-a5ce-476e-b833-addd00e539c6",[1792],{"id":1793,"data":1794,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"97987839-a8b3-49a2-9dbc-8173fd86adfc",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1795,"multiChoiceCorrect":1797,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1799,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1796],"How long did the Ottomans bombard the walls of Constanstinople?",[1798],"53 days",[1800,1801,1802],"3 days","33 days","73 days",{"id":1804,"data":1805,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1808},"3128346f-5e32-4d3b-a14d-d3bcb64d2865",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1806,"audioMediaId":1807},"All these details about the Siege of Constantinople are mainly taken from sources by Byzantine citizens.\n\nThe most comprehensive of these comes from Nicolò Barbaro, a Venetian physician who was present throughout the siege. This source was written in the form of a diary, with regular entries giving a detailed account of the day-by-day progress of the battle. For example, he described how the Ottomans 'came on behind the smoke of the cannon, raging \\[...\\] like wild beasts.'\n\nOttoman accounts are more difficult to come by. The vast majority of Ottoman witnesses would have been illiterate soldiers who didn't know how to write things down.","506854e4-0125-497f-99e8-ae74c3bfaf14",[1809],{"id":234,"data":1810,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1811,"multiChoiceQuestion":1812,"multiChoiceCorrect":1814,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1815,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1816,"matchPairsPairs":1817},[229,232,233],[1813],"Which of these wrote about the Siege of Constantinople?",[241],[209,239,240],[243],[1818],{"left":241,"right":1819,"direction":34},"Wrote about the Siege of Constantinople",{"id":1821,"data":1822,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1824,"introPage":1831,"pages":1837},"eb4a4898-b41b-4fb2-83ee-c9c33e4909c9",{"type":25,"title":1823},"The impact of Constantinople",{"id":1825,"data":1826,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"4b7abd91-b96d-4998-836e-76c358f3c9f3",{"type":34,"summary":1827},[1828,1829,1830],"Scholars fleeing from Constantinople brought ancient texts to Europe, and helped to spark the Renaissance","Leonardo Da Vinci, and other European thinkers, made groundbreaking discoveries during this time","The Ottoman Empire continued to rule until World War One, when they were replaced by modern Turkey",{"id":1832,"data":1833,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"d0ebbd90-ef54-476a-be14-72e639fbd92e",{"type":52,"intro":1834},[1835,1836],"What impact did the Siege of Constantinople have on the wider world?","What might the world have looked like if the Ottomans had lost the Siege of Constantinople instead?",[1838,1854,1869],{"id":1839,"data":1840,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1843},"d3c624a2-a032-43d7-9a82-8e75db18226d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1841,"audioMediaId":1842},"The Siege of Constantinople had a major impact in Europe. When their city fell, many Byzantine scholars fled to the west. They brought copies of ancient texts with them, which had been lost in Europe after the fall of Rome, but survived in Constantinople.\n\nThis rapid influx of ancient wisdom inspired a wave of progress in the next few decades, with men like Leonardo Da Vinci going on to make important discoveries which totally changed the world. This period is known as the Renaissance – a rebirth of European science. The fall of Constantinople wasn’t the only cause, but it definitely helped.\n\nProgress was also made in the east, especially in terms of warfare. The Ottomans continued to use gunpowder weapons to bolster their military, and other nations quickly adopted these new technologies, changing the nature of warfare forever.","e3d2bab3-e33c-4ef3-9d5c-65d7112abac2",[1844],{"id":1541,"data":1845,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1846,"multiChoiceQuestion":1847,"multiChoiceCorrect":1849,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1850,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1851,"matchPairsPairs":1852},[1538,1542],[1848],"What was the main consequence of the Siege of Constantinople?",[1548],[1546,1549,458],[243],[1853],{"left":1774,"right":1548,"direction":34},{"id":1855,"data":1856,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1859},"0c4b5c73-60bc-4e7f-a695-f8c26f013aa1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1857,"audioMediaId":1858},"In later years, the Renaissance period gave Europe the impetus to explore the world. They spread out from their continent, conquering parts of the Americas, Asia, Africa and Australasia along the way.\n\nIf the Byzantines had fended off the Ottomans, would this era of European expansion have still happened?\n\nWith its stockpiles of ancient texts, the victorious city of Constantinople might have enjoyed its own Renaissance instead, with Byzantine scholars making groundbreaking discoveries in the arenas of science and medicine.\n\nWith time, they might have been the ones to spread out and conquer all these far flung places, building a brand new version of the Roman Empire even larger than the one that existed all those centuries earlier.","69706017-fb17-4e11-9fec-0ca08c1e2770",[1860],{"id":1861,"data":1862,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"8bf71190-c836-4544-a692-a9a35e61a260",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":1863,"binaryCorrect":1865,"binaryIncorrect":1867},[1864],"What might have been a consequence if the Byzantines had fended off the Ottomans?",[1866],"The Roman Empire might still exist",[1868],"Islam might never have reached Europe",{"id":1870,"data":1871,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1874},"217e95cf-7da4-4d77-8ecf-9a73021e5deb",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1872,"audioMediaId":1873},"After the Siege of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire survived for hundreds of years, well into the modern age.\n\nRemarkably, they took part in World War One, and even fought a famous battle at Megiddo, following in the footsteps of the Ancient Egyptians. Their leader during World War One was Sultan Mehmed VI, from the same bloodline of Mehmed II, the man who conquered Constantinople.\n\nThe Ottomans chose to ally with Germany, which meant they ended up on the losing side of the conflict. They lost almost 500,000 soldiers during the course of the war, and saw their territories divided between Allied forces. Mehmed VI was forced to flee to Malta, and the empire was replaced by the modern state of Turkey.\n\n![Graph](image://195fa11a-faef-4d9d-b041-348dcf1448d8 \"Ottoman soldiers during World War One. Image: Public domain\")","269d2118-e1d8-40f5-8864-04052defd39f",[1875],{"id":1876,"data":1877,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c38acb72-e7d5-4c2c-8cb1-debd5ecde47a",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1878,"activeRecallAnswers":1880},[1879],"How many soldiers did the Ottomans lose during World War One?",[1881],"Almost 500,000",{"id":1883,"data":1884,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"orbs":1887},"0adcc498-4bc8-4d3f-b389-e59c2bc93188",{"type":27,"title":1885,"tagline":1886},"The Battle of Tenochtitlán (1521 CE)","A fight for the future of the Americas",[1888,1995,2150],{"id":1889,"data":1890,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1892,"introPage":1899,"pages":1905},"64128874-17cd-43ac-a491-fe4ef4f2582e",{"type":25,"title":1891},"The Aztec Empire and the Arrival of Cortés",{"id":1893,"data":1894,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"fa239ff6-c3b9-48e1-b883-e9b24bf9e333",{"type":34,"summary":1895},[1896,1897,1898],"The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, was a massive city on an island at the center of a lake","The Aztec Empire ruled over roughly 500 local tribes and states, with a population of 6 million","When the Spanish arrived in the Americas, and heard about the Aztecs, Hernan Cortés went to find them",{"id":1900,"data":1901,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"70bc2034-dec2-4ce6-9291-fa7a4de4373c",{"type":52,"intro":1902},[1903,1904],"Who were the Aztecs, and how powerful were they?","What did the Spanish do when they reached the Americas and learned that the Aztecs existed?",[1906,1923,1943],{"id":1907,"data":1908,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1911},"708b577e-4222-4592-b84a-2ac6152f850a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1909,"audioMediaId":1910},"At the same time that the Ottomans were rising to power in modern day Turkey, the Aztec Empire was taking shape over 7000 miles away, in the part of the world now known as Mexico.\n\nThe Aztec capital was the magnificent city of Tenochtitlán, first established in approximately 1325 CE. This city sat on an island at the center of a deep, wide lake, with walkways running between the central city and the shore.\n\n![Graph](image://138d4f17-0c26-454c-8b3b-ef4e1afd733d \"A depiction of Tenochtitlán. Image: Gary Todd from Xinzheng, China, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe city was probably home to as many as 350,000 inhabitants. In the rest of the world, only Paris, Venice and Constantinople would have had as many citizens as that at this time.","ffa2b05c-7a6f-436c-b86f-03237703e5d8",[1912],{"id":1913,"data":1914,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"f0c5ce41-9f87-440c-8ddf-3b18dd613bb8",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1915,"multiChoiceCorrect":1917,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1919,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1916],"What was the name of the magnificent city that the Aztecs established in 1325 CE?",[1918],"Tenochtitlán",[1920,1921,1922],"Mexico City","Texcoco","Tlaxcala",{"id":1924,"data":1925,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1928},"6885467a-1784-4e7c-83f3-df6a6cf4372f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1926,"audioMediaId":1927},"From their capital at Tenochtitlán, the Aztecs also ruled an empire of 500 neighboring tribes and states, which were home to roughly 6 million people. Some of these states were claimed through warfare, while others joined willingly.\n\nThe Aztecs practiced human sacrifice, which has given them a bloody reputation. However, their military conflicts were relatively bloodless.\n\nIn what the Aztecs referred to as ‘The Song of Shields’, a warrior would try to capture the enemy instead of killing them. These prisoners were taken back to Tenochtitlán, where some were sacrificed, while others were absorbed into Aztec society.","097ad313-4b78-49a0-9d97-d49f3a206e20",[1929,1936],{"id":1930,"data":1931,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"658580c8-53ef-485a-8557-69dc3fdb8513",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":1932,"clozeWords":1934},[1933],"From their capital at Tenochtitlán, the Aztecs ruled an empire of approximately 500 tribes and states.",[1935],"500",{"id":1937,"data":1938,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"5b399e5b-e56d-4329-b30d-94bb0582ca88",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":1939,"activeRecallAnswers":1941},[1940],"Aztecs would typically try to capture an enemy instead of killing them. What would they call this attempt to capture an enemy?",[1942],"The Song of Shields",{"id":1944,"data":1945,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":1948},"99169920-e4a9-47c4-83e3-857761571ab1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":1946,"audioMediaId":1947},"Everything changed for the powerful Aztecs in 1492, when Christopher Columbus stumbled across the Americas. Over the next few decades, thousands of Europeans traveled to the New World in search of riches, power and adventure.\n\n![Graph](image://566946f4-1458-45d0-bd96-9059675c74e5 \"Christopher Columbus. Image: Public domain\")\n\nOne of these men was Hernan Cortés, an ambitious young Spanish conquistador who, according to his secretary, 'had little wealth, but much honor.' He rode a ship to Cuba at the age of 19, where he took a job as a government administrator.\n\n![Graph](image://56cfc65a-ce64-41ab-8a6f-8566e597f124 \"Hernan Cortés. Image: Arrie.Irazabal, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe Cuban natives told their Spanish conquerors about a wealthy nation to the west. Hernan Cortés – now at the age of 33 – was given the task of exploring the region and finding out whether these rumors were true. In 1519 CE, he set sail for Mexico with 11 ships and just over 500 men.","0cf31188-f860-4e02-b0ff-75da6cf3404e",[1949,1960,1979],{"id":1950,"data":1951,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"25e609bc-480d-48f6-801d-de2cef3b91f3",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":1952,"multiChoiceCorrect":1954,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1956,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[1953],"When did Christopher Columbus stumble across the Americas?",[1955],"1492 CE",[1957,1958,1959],"1519 CE","1592 CE","1419 CE",{"id":1961,"data":1962,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"30ae58b9-0518-4a76-b91c-6eff83fd8802",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":1963,"multiChoiceQuestion":1967,"multiChoiceCorrect":1969,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1971,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":1975,"matchPairsPairs":1976},[1964,1965,1966],"98f491b2-2424-4635-a056-c4467a986ecc","5faf00fd-2213-448e-a450-04f363238d23","e60a1e5d-8c0c-4b6c-b984-10348e790df0",[1968],"Which Spanish conquistador went looking for the Aztecs after hearing rumors of a wealthy nation near Cuba?",[1970],"Hernan Cortés",[1972,1973,1974],"Moctezuma II","Henry VIII","Philip II",[243],[1977],{"left":1970,"right":1978,"direction":34},"Spanish conquistador",{"id":1980,"data":1981,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"56a06049-df4d-4d83-a7ae-1cdd92a5ea17",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":1982,"matchPairsPairs":1983,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[243],[1984,1987,1990,1993],{"left":1985,"right":1986,"direction":34},"Cortés age when he went to Cuba","19",{"left":1988,"right":1989,"direction":34},"Cortés age when he went to Mexico","33",{"left":1991,"right":1992,"direction":34},"Number of ships Cortés took to Mexico","11",{"left":1994,"right":1935,"direction":34},"Number of men Cortés took to Mexico",{"id":1996,"data":1997,"type":25,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":1999,"introPage":2007,"pages":2013},"26faf50e-f12a-48c6-980c-8797d68581d1",{"type":25,"title":1998},"The Battle of Tenochtitlán",{"id":2000,"data":2001,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"4337f95d-0fb1-4d4d-8261-25fc6751fe6b",{"type":34,"summary":2002},[2003,2004,2005,2006],"When the Spanish reached Tenochtitlán, Moctezuma II welcomed them in, as he saw diplomatic potential","This was a big mistake, as the Spanish took Moctezuma hostage, before (probably) ending his life","The Spanish proceeded to flee the city, but many were killed, in an event known as La Noche Triste","Cortés returned in 1521, leading a large coalition of Spanish soldiers and local warriors, which destroyed Tenochtitlán",{"id":2008,"data":2009,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"339d7e50-b7e1-42b7-85cb-6bcbc906e674",{"type":52,"intro":2010},[2011,2012],"How did the Spanish find common ground with the Totonacas and the Tlaxcalans?","What happened to Moctezuma, the Aztec emperor, when he invited the Spanish into his city?",[2014,2031,2051,2075,2088],{"id":2015,"data":2016,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2019},"694ada21-f913-4645-bbe1-709734a31f93",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2017,"audioMediaId":2018},"When Cortés and his men arrived in Mexico, the first people they encountered were not the Aztecs, but the Totonacas – one of the subject states of the Aztec Empire.\n\nThe Totonacas were amazed by these strange arrivals, with their pale skins, explosive weapons and metal armor.\n\nThe Spanish rode horses, an animal which the Totonacas had never seen before. Some historians believe that the Totonacas thought that these riders were actually a single beast, half-man and half-horse.\n\n![Graph](image://75a6284c-7715-4e4e-992e-5fe10dc9f135 \"The Totonacas. Image: Painting: Diego RiveraPhoto: Drkgk, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons\")","37c9b119-d9b9-4e24-a6f4-cdf6dc7b77f4",[2020],{"id":2021,"data":2022,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"6b34f179-49db-47c9-8908-f88f1194125a",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2023,"multiChoiceCorrect":2025,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2027,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2024],"Who were the first people Cortés and his men encountered in Mexico?",[2026],"The Totonacas",[2028,2029,2030],"The Aztecs","The Tlaxcalans","The Spanish",{"id":2032,"data":2033,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2036},"680a6776-2a9b-421b-989e-64685a93c86e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2034,"audioMediaId":2035},"The Totonacas introduced the Spanish to Gerónimo de Aguilar, a Spanish monk who had been shipwrecked in Mexico several years earlier, and managed to learn some of Totonacas' native language.\n\nHe helped Cortés to communicate with them, and the two sides realized that they shared a common goal: to overthrow the Aztec Empire.\n\nThe Totonacas brought the Spanish to speak with the Tlaxcalans, a more powerful state who had so far resisted being absorbed into the Aztec Empire. A tentative alliance was agreed, and the 500 Spaniards traveled to Tenochtitlán with the support of 6000 Tlaxcalan warriors.","f1374017-219e-40fb-bfdf-a5ce11cfc5d7",[2037,2044],{"id":2038,"data":2039,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"903c539d-fbd0-42fc-8516-04d4dba17873",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2040,"activeRecallAnswers":2042},[2041],"How were the Spanish able to communicate with the Totonacas?",[2043],"Gerónimo de Aguilar, a Spanish monk who had been shipwrecked in Mexico, knew some Totonaca language",{"id":2045,"data":2046,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"04ddc53b-e5d9-4ad8-807d-b4f168649119",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2047,"clozeWords":2049},[2048],"The Totonacas brought the Spanish to speak with the Tlaxcalans, a more powerful state who were rivals to the Aztec Empire.",[2050],"Tlaxcalans",{"id":2052,"data":2053,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":2056},"a2ab243e-d328-45df-9cb0-773d1d4681d1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2054,"audioMediaId":2055},"In November 1519, Hernan Cortés and his allied forces of Spaniards and Tlaxcalans arrived at the gates of Tenochtitlán. The reigning emperor, Moctezuma II, did not respond with hostility; instead, he welcomed the Spanish into the city as honored guests.\n\nSpanish historians later explained that Moctezuma saw Cortés as a white-skinned god, but this detail is probably untrue. In reality, he probably saw the diplomatic potential of allying with the Spanish, and did not want to offend them.\n\n![Graph](image://8cb510bf-8bca-4ec2-abe2-ddec620deda6 \"A depiction of Moctezuma. Image: Public domain\")\n\nWhatever his reasons, his decision to invite the Spanish into the city was a mistake. The Spanish betrayed him, taking him hostage in his own palace, then demanding gold from his frightened subjects in return for the emperor’s life.","da266cef-8251-427b-b73a-e26360d41ae7",[2057,2068],{"id":1964,"data":2058,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2059,"multiChoiceQuestion":2060,"multiChoiceCorrect":2062,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2063,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2064,"matchPairsPairs":2065},[1961,1965,1966],[2061],"What was the name of the Aztec emperor who met the Spanish at Tenochtitlán?",[1972],[1970,1973,1974],[243],[2066],{"left":1972,"right":2067,"direction":34},"Aztec emperor",{"id":2069,"data":2070,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"813ee24f-57bd-4f22-8ae7-c337fce500bd",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2071,"clozeWords":2073},[2072],"The Aztec emperor, Moctezuma II, welcomed the Spanish as honored guests.",[2074],"Spanish",{"id":2076,"data":2077,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2080},"80a9d708-ee82-4347-b760-4e11ae65fcc9",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2078,"audioMediaId":2079},"When the Spanish took Moctezuma hostage, Aztec warriors laid siege to the palace. In the confusion, the emperor was killed – historians don't know how it happened, but the Spanish probably panicked and ended his life.\n\nThey then tried to run from the giant city, carrying as much gold as they could carry. Weighed down by this treasure, hundreds of Spaniards were slain by the Aztecs in an event referred to as La Noche Triste, or ‘The Night of Sorrows’.\n\nHernan Cortés, and a handful of others, did manage to escape alive. And now that he'd tasted the riches of Tenochtitlán, he wanted to claim the entire city as his own. He spent the next two years strengthening his alliance with the Tlaxcalans, as well as recruiting other states and local tribes with personal vendettas against the Aztecs.","bb076881-417b-4cab-8c41-c2c2ecd42b1b",[2081],{"id":2082,"data":2083,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"f6ab8ed0-190c-484c-a687-8a1ce518b096",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2084,"activeRecallAnswers":2086},[2085],"After the death of Moctezuma, hundreds of Spaniards were slain while fleeing Tenochtitlán. What did the Spanish name this incident?",[2087],"La Noche Triste ('The Night of Sorrows')",{"id":2089,"data":2090,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":2093},"de251044-d2e6-4854-965b-2e28977d405b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2091,"audioMediaId":2092},"In 1521 CE, Cortés led an organized attack on the Aztec city, which later became known as the Battle of Tenochtitlán. His army consisted of almost a thousand Spaniards armed with cannons and explosives, plus tens of thousands of indigenous warriors. He cut off the city’s food and water, then launched attack after attack, wearing the Aztecs down.\n\n![Graph](image://dd04b213-f84c-43a7-8e3c-a08f51958149 \"Battle of Tenochtitlán. Image: Public domain\")\n\nAfter 93 days, the Aztec defense collapsed. The Spaniards surged into the city, destroying temples and burning districts, killing an estimated 100,000–240,000 Aztecs along the way.\n\nThe Spanish built a new city on the ruins of Tenochtitlán, which later became known as Mexico City. As for the native tribes who supported the attack, many of them found themselves dominated by the Spanish state. In some ways, all they'd done was swap the control of one powerful empire for another.","a7bc9b92-4668-4644-8571-75299001376e",[2094,2104,2118,2138],{"id":2095,"data":2096,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"bde835a0-59ef-4e3e-a525-88ddc3dee28a",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2097,"multiChoiceCorrect":2099,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2101,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2098],"Two years after the Night of Sorrows, the Spanish returned to capture Tenochtitlán. Who made up the majority of the Spanish army?",[2100],"Local warriors who resented the Aztecs",[2102,2103,458],"Local warriors who were hired by the Spanish","Spanish warriors who arrived from Europe",{"id":2105,"data":2106,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"e44e1917-6e19-4764-84aa-a6b7c725ad17",{"type":66,"reviewType":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":35,"orderQuestion":2107,"orderItems":2109},[2108],"Put these stages of the Siege of Tenochtitlán in order:",[2110,2112,2114,2116],{"label":2111,"reveal":626,"sortOrder":4},"Moctezuma II invited the Spanish into Tenochtitlán",{"label":2113,"reveal":626,"sortOrder":24},"The Spanish fled during La Noche Triste",{"label":2115,"reveal":626,"sortOrder":25},"The Spanish gathered a native army",{"label":2117,"reveal":626,"sortOrder":34},"The Spanish burned Tenochtitlán to the ground",{"id":2119,"data":2120,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"52448176-6399-4639-94af-55dc8c6236e0",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2121,"multiChoiceQuestion":2126,"multiChoiceCorrect":2128,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2130,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":2134,"orderItems":2135},[2122,2123,2124,2125],"a860e8c1-0719-4cec-9341-0562dc802b89","4efc7158-15c1-4316-843f-94b2cf72e1af","7364de96-1229-449b-b871-065e9d851b35","95da726f-9d45-45c4-b02d-4261234ef445",[2127],"When was the Battle of Tenochtitlán?",[2129],"1521 CE",[2131,2132,2133],"1588 CE","1815 CE","1896 CE",[138],[2136],{"label":2137,"reveal":2129,"sortOrder":4},"Battle of Tenochtitlán",{"id":2139,"data":2140,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"b97f22e7-ceb0-4118-9acd-12e432471285",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":2141,"matchPairsPairs":2142,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[243],[2143,2145,2147,2149],{"left":2144,"right":1461,"direction":34},"England",{"left":2146,"right":1774,"direction":34},"Turkey",{"left":2148,"right":2137,"direction":34},"Mexico",{"left":1109,"right":458,"direction":34},{"id":2151,"data":2152,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":2154,"introPage":2162,"pages":2168},"0e6a8f28-92b6-4810-845f-b96dc71e41d3",{"type":25,"title":2153},"The impact of Tenochtitlán",{"id":2155,"data":2156,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"0ebda851-dda6-4815-9f6b-056d94dcd028",{"type":34,"summary":2157},[2158,2159,2160,2161],"Cortés might have exaggerated his role in the Battle of Tenochtitlán in an attempt to glorify himself","Bartolomé de las Casas, a Spanish priest, condemned the Spanish atrocities against native peoples","Other Europeans, like Pizarro in Peru, used the defeat of the Aztecs as a model for conquering other territory","European diseases like smallpox also decimated native populations, making the Spanish conquest much easier",{"id":2163,"data":2164,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"86b6215a-82af-43c4-846e-99957bd83229",{"type":52,"intro":2165},[2166,2167],"What impact did the Battle of Tenochtitlán have on the wider world?","What might the world have looked like if the Spanish had lost the Battle of Tenochtitlán instead?",[2169,2191,2204,2209],{"id":2170,"data":2171,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2174},"d77460dd-18d2-4a0f-a781-c305c14a223f",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2172,"audioMediaId":2173},"The first reports of the Battle of Tenochtitlán came from Cortés himself, who sent an account of his victory back to Spain. This report is comprehensive, but it probably digresses from the truth in a number of places, as he exaggerated his own contribution to the battle, while also glorifying some of his cruel behavior against Aztecs foes. Other Spaniards were similarly self-congratulatory.\n\nBut not all of them took this approach. Bartolomé de las Casas, a Christian priest, gave a very different account of this battle, as he sought to raise awareness of the atrocities committed by Spaniards like Cortés at the expense of native peoples: 'What we committed in the Indies stands out among the most unpardonable offenses ever committed against God and mankind.'\n\nThe natives also wrote their own accounts. Many of these were destroyed or amended by Spanish colonists, but a few survived. The *Anales de Tlatelolco* is a heartfelt recollection of the empire’s collapse compiled by anonymous Aztec authors. A poem about the battle describes how 'Broken spears lie in the roads; we have torn our hair in grief. The houses are roofless now, and their walls are red with blood.'","efdf30bf-f5b2-4cbd-afa5-215a76250db9",[2175],{"id":2176,"data":2177,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"a1e642ba-7886-4e2b-84b3-493bc3df9455",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":2178,"matchPairsPairs":2180,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[2179],"How did each of these sources approach the Siege of Tenochtitlán?",[2181,2183,2186,2189],{"left":1970,"right":2182,"direction":34},"Glamorized the Spanish victory",{"left":2184,"right":2185,"direction":34},"Bartolomé de las Casas","Raised awareness of Spanish atrocities",{"left":2187,"right":2188,"direction":34},"Anonymous Aztec writers","Mourned the collapsed of the Aztecs",{"left":2190,"right":458,"direction":34},"Anonymous Tlaxcala writers",{"id":2192,"data":2193,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2196},"4a199684-9c19-4de7-a192-fb339342549b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2194,"audioMediaId":2195},"After the victory of the Spanish over the Aztec Empire, Europeans turned their attention to other parts of the Americas. In 1533 CE, a Spanish force led by Francisco Pizarro arrived in South America. Inspired by the tactics of Cortés, he destroyed the powerful Inca Empire, centered in modern day Peru, after assassinating the emperor and recruiting the support of local tribes.\n\nThese newly acquired American territories were rich in natural resources, and became a source of great wealth for the Spanish Empire. Many of the native peoples were enslaved, while Christian missionaries engaged in a process of mass conversion, wiping away any native religions and instituting Catholicism in their place.\n\nOther European countries took the same approach in North America, with the English and the French taking vast swathes of land from the indigenous peoples, killing and indoctrinating millions of natives along the way. The modern Americas are the product of these changes, with countries all the way from Canada to Chile irrevocably changed by the touch of European hands.","f3557e97-e3c3-4f86-a5a4-b38222f5f71e",[2197],{"id":2198,"data":2199,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"ee8eba16-410c-47ed-ad6a-5c80a40d69f8",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2200,"activeRecallAnswers":2202},[2201],"Which Spanish conquistador, inspired by Cortés, later overthrew the Inca Empire in Peru?",[2203],"Francisco Pizarro",{"id":2205,"data":2206,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25},"bba08d5e-08d5-48cb-a480-068cc90a35ac",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2207,"audioMediaId":2208},"If the Aztecs had defeated the allied forces of Hernan Cortés, so soon after the humiliation of ‘The Night of Sorrows’, the Europeans might have reevaluated their relationship with American civilizations. Rather than trying to conquer them by force, they might have taken a more cautious approach, trying to establish trade deals and build alliances.\n\nAs valuable trade partners to European nations, the American empires might have survived for hundreds of years, well into the modern age. Native cultures may have been allowed to endure, instead of being forcibly replaced by European alternatives. The most common language in Central America might have been Nahuatl, not Spanish, while the most common religion might have been Nahua, not Catholicism.\n\nThese native empires could have also played a role in major world events. For example, the Aztec Empire might have thrown their weight into World War One or World War Two, completely changing the course of these conflicts. All in all, the world could have been a very different place.","94b7507b-57df-4592-8cfa-bf9b322313fb",{"id":2210,"data":2211,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2214},"4fc20f2d-27a4-487d-b5b2-309f2a99dafd",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2212,"audioMediaId":2213},"Having said all that, there's another important factor to consider in relation to the fall of the Aztecs: the role of European diseases. When the first Spaniards arrived in the Americas, they brought foreign diseases like smallpox, mumps and measles, to which the native people lacked a natural immunity. In some places, more than 90% of the local people were killed by European disease.\n\nBecause of this, some historians have questioned the significance of the Spanish victory at Tenochtitlán. Even if the Aztecs had won, these insidious diseases would have eaten away at their numbers, and the empire would probably have collapsed anyway. In the words of Diego Muñoz Camargo, a contemporary Spanish historian: 'There was no resisting.'\n\n![Graph](image://28c256c2-9fb9-4746-b67c-83134752fe95 \"Aztec smallpox victims. Image: Public domain\")\n\nA single battle is capable of changing the course of history, but so are biological factors like plagues and diseases. If the Aztecs had been the ones carrying a devastating disease, and the Spanish had fallen victim to it, then the story of the Americas would have unfolded very differently.","9f8f458c-7896-47bd-b4e2-1a433b81a1c5",[2215,2225],{"id":1542,"data":2216,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2217,"multiChoiceQuestion":2218,"multiChoiceCorrect":2220,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2221,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2222,"matchPairsPairs":2223},[1538,1541],[2219],"What was the main consequence of the Battle of Tenochtitlán?",[1549],[1546,1548,458],[243],[2224],{"left":2137,"right":1549,"direction":34},{"id":2226,"data":2227,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"3c13a394-616f-4d1d-86a2-2511197ab35c",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2228,"activeRecallAnswers":2230},[2229],"Which biological factor has led some historians to question the ultimate significance of the Spanish victory at Tenochtitlán?",[2231],"The Aztecs lacked any natural immunity to European diseases",{"id":2233,"data":2234,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":41,"orbs":2237},"d8d9ef5d-4a01-4d98-aaa1-c43866f2f473",{"type":27,"title":2235,"tagline":2236},"The Battle of Gravelines (1588 CE)","A battle for global ascendancy",[2238,2330,2450],{"id":2239,"data":2240,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":2242,"introPage":2250,"pages":2256},"3c7e873e-9cda-44f1-8f07-2d72267cc9d3",{"type":25,"title":2241},"The Spanish Armada",{"id":2243,"data":2244,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"0d6e25c4-88c8-4490-9032-11f1291b97bd",{"type":34,"summary":2245},[2246,2247,2248,2249],"The Spanish Empire was so vast that it was called 'the empire on which the sun never sets'","The Spanish Empire was Catholic, but in 1517, Protestantism emerged in Germany","Some monarchs, like Henry VIII in England, embraced Protestantism as a way to break free from the Pope","Philip II of Spain, still devoutly Catholic, assembled the 'Invincible Armada' to attack Protestant England",{"id":2251,"data":2252,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"f3fcdffb-8ee1-44b5-9fb5-cfd89d957431",{"type":52,"intro":2253},[2254,2255],"What sparked the birth of Protestantism, and why did it appeal to some European monarchs?","How did the religious tension between Catholic Spain and Protestant England escalate into warfare?",[2257,2270,2295],{"id":2258,"data":2259,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2262},"a04f5c9f-e1fb-4f83-825e-3b57f5be223d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2260,"audioMediaId":2261},"The Spanish victory over the Aztec Empire helped to propel the Spanish crown into building a powerful empire.\n\nIn the latter half of the 16th century, they ruled a portion of Europe, the majority of the Americas, parts of Africa, and the Philippines. Some people called it ‘the empire on which the sun never sets’, as the territory covered so many time zones that it was always daytime somewhere.\n\nThe Spanish Empire was also a stronghold for Catholicism, and had the personal backing of the Pope. This relationship was extremely important to Spanish monarchs, who were generally devout catholics themselves.","c69100c9-f7fa-4ffd-bed4-0cdd7796bc20",[2263],{"id":2264,"data":2265,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"9fd30734-e2f7-41de-950a-089fb67f2905",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2266,"activeRecallAnswers":2268},[2267],"Why was the Spanish Empire called ‘the empire on which the sun never sets’?",[2269],"The empire covered so many time zones that it was always daytime somewhere",{"id":2271,"data":2272,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2275},"c59f61f4-f563-4afb-aa36-aa0a6488ad23",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2273,"audioMediaId":2274},"\nIn 1517 CE, a new branch of Christianity emerged in Germany. Protestantism, as it came to be known, was a protest against Catholicism. It encouraged people to reject the Pope, and focus instead on finding a personal relationship with God.\n\nAnd Protestantism was embraced by a number of European monarchs who wanted to break free from the interference of the Pope.\n\n![Graph](image://3bc88f36-f7f2-4682-9d7f-86693c0368de \"Early Protestant church. Image: Renelibrary, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nFor example, in 1534, Henry VIII famously turned England into a Protestant country by forming the Church of England. This allowed him to divorce his first wife, after the Pope had previously refused to annul the marriage.","a7ef5dd3-f22f-430c-98ee-015cf00e7313",[2276,2284],{"id":2277,"data":2278,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"99c635be-0b66-4e8d-88e1-c544dd1cee27",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2279,"binaryCorrect":2281,"binaryIncorrect":2282},[2280],"In the early 1500s, England and Spain were both Catholic. Which of these countries converted to Protestantism in 1534?",[2144],[2283],"Spain",{"id":1965,"data":2285,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2286,"multiChoiceQuestion":2287,"multiChoiceCorrect":2289,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2290,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2291,"matchPairsPairs":2292},[1961,1964,1966],[2288],"What was the name of the English king who embraced Protestantism by forming the Church of England?",[1973],[1970,1972,1974],[243],[2293],{"left":1973,"right":2294,"direction":34},"Protestant English king",{"id":2296,"data":2297,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2300},"9d38f657-336b-4c83-8db4-15bb5f0fde3d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2298,"audioMediaId":2299},"The Spanish crown wasn't tempted by Protestantism. Instead, they were horrified by the movement. Over the next few decades, their relationship with Protestant nations like England became increasingly tense.\n\nThis tension boiled over in the 1580s, when Philip II of Spain decided to tackle the forces of Protestantism head on. After all, he was ruling at the head of the most powerful empire on Earth. Why wouldn't he use this mighty power to take Protestantism down?\n\nHe proceeded to assemble the Spanish Armada, an enormous fleet of 130 ships. These ships were manned by 8000 sailors, with about 18,000 soldiers controlling the cannons and guns. The ‘Invincible Armada’, as it was known by some, set its sights upon Protestant England.\n\n![Graph](image://0d0376f5-e5be-45f6-bc65-8696f9b1bbb2 \"The Spanish Armada. Image: Public domain\")","bada47c3-90b4-4f05-9c56-5d3d5ee02221",[2301,2312,2323],{"id":1966,"data":2302,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2303,"multiChoiceQuestion":2304,"multiChoiceCorrect":2306,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2307,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2308,"matchPairsPairs":2309},[1961,1964,1965],[2305],"What was the name of the Spanish king who launched the Spanish Armada?",[1974],[1970,1972,1973],[243],[2310],{"left":1974,"right":2311,"direction":34},"Catholic Spanish king",{"id":2313,"data":2314,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"9b752db5-39f5-4581-8547-281a26b43218",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2315,"multiChoiceCorrect":2317,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2319,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2316],"What was the Spanish Armada, assembled by Philip II, also known as?",[2318],"The Invincible Armada",[2320,2321,2322],"The Unsinkable Armada","The Catholic Wind","The Protestant Wind",{"id":2324,"data":2325,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"067928c9-3e58-452f-9d0b-c1dc2e7f3c06",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2326,"activeRecallAnswers":2328},[2327],"How many ships were in the Spanish Armada?",[2329],"130",{"id":2331,"data":2332,"type":25,"version":41,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":2334,"introPage":2342,"pages":2348},"55a89e3d-4be6-471e-90ca-110d65e43dc5",{"type":25,"title":2333},"The Battle of Gravelines",{"id":2335,"data":2336,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"480f803a-94a5-4974-b37a-e1fd950b8de1",{"type":34,"summary":2337},[2338,2339,2340,2341],"When the Spanish Armada moved against England in 1588, the English monarch was Elizabeth I","The Spanish outnumbered the English, but the English ships were more nimble and had longe range cannons","The English managed to scatter the Spanish, who retreated back towards Spain","The Spanish were caught in unfavorable winds, and ended up losing half its ships at the Battle of Gravelines",{"id":2343,"data":2344,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"ea865878-2b61-4bc3-a345-857bd66a2522",{"type":52,"intro":2345},[2346,2347],"Who commanded the English and Spanish fleets during the Battle of Gravelines?","How did a gust of wind help one of these sides to win this battle against the odds?",[2349,2374,2396],{"id":2350,"data":2351,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":41,"reviews":2354},"e7e941f9-2596-42ea-b836-c13a6c75077a",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2352,"audioMediaId":2353},"When the Spanish Armada first set sail, the English monarch was Elizabeth I, the daughter of Henry VIII.\n\nJust like her father, Elizabeth had promoted Protestantism in her country, while also funding Protestant movements in France and the Netherlands. This proactive attitude was part of the reason why Philip II had decided to intervene, and claim England as his own.\n\nIn 1588 CE, the Spanish Armada entered the English Channel. It was commanded by the Duke of Medina Sidonia, a well-respected Spanish aristocrat with a reputation for being a devout Catholic. Before the departure of the fleet, Philip II said to Medina that 'the cause being the cause of God, you will not fail.'\n\nBut Philip II was wrong.","80d39246-0519-426f-a2ee-5a3ef4f4df33",[2355],{"id":2356,"data":2357,"type":66,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":34},"38b88a16-ad28-4563-9572-42004a34437b",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2358,"multiChoiceQuestion":2362,"multiChoiceCorrect":2364,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2366,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2370,"matchPairsPairs":2371},[2359,2360,2361],"d4c6c294-b33e-43b0-994a-83aa1bcac6ad","8c058763-754c-4eed-a11e-ac64a4d835eb","e9ba35c6-12b8-4b45-867f-662a177cf222",[2363],"Who was the the ruler of England when the Spanish Armada set sail?",[2365],"Elizabeth I",[2367,2368,2369],"Napoleon","Menilek II","Taytu Betul",[243],[2372],{"left":2365,"right":2373,"direction":34},"English queen",{"id":2375,"data":2376,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":2379},"7749ad40-0115-40b9-a3c9-7bb295515e13",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2377,"audioMediaId":2378},"England wasn't as rich and powerful as the Spanish Empire. But it was still a wealthy nation which refused to go down without a fight.\n\nElizabeth assembled a defensive force of 40 warships under the command of Lord Howard of Effingham, a High Admiral, and Francis Drake, an enigmatic sea captain with previous experience fighting against Spanish ships.\n\nThe fleets made contact on July 31st, 1588.","f0f38965-bfa9-4215-b4ae-b1de924ccbd9",[2380],{"id":2381,"data":2382,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"db630233-1b06-4642-ba8e-374486b9f235",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":2383,"matchPairsPairs":2384,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[243],[2385,2388,2391,2394],{"left":2386,"right":2387,"direction":34},"Commanded the Spanish Armada","Duke of Medina Sidonia",{"left":2389,"right":2390,"direction":34},"High Admiral (co-commanded English fleet)","Lord Howard of Effingham",{"left":2392,"right":2393,"direction":34},"Enigmatic sea captain (co-commanded English fleet)","Francis Drake",{"left":458,"right":2395,"direction":34},"Admiral Horatio Nelson",{"id":2397,"data":2398,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2401},"4416be86-020d-409f-8245-43705fb116e7",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2399,"audioMediaId":2400},"Despite the superior size of the Spanish fleet, the English ships were more nimble and maneuverable than their Spanish counterparts. They were also carrying advanced cannons which were capable of firing over longer distances.\n\nAfter a week of active fighting, the English managed to scatter the Spanish Armada. They closed in for the kill at Gravelines, off the coast of France.\n\nAt Gravelines, the Spanish were hindered by a powerful wind, which prevented them from getting into a defensive formation. The battle ended with an English victory, and the Armada was forced to retreat to Spain, pounded by more winds along the way.\n\nBy the time they got back, the ‘Invincible Armada’ had lost almost half of its famous ships, and suffered approximately 15,000 deaths.\n\n![Graph](image://9d633d42-6db0-43f1-b303-7253a6d0a9d0 \"The Battle of Gravelines. Image: Public domain\")","59882205-62fa-46ca-9f0d-f696f931e2d4",[2402,2416,2427,2439],{"id":2403,"data":2404,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c0bd9e89-7070-47cb-af2a-97a7054c9c80",{"type":66,"reviewType":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":35,"orderQuestion":2405,"orderItems":2407},[2406],"Put these stages of the Battle of Gravelines in order:",[2408,2410,2412,2414],{"label":2409,"sortOrder":4},"The English scattered the Spanish Armada",{"label":2411,"sortOrder":24},"The Spanish retreated to Gravelines",{"label":2413,"sortOrder":25},"The Spanish were hindered by a powerful wind",{"label":2415,"sortOrder":34},"The Spanish retreated to Spain",{"id":2417,"data":2418,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"e4607400-06f3-47a6-b272-2cbd72120ac2",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2419,"multiChoiceCorrect":2421,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2424,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2420],"What two advantages did the English fleet have over the Spanish Armada?",[2422,2423],"Their ships were more nimble","Their cannons fired further",[2425,2426],"They had more ships","Their ships were better armored",{"id":2122,"data":2428,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2429,"multiChoiceQuestion":2430,"multiChoiceCorrect":2432,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2433,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":2435,"orderItems":2436},[2119,2123,2124,2125],[2431],"When was the Battle at Gravelines?",[2131],[2132,2133,2434],"1942 CE",[138],[2437],{"label":2438,"reveal":2131,"sortOrder":24},"Battle of Gravelines",{"id":2440,"data":2441,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c7e76da2-a8b5-4405-9e2f-7ccf585cd7c5",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2442,"multiChoiceCorrect":2444,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2446,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2443],"After the Battle of Gravelines, the ‘Invincible Armada’ had lost how many ships?",[2445],"Almost half",[2447,2448,2449],"More than half","A third","None of them",{"id":2451,"data":2452,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":2454,"introPage":2461,"pages":2467},"14336436-3359-41f5-9c89-d2568ff534bf",{"type":25,"title":2453},"The impact of Gravelines",{"id":2455,"data":2456,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"b8eaa622-6b7f-4d9c-a9e4-0451b56d8e25",{"type":34,"summary":2457},[2458,2459,2460],"The English victory at Gravelines boosted Protestant confidence, who thought God had sent winds to help them","The victory also boosted English confidence, and served as a springboard for the expansion of the British Empire","The English attacked Spain with a Counter Armada in 1589, but this attack was a total failure",{"id":2462,"data":2463,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"865ba825-8c41-4d8e-8c4c-6a8828843610",{"type":52,"intro":2464},[2465,2466],"What impact did the Battle of Gravelines have on the wider world?","What might the world have looked like if the English had lost the Battle of Gravelines instead?",[2468,2481,2494],{"id":2469,"data":2470,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2473},"21afe3db-c9e5-4d45-bfa0-8eb1a658b15e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2471,"audioMediaId":2472},"The victory of the English against the Spanish Armada had been helped, in part, by a series of favorable winds.\n\nMany Protestants believed that these winds had been sent by God himself, in a mark of support for Protestantism at the expense of the Catholic Church. Commemorative medals were engraved with the following: 'He blew with His winds, and they were scattered.'\n\nThis gave confidence to the Protestants, who went from strength to strength in the centuries which followed. In the modern world, approximately a third of all Christians are Protestants, while half are Catholic.\n\nThe English nation also gained confidence from the battle. Elizabeth I began to send her ships into the wider world, as the British started to build an empire of their own. At its height, this empire dwarfed the Spanish, and became the largest empire in history.\n\n![Graph](image://9468d204-778d-4074-85d6-4cf793bc8415 \"Queen Elizabeth I. Image: Public domain\")","5b9e5635-0cf8-4902-891c-7465ee0f4d54",[2474],{"id":2475,"data":2476,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"1062165d-987d-4a10-8f2e-3cb4b757bf4f",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2477,"activeRecallAnswers":2479},[2478],"What did Protestants believe about the winds that helped the English defeat the Spanish Armada?",[2480],"That they had been sent by God",{"id":2482,"data":2483,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2486},"1f4e4a95-6f27-4ddf-8498-28dfb1b43ca2",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2484,"audioMediaId":2485},"If the Spanish had won at the Battle of Gravelines, it would probably have destroyed any British hopes of building an empire of their own. Instead, they would have been absorbed into the Spanish empire, which could have expanded, unopposed, across the globe.\n\nModern countries, like the United States of America, would have looked completely different. Instead of thirteen British colonies, which became an independent country in 1776, North America would have probably been colonized by the Spanish.\n\nIn terms of religion, the world would have looked different too. Defeat at Gravelines would have been a major blow to early Protestantism, which might have struggled to properly recover. Almost a billion Protestants in the world today may have needed to place their faith somewhere else instead.","11ccccc1-6409-4a9e-ac23-89ba4b9f70ab",[2487],{"id":2488,"data":2489,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"2a65d7d0-6282-4bad-82ed-499cb72a4ae5",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2490,"activeRecallAnswers":2492},[2491],"If the Spanish had won at the Battle of Gravelines, what would have happened to Britain?",[2493],"It would have probably been absorbed into the Spanish empire",{"id":2495,"data":2496,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2499},"409bc82d-24d5-4ab4-9d7b-e49c8bfc93d7",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2497,"audioMediaId":2498},"In 1589 CE, a year after the Battle of Gravelines, England actually launched what is sometimes known as the Counter Armada. This fleet of more than a hundred ships set sail for Spain in the hope of capitalizing on the weakened Spanish navy.\n\nThis attack proved costly for the English, with the Counter Armada faring just as badly as the Spanish Armada before it. This time, the winds were against the English, which disrupted their planned attack. They lost almost half of their ships to Spanish defenders, before being forced to retreat back to England.\n\nSome historians have called this event the greatest naval disaster in British history, but it was seen very differently at the time. Elizabeth I banned any sources from presenting the event too negatively. This propaganda worked wonders – even today, the defeat of the Counter Armada gets far less attention than the defeat of the Spanish Armada.","d857109e-d0f2-4a7c-b330-3eafc89e6d12",[2500,2510,2529],{"id":2501,"data":2502,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"b3b89082-9779-473e-aa62-1ad69145ff12",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2503,"multiChoiceCorrect":2505,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2507,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2504],"What was the name of the English fleet that was sent to Spain a year after the Battle of Gravelines?",[2506],"The Counter Armada",[2508,2509,2318],"The Second Armada","The English Armada",{"id":2511,"data":2512,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c87e3cb4-1f94-4608-bedf-ddb7080efab9",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2513,"multiChoiceQuestion":2517,"multiChoiceCorrect":2519,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2521,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2525,"matchPairsPairs":2526},[2514,2515,2516],"0a8efde2-ce21-473a-9e94-de0e6e271e69","95642c45-f0c9-49d7-b1b7-3e7249fc29de","53012d74-294c-4988-8dd5-83a6066aed3f",[2518],"What was the main consequence of the Battle at Gravelines?",[2520],"British empire",[2522,2523,2524],"Pax Britannica","Treaty of Addis Ababa","Allied victory at WW2",[243],[2527],{"left":2528,"right":2520,"direction":34},"Battle at Gravelines",{"id":2530,"data":2531,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"6a6bea0d-c473-46e7-87f9-d2a99e23109d",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2532,"multiChoiceCorrect":2534,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2537,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2533],"Who gained confidence after the Battle of Gravelines?",[2535,2536],"The British","Protestantism",[2030,2538],"Catholicism",{"id":2540,"data":2541,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"orbs":2544},"487ad1e9-639e-416d-badf-17a45d2a9f0a",{"type":27,"title":2542,"tagline":2543},"The Battle of Waterloo (1815 CE)","A stand against Napoleon Bonaparte",[2545,2651,2783],{"id":2546,"data":2547,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":2549,"introPage":2557,"pages":2563},"4a05d696-3f95-400e-a11c-14957f6ffe9d",{"type":25,"title":2548},"Napoleon Bonaparte",{"id":2550,"data":2551,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"62adaae0-2aa7-448e-ab8d-ecc73b8a84a1",{"type":34,"summary":2552},[2553,2554,2555,2556],"After the French Revolution, the monarchy was replaced by the Jacobins (too violent) then the Directory (too weak) ","Napoleon Bonaparte launched a military coup, removing the Directory and declaring himself Emperor of France","Napoleon revolutionized modern warfare with fast-moving armies, which helped him conquer large parts of Europe","Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 was a failure, and led to his downfall and exile on the island of Elba",{"id":2558,"data":2559,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"3d78e126-f542-4409-9f4e-d9428c782bef",{"type":52,"intro":2560},[2561,2562],"How did Napoleon manage to become the first ever emperor of France?","What innovative strategies did Napoleon use to conquer large parts of Europe?",[2564,2585,2600],{"id":2565,"data":2566,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2569},"bc6fcd12-9502-4a05-aa9e-7cdc913b6755",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2567,"audioMediaId":2568},"The French Revolution was a defining moment in world history. It showed that the united strength of common people had the power to topple a monarchy. In 1793 CE, King Louis XVI was executed by the French people, followed by his wife, Marie Antoinette, a few months later.\n\nThis sent shockwaves across the globe. Established monarchies, many of which had ruled their kingdoms for hundreds of years, looked suddenly vulnerable.\n\nThis helped to spark the Irish Rebellion of 1798, and the Spanish American wars of independence, where South American nations broke free from the Spanish crown and began to govern their countries independently. After the abolition of the French monarchy, a republic was established in its place.","00222e27-9640-4aef-8af8-57daade4dd25",[2570,2578],{"id":2571,"data":2572,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"f026a7ee-8921-401a-aeec-41dc762db965",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2573,"activeRecallAnswers":2575},[2574],"What were the names of the king and his wife who were executed by the people of France in 1793 CE?",[2576,2577],"King Louis XVI","Marie Antoinette",{"id":2579,"data":2580,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"05b243bc-ff9e-40d2-a1b9-caa3b221b1d9",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2581,"clozeWords":2583},[2582],"After the abolition of the French monarchy, a republic was established in its place.",[2584],"republic",{"id":2586,"data":2587,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2590},"203b7a06-2f26-498a-9e1a-0520199fbebf",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2588,"audioMediaId":2589},"To begin with, France's new republic was headed by a group called the Jacobins. They were violent and extreme, and worried about the threat of counter-revolutionaries. This led to something called the Reign of Terror, where the Jacobins executed roughly 17,000 people.\n\nThey were soon replaced by another group called the Directory. But where the Jacobins had been too violent and extreme, the Directory was too weak and moderate.\n\nIn 1799, a French general by the name of Napoleon Bonaparte launched a military coup. He was a sharply ambitious military leader who'd made a name for himself during the French Revolution, winning a number of battles against royalist forces. Now, he declared himself ruler of the country – and in 1804, he officially became the first ever Emperor of France.\n\n![Graph](image://7afa8db3-07ae-4d56-93df-8cb576ec677f \"Napoleon Bonaparte. Image: Public domain\")","0b4ea0af-9ee8-40eb-a269-eb5427c98ee1",[2591],{"id":2592,"data":2593,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"99d01694-c535-4b52-bb11-3b505f64a396",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2594,"binaryCorrect":2596,"binaryIncorrect":2598},[2595],"One of these groups was violent and extreme, while the other was moderate and weak. Which one was violent and extreme?",[2597],"The Jacobins",[2599],"The Directory",{"id":2601,"data":2602,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2605},"77ed2b69-4b1a-41cd-8562-64608165fef0",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2603,"audioMediaId":2604},"Napoleon Bonaparte was a passionate nationalist, whose first priority was to turn his country into a global power. After officially declaring himself Emperor of France, he started conquering the rest of Europe.\n\nNapoleon revolutionized modern warfare, building fast-moving armies which could move from place to place before the enemy had time to properly prepare. They carried lighter weapons, and did not bother to bring any food supplies with them. Instead, they foraged what they needed from the surrounding landscape, raiding towns and farms as they passed.\n\nAt the height of its power, the French Empire controlled most of western and central Europe, including Spain, Italy, and the Holy Roman Empire.\n\nIn 1812, Napoleon set his sights upon Russia, but this decision proved disastrous. The French struggled to forage enough food along the way, and in their weakened state, they were defeated at the Battle of Leipzig. Napoleon was forced to abdicate the throne and go into exile on the Mediterranean island of Elba.\n\n![Graph](image://851f165f-fc0c-4da7-be47-ca698d4a2d3d \"The Battle of Leipzig. Image: Public domain\")","31069f89-0fe7-4609-ba79-24650164faf7",[2606,2617,2628,2635],{"id":2359,"data":2607,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2608,"multiChoiceQuestion":2609,"multiChoiceCorrect":2611,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2612,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2613,"matchPairsPairs":2614},[2356,2360,2361],[2610],"In 1804, who officially became the first ever Emperor of France?",[2367],[2365,2368,2369],[243],[2615],{"left":2367,"right":2616,"direction":34},"French emperor",{"id":2618,"data":2619,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"fecb2f07-8b52-456e-b7b1-c03bc9dcbc84",{"type":66,"reviewType":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":35,"orderQuestion":2620,"orderItems":2622},[2621],"In what order did these groups rule France?",[2623,2625,2626,2627],{"label":2624,"sortOrder":4},"The French monarchy",{"label":2597,"sortOrder":24},{"label":2599,"sortOrder":25},{"label":2548,"sortOrder":34},{"id":2629,"data":2630,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"d93d87ec-d9ad-4cbd-998b-0cd582d2e82e",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2631,"activeRecallAnswers":2633},[2632],"Why did Napoleon's armies forage food while they traveled, instead of bringing food with them?",[2634],"Fewer supplies meant faster movement",{"id":2636,"data":2637,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"9236ac67-c8da-49f4-a434-2840df65db4a",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":2638,"matchPairsPairs":2639,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[243],[2640,2643,2646,2649],{"left":2641,"right":2642,"direction":34},"Enemy nation targeted by Napoleon in 1812","Russia",{"left":2644,"right":2645,"direction":34},"Location of French loss against Russia","Leipzig",{"left":2647,"right":2648,"direction":34},"Island where Napoleon was exiled after loss","Elba",{"left":458,"right":2650,"direction":34},"Prussia",{"id":2652,"data":2653,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":2655,"introPage":2663,"pages":2669},"3de5fc5c-f974-4db2-bfd1-dfe8d5146678",{"type":25,"title":2654},"The Battle of Waterloo",{"id":2656,"data":2657,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"b5eabbb3-4854-46fd-9cee-682e1e2aa7f2",{"type":34,"summary":2658},[2659,2660,2661,2662],"Napoleon returned from exile in 1815 and quickly launched an attack in Belgium","The French defeated the Prussian army at Ligny, but some Prussians managed to escape","Next, the French approached the British at Waterloo, but delated their attack due to muddy conditions","This gave the Prussians a chance to join the British, and work together to defeat the French",{"id":2664,"data":2665,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"953f0165-a9d4-4fe6-b485-3428677f26b7",{"type":52,"intro":2666},[2667,2668],"What strategic mistake did Napoleon make in the buildup to Waterloo?","How did Napoleon ultimately end his life?",[2670,2705,2725,2749],{"id":2671,"data":2672,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2675},"e1f1c925-d93c-4a3b-92ea-73c5158fb41c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2673,"audioMediaId":2674},"Napoleon’s exile on the island of Elba lasted less than a year. In 1815, he returned to Paris, where he was welcomed by cheering crowds. Fearing another wave of French attacks, a coalition of allied countries, including Russia, Britain, Austria and Prussia, prepared for war.\n\n![Graph](image://af724853-de4d-4e45-8f7c-525e6d5d81a5 \"The Battle of Ligny. Image: Public domain\")\n\nThese countries had hoped to combine their forces into a single army, but before they had the chance, Napoleon launched one of his notoriously quickfire attacks. He marched into Belgium, where the British army and the Prussian army were camped a few miles apart. Napoleon targeted the Prussians first. As the French advanced, he rallied his troops: 'the moment has come to conquer or perish!'\n\nThe Prussian army was decimated, but the French attack didn’t go entirely to plan. A group of the Prussians managed to escape from the battle. The French did not know it at the time, but this escape would come back to bite them.","1f2c7e31-efe4-498b-a5c9-7843581bd838",[2676,2687,2694],{"id":2677,"data":2678,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"3f21dfef-5dca-4e0b-bf4c-0c812e184000",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2679,"multiChoiceCorrect":2681,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2683,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2680],"For how long did Napoleon remain exiled on Elba?",[2682],"Less than a year",[2684,2685,2686],"Six years","Less than a month","The rest of his life",{"id":2688,"data":2689,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"154af746-4937-44d9-b843-df02641cb89a",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2690,"activeRecallAnswers":2692},[2691],"When Napoleon returned from his exile, how did countries like Russia, Britain, Austria and Prussia respond?",[2693],"Fearing another wave of French attacks, they formed a defensive coalition",{"id":2695,"data":2696,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"e378f4b8-cb77-473d-83c4-7a3fef907018",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2697,"multiChoiceCorrect":2699,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2701,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2698],"Before his enemies had time to combine their forces, who did Napoleon attack (and decimate) in Belgium?",[2700],"The Prussian army",[2702,2703,2704],"The British army","The Russian army","The Austrian army",{"id":2706,"data":2707,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2710},"6b7dfb32-422e-4ed1-af34-595199535269",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2708,"audioMediaId":2709},"After defeating the Prussians at the Battle of Ligny, Napoleon turned his attention to the British, where they were camped near the village of Waterloo. The British army, led by the Duke of Wellington, took up a defensive position at the top of a ridge.\n\nWhen they arrived at the ridge, Napoleon made his army wait. The ground was wet after a recent rainstorm, and he wanted it to dry, so that the mud wouldn’t slow his soldiers down. But this decision was a big mistake.\n\n![Graph](image://2373aa3b-b728-4e68-9c89-c48b2b162d02 \"The Battle of Waterloo. Image: Public domain\")\n\nThe delays gave the remnants of the Prussian army enough time to circle back to Waterloo. The French found themselves suddenly outnumbered, with the British and the Prussians attacking on both sides. Napoleon was forced to stage a chaotic retreat. More than 10,000 soldiers were killed at Waterloo, most of them French.","decf1443-f0af-42c5-aa32-5c7873a63b18",[2711],{"id":2712,"data":2713,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"62c43a2e-6470-499b-aa96-d985e2616424",{"type":66,"reviewType":15,"spacingBehaviour":24,"orderAxisType":35,"orderQuestion":2714,"orderItems":2716},[2715],"Put these stages of the Battle of Waterloo in order:",[2717,2719,2721,2723],{"label":2718,"sortOrder":4},"A group of Prussians escaped the French at Ligny",{"label":2720,"sortOrder":24},"The French marched to attack the British",{"label":2722,"sortOrder":25},"Napoleon ordered his army to wait for the mud to dry",{"label":2724,"sortOrder":34},"A group of Prussians arrived to support the British",{"id":2726,"data":2727,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2730},"7aed7cd7-008a-490e-9c8f-83a17a95dd46",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2728,"audioMediaId":2729},"The French defeat marked the end of Napoleon’s dream of conquering Europe. He returned to France, before abdicating the throne for the second time in three years.\n\nHe went into exile on the island of Saint Helena. This time, he never returned. He spent 6 years on the island, until he died of stomach cancer at the age of 51.\n\nIn his final will, Napoleon wrote the following: 'I wish my ashes to rest on the banks of the Seine, in the midst of that French people which I have loved so much.' Instead, his body was buried on Saint Helena.","b1b50344-0253-4996-9b62-53b4647c6e9d",[2731,2738],{"id":2732,"data":2733,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"b3d9acd0-7b3c-43bf-afdc-4b9f86754be1",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2734,"activeRecallAnswers":2736},[2735],"After his defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon went into exile for the second time. Where was he exiled?",[2737],"Saint Helena",{"id":2739,"data":2740,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"0d07eda3-99a9-4185-80e1-eb658ba194ba",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2741,"multiChoiceCorrect":2743,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2745,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2742],"Where was Napoleon buried?",[2744],"On Saint Helena",[2746,2747,2748],"By the Seine","In Russia","At Waterloo",{"id":2750,"data":2751,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2754},"1d116499-73fa-4c11-8ac6-c90f21eb40ea",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2752,"audioMediaId":2753},"There's no shortage of sources from the Battle of Waterloo, including letters and journal entries from a number of soldiers who were directly involved in the conflict.\n\nFor example, in a letter written by the Duke of Wellington, we learn that the British victory did not come without loss: 'My heart is broken by the terrible loss \\[...\\] my old friends and companions and my poor soldiers.'\n\nHowever, Wellington points out one of the problems with using primary sources to understand a historical battle. Warfare is crowded and chaotic, which makes it hard for an eyewitness to recall events with perfect clarity: 'no individual can recollect the order in which, or the exact moment at which, they occurred.'\n\nTheir memories will also be blurred by their emotions, either triumph or remorse, or in the case of Wellington, a little bit of both.\n\nLuckily, historians can clarify accounts by comparing them with archeological findings. Unlike a number of older battles, the Waterloo battlefield can be visited and studied today.","b6aadfa5-f5cd-480c-b47f-abf0a9769fec",[2755,2763,2772],{"id":2756,"data":2757,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"4a03f0ee-fd90-4b83-9be8-360422d5f33b",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2758,"multiChoiceCorrect":2760,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2762,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2759],"Despite winning the Battle of Waterloo, who wrote in a letter that \"my heart is broken\" by the terrible loss of life?",[2761],"Duke of Wellington",[2548,2390,2395],{"id":2764,"data":2765,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"31e779c0-7182-4430-b12c-a846e6b90a9d",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2766,"binaryCorrect":2768,"binaryIncorrect":2770},[2767],"As an archaeological site, can the Battle of Waterloo still be visited by modern historians?",[2769],"Yes",[2771],"No",{"id":2123,"data":2773,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2774,"multiChoiceQuestion":2775,"multiChoiceCorrect":2777,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2778,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":2779,"orderItems":2780},[2119,2122,2124,2125],[2776],"When was the Battle of Waterloo?",[2132],[2133,2434,2129],[138],[2781],{"label":2782,"reveal":2132,"sortOrder":25},"Battle of Waterloo",{"id":2784,"data":2785,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":2787,"introPage":2794,"pages":2800},"679e1790-b128-4e13-b441-0ed4ab97b30d",{"type":25,"title":2786},"The impact of Waterloo",{"id":2788,"data":2789,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"3afec200-8695-46c8-9927-cccf38bd178b",{"type":34,"summary":2790},[2791,2792,2793],"Napoleon’s defeat at Waterloo led to almost a century of peace in western Europe, known as Pax Britannica","Pax Britannica was maintained by Britain, who no longer had serious international rivals, and acted as a global policeman","After Waterloo, Prussia became the most powerful state in a new German Confederation",{"id":2795,"data":2796,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"30c17784-6995-427e-be66-38c918b1b6a5",{"type":52,"intro":2797},[2798,2799],"What impact did the Battle of Waterloo have on the wider world?","What might the world have looked like if the British and Prussians had lost the Battle of Waterloo instead?",[2801,2824,2849,2854],{"id":2802,"data":2803,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2806},"0e358ddc-7143-470f-8ad8-64a1c0a7415d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2804,"audioMediaId":2805},"Napoleon’s death led to a period of peace in western Europe, which lasted for almost a hundred years. This period of peace is sometimes referred to as Pax Britannica, or ‘British Peace’.\n\nWhy? Because the victory over France had left Britain with no serious international rivals. They assumed the role of global policeman, maintaining peace – but always on British terms.\n\nThe nation’s previous rival for global power, the Spanish Empire, had dwindled in the centuries since the Battle of Gravelines, and suffered greatly during the Spanish American wars of independence. After the Battle of Waterloo, Britain’s power was completely undisputed.","83412ed6-ce79-4e7f-82f3-65c4d450ea54",[2807,2817],{"id":2514,"data":2808,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2809,"multiChoiceQuestion":2810,"multiChoiceCorrect":2812,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2813,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2814,"matchPairsPairs":2815},[2511,2515,2516],[2811],"Which of these was an important consequence of the Battle of Waterloo?",[2522],[2520,2523,2524],[243],[2816],{"left":2782,"right":2522,"direction":34},{"id":2818,"data":2819,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"362e3bbb-d7e4-4e2b-96a9-2a9b1f11bcac",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2820,"activeRecallAnswers":2822},[2821],"What does Pax Britannica translate as?",[2823],"British Peace",{"id":2825,"data":2826,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2829},"c7b529ca-81de-4bba-928d-dbfcf5d2d6f1",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2827,"audioMediaId":2828},"While Britain flourished after Waterloo, their allies in the battle, the Kingdom of Prussia, also went from strength to strength.\n\nFor hundreds of years, Prussia had been part of the Holy Roman Empire, a collection of states which had clung together since the coronation of Charlemagne in 800 CE. In 1806, these states were claimed by Napoleon’s forces, but after the Battle of Waterloo, the French were forced to withdraw. In 1815, a new entity was created to replace the Holy Roman Empire: the German Confederation.\n\nPrussia was the most powerful state in the German Confederation. In 1871, when the German Confederation formally unified into a single nation, the Prussian king, Wilhelm I, became the country’s first Kaiser, or emperor. His grandson, Wilhelm II, was a driving force behind World War One – the conflict which brought Pax Britannica to an end.","7d7b06c8-6fa9-41c2-a678-dcd1ef770f21",[2830,2840],{"id":2831,"data":2832,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"16d95de4-3210-4c68-94b8-8f5ca5588170",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2833,"multiChoiceCorrect":2835,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2836,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2834],"The German Confederation formed in the aftermath of Waterloo. Which was the most powerful state in this Confederation?",[2650],[2837,2838,2839],"Luxembourg","Saxony","Austria",{"id":2841,"data":2842,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"f552fc2d-65c8-4968-b7bf-5810e03122b5",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2843,"binaryCorrect":2845,"binaryIncorrect":2847},[2844],"In 1871, when the German Confederation formally unified into a single nation, who was the country's first Kaiser?",[2846],"Wilhelm I",[2848],"Charles I",{"id":2850,"data":2851,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25},"7a080ba0-708e-4424-a069-347f59d3707d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2852,"audioMediaId":2853},"If the French had won at the Battle of Waterloo, then Napoleon might have gone on to achieve his dream of conquering all of Europe. The Pax Britannica period of history would never have taken place, with a Napoleonic Era unfolding across the continent instead.\n\nAs the emperor of France, Napoleon stripped the rights of women, as well as reinstating colonial slavery. Presumably, he would have made similar changes across Europe, drastically reducing the personal freedoms of millions of people. He was also staunchly anti-democratic, and would have probably blocked the growth of democracy where it was developing in places like Britain.\n\nAnother impact of a French victory would have been the disappearance of the German nation. If the French had won the Battle of Waterloo, they would have retained control over the former states of the Holy Roman Empire. And if Germany had never existed, maybe World War One, led by Kaiser Wilhelm II, and World War Two, led by the Nazi Party, would never have come to pass.","d9f6a47e-a16a-4216-b439-8539c7cde554",{"id":2855,"data":2856,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2859},"526ee566-cedb-4e72-9737-786809c6422c",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2857,"audioMediaId":2858},"In 1852, a couple of decades after the fall of Napoleon’s French Empire, a new ruler took to the throne: Louis-Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon himself. He wanted to continue what his uncle had started, and his reign is sometimes known as the Second French Empire.\n\n![Graph](image://ea8fda65-c234-49a1-b0f2-eb2df08f5fb2 \"Louis-Napoleon. Image: Public domain\")\n\nThis imperial period wasn’t entirely unsuccessful. Louis-Napoleon focused his attention on overseas territories, and managed to set up colonies in Southeast Asia and parts of Africa. He also briefly established control over Mexico, until the Mexicans fought back and the French were forced to withdraw.\n\nHowever, the Second French Empire was ultimately short-lived. Prussia was growing as a political power, and under mounting pressure from the French public, Louis-Napoleon reluctantly declared war on them. He was swiftly defeated and dethroned, and spent the rest of his life in exile, exactly like his uncle.","ec0d5f2f-8f1a-4537-bb25-591e63a0b329",[2860,2871,2881],{"id":2861,"data":2862,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"30060cf8-8820-4d8c-abb1-322623459cab",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2863,"multiChoiceCorrect":2865,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2867,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2864],"In 1852, Napoleon's nephew took control of France. What was his name?",[2866],"Louis-Napoleon",[2868,2869,2870],"Charles-Napoleon","Alain-Napoleon","Jean-Napoleon",{"id":2872,"data":2873,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"4423bf94-501f-4917-be7e-c7d5c2dd2a50",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2874,"multiChoiceCorrect":2876,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2879,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2875],"Louis-Napoleon tried to build a Second French Empire. In which regions did he set up French colonies?",[2877,2878,2148],"Southeast Asia","Africa",[2880],"Australia",{"id":2882,"data":2883,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"f7b0e13a-da1e-41d4-9906-1bc0bc59139f",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2884,"activeRecallAnswers":2886},[2885],"After a military defeat against Prussia, what happened to Louis-Napoleon?",[2887],"He was dethroned and sent into exile",{"id":2889,"data":2890,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"orbs":2893},"99f7270f-9443-4831-9425-2260c6a0f51e",{"type":27,"title":2891,"tagline":2892},"The Battle of Adwa (1896 CE)","A stand against western colonialism",[2894,2984,3066],{"id":2895,"data":2896,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":2898,"introPage":2905,"pages":2911},"cb9a23a5-c635-4ab7-b60f-bdf36b529460",{"type":25,"title":2897},"The Ethiopian Empire",{"id":2899,"data":2900,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"aae0cfce-8fa0-4dc8-af17-d66a7bd614e5",{"type":34,"summary":2901},[2902,2903,2904],"While the Pax Britannica was ongoing in Europe, European nations scrambled to colonize Africa","Ethiopia, led by Emperor Menilek II and Empress Taytu Betul, managed to remain independent","Ethiopia was culturally rich, with its own languages, writing, and Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity",{"id":2906,"data":2907,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"a8bdf6a0-9abd-4158-afaf-e54446e6a147",{"type":52,"intro":2908},[2909,2910],"What sparked the Scramble for Africa, and which European nations were involved?","Which African empire strove to maintain its independence at this time?",[2912,2931,2945],{"id":2913,"data":2914,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2917},"469f38cd-8d8a-46bb-bbb9-d2b2c0abd2bc",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2915,"audioMediaId":2916},"The Pax Britannica period of history, between the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 and World War One in 1914, was a time of relative peace in Europe. However, the same can’t be said about the rest of the world. While they were maintaining peace in their own continent, many of these large European countries were also trying to forcibly colonize as many non-European countries as possible.\n\nMost of these countries were in Africa, a continent rich in natural resources, including diamonds, gold and silver. During this period, territories were claimed by Britain, France, Italy and Belgium, as well as the newly-created German nation. \n\nThis is often referred to as the ‘Scramble for Africa’, as these European nations desperately tried to plant their flags before another power got there first.\n\n![Graph](image://71075b97-1ac8-457b-bb71-29cbacb50b82 \"Scramble for Africa. Image: Public domain\")","585ad0ee-83d4-4548-a6e9-ca7c8c23eeac",[2918,2924],{"id":2919,"data":2920,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"7476def7-bf15-4879-9fd0-868972272434",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":2921,"clozeWords":2923},[2922],"Pax Britannica (between 1815 and 1914) was a time of relative peace in Europe.",[2522],{"id":2925,"data":2926,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"665b13f9-0ad9-452c-9116-e24e56d1ff8d",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":2927,"activeRecallAnswers":2929},[2928],"Was Pax Britannica a period of peace outside of Europe?",[2930],"No - many Europeans countries were forcibly colonizing other parts of the world",{"id":2932,"data":2933,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2936},"2cb56ae6-43a9-49ed-8ee3-ada8e4adfb22",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2934,"audioMediaId":2935},"The native peoples of these African countries were spared little thought. Racism abounded in this period, with Africans dismissed as inferior and subhuman, a group undeserving of basic human rights. Some of them were even brought back to Europe and displayed in zoos.\n\nBut while the rest of Africa was seized by Europeans, one region remained fiercely independent: the Ethiopian Empire.\n\nThis powerful group of native states had existed since approximately 1270 CE, and was ruled over by Emperor Menilek II, an ambitious and modern-thinking leader, and Empress Taytu Betul, a brave and decisive administrator. Together, they worked to keep their nation safe from grasping European hands.","2415a977-8ff5-4a75-952f-ca98851e632f",[2937],{"id":2938,"data":2939,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"659d302d-976b-49f0-bcaa-42292a576560",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":2940,"binaryCorrect":2942,"binaryIncorrect":2943},[2941],"While the rest of Africa was seized by Europeans, which region remained fiercely independent?",[2897],[2944],"The Ghana Empire",{"id":2946,"data":2947,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":2950},"2677d2f4-2cc7-4594-92d0-0b07e7cf87fa",{"type":24,"markdownContent":2948,"audioMediaId":2949},"Ethiopian culture was rich and vibrant, with its own languages and writing system, and a unique version of Christianity: Orthodox Tewahedo. Tewahedo is as old as Catholicism, and significantly older than Eastern Orthodoxy or Protestantism; even the Bible makes references to Ethiopian converts.\n\nEthiopia may also have been the location of the earliest human cultures. In 2015, a jawbone was discovered in the Ledi-Geraru research area, which dates back to a period 2.8 million years ago.\n\nAll of this vibrant culture and history was put under threat by the European scramble for territory.","549909b3-2379-4eda-99dd-8a19cd6b78af",[2951,2962,2973],{"id":2952,"data":2953,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"991403a1-553a-435b-9deb-e455707ffe96",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2954,"multiChoiceCorrect":2956,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2958,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2955],"Which of these are true of Ethiopia?",[2957],"Both of these are true",[2959,2960,2961],"It's the probable location of the earliest human cultures","Its branch of Christianity (Tewahedo) is as old as Catholicism","Neither of these are true",{"id":2360,"data":2963,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":2964,"multiChoiceQuestion":2965,"multiChoiceCorrect":2967,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2968,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":2969,"matchPairsPairs":2970},[2356,2359,2361],[2966],"Which of these was an ambitious and modern-thinking emperor of Ethiopia?",[2368],[2365,2367,2369],[243],[2971],{"left":2368,"right":2972,"direction":34},"Ethiopian emperor",{"id":2974,"data":2975,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"441ecf43-84fd-47fc-ab4a-19a6c3d28295",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":2976,"multiChoiceCorrect":2978,"multiChoiceIncorrect":2980,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[2977],"In the 19th century, European nations competed to claim territory in Africa. What is this sometimes known as?",[2979],"Scramble for Africa",[2981,2982,2983],"Struggle for Africa","Battle for Africa","The Great Theft",{"id":2985,"data":2986,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":2988,"introPage":2995,"pages":3001},"fd63ada1-e0f3-4753-b6af-61a5b3f62426",{"type":25,"title":2987},"The Battle of Adwa",{"id":2989,"data":2990,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"fe4bc9e1-792f-42bf-bcc8-eebf3b7d0218",{"type":34,"summary":2991},[2992,2993,2994],"Italy wanted to colonize Ethiopia in 1895","Emperor Menilek II and Empress Taytu Betul brought together a massive Ethiopian army","The Battle of Adwa ended with an Ethiopian victory, and the Treaty of Addis Ababa, which formalized their independence",{"id":2996,"data":2997,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"b7155df7-f9d2-4022-be4e-17bddbbd389e",{"type":52,"intro":2998},[2999,3000],"What role did Empress Taytu Betul play in the Battle of Adwa?","What was the outcome of the Battle of Adwa and how did it affect Italy's plans for Ethiopia?",[3002,3039],{"id":3003,"data":3004,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":3007},"872872a9-497e-4a63-be40-c2fc3892e8b9",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3005,"audioMediaId":3006},"In 1895, Italy wanted to claim Ethiopia, adding it to their existing colony of Eritrea. But Emperor Menilek II and Empress Taytu Betul refused to go down without a fight.\n\nThey assembled an army of more than 100,000 soldiers – various tribes and ethnic groups all marching together under the banner of a common cause.\n\nEmpress Taytu Betul was an important part of this army, and was generally seen as a more decisive strategist than her husband. She even led her own unit of cannoneers, who she kept inspired using traditional war chants and music.","df4073c9-681f-422c-97b4-7a942d5deb23",[3008,3017,3028],{"id":3009,"data":3010,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"ba6817f0-5249-47ff-9dd4-5cea3662de98",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":3011,"multiChoiceCorrect":3013,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3015,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[3012],"In 1895, which European nation made plans to claim Ethiopia?",[3014],"Italy",[3016,1109,2283],"Britain",{"id":339,"data":3018,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":3019,"multiChoiceQuestion":3020,"multiChoiceCorrect":3022,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3023,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":3024,"matchPairsPairs":3025},[335,338,340],[3021],"How many soldiers did Ethiopia gather in their planned defence against Italy?",[347],[344,346,348],[243],[3026],{"left":3027,"right":347,"direction":34},"Ethiopian force at Adwa",{"id":2361,"data":3029,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":3030,"multiChoiceQuestion":3031,"multiChoiceCorrect":3033,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3034,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":3035,"matchPairsPairs":3036},[2356,2359,2360],[3032],"Which of these was an decisive empress who helped to lead the Ethiopian defence against Italy?",[2369],[2365,2367,2368],[243],[3037],{"left":2369,"right":3038,"direction":34},"Ethiopian empress",{"id":3040,"data":3041,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":3044},"b98cf848-d893-40f0-906a-4fd99a856126",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3042,"audioMediaId":3043},"Fighting broke out at the town of Adwa, when a force of 14,000 Italian soldiers met the vast Ethiopian army.\n\nThe Ethiopians obliterated the Italians, killing almost half of them, and capturing another quarter. The rest of the Italians only managed to escape after a hasty, chaotic retreat.\n\nAfter the Battle of Adwa, the Italians decided to abandon their plans to colonize Ethiopia. Instead, the two countries met with one another at the negotiating table, and signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa in October 1896. This treaty was a declaration of peace, and an official recognition of the Ethiopian right to independence.\n\n![Graph](image://ff218ea7-df0e-4c0a-99b7-019758e950bb \"The Battle of Adwa. Image: Public domain\")","15d35fa5-ba52-4a18-87cd-37efea4debed",[3045,3056],{"id":2124,"data":3046,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":3047,"multiChoiceQuestion":3048,"multiChoiceCorrect":3050,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3051,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":3052,"orderItems":3053},[2119,2122,2123,2125],[3049],"When was the Battle of Adwa?",[2133],[2434,2129,2131],[138],[3054],{"label":3055,"reveal":2133,"sortOrder":34},"Battle of Adwa",{"id":2515,"data":3057,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":3058,"multiChoiceQuestion":3059,"multiChoiceCorrect":3061,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3062,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":3063,"matchPairsPairs":3064},[2511,2514,2516],[3060],"What was the main consequence of the Battle of Adwa?",[2523],[2520,2522,2524],[243],[3065],{"left":3055,"right":2523,"direction":34},{"id":3067,"data":3068,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":3070,"introPage":3077,"pages":3083},"b0410787-1b3a-4337-a9e6-aa90827276d1",{"type":25,"title":3069},"The impact of Adwa",{"id":3071,"data":3072,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"951db910-ace5-4928-8b36-3afdc3158aa5",{"type":34,"summary":3073},[3074,3075,3076],"The Battle of Adwa was the first time a non-European nation had repelled European colonizers","Later, many African countries used Ethiopia's success as inspiration for their own independence movements","Afrocentrism studies events like Adwa from an African perspective, countering the typically Eurocentric view of history",{"id":3078,"data":3079,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"a030d5b0-e0b7-4926-b92d-860091d9f1c8",{"type":52,"intro":3080},[3081,3082],"What impact did the Battle of Adwa have on the wider world?","What might the world have looked like if the Ethiopians had lost the Battle of Adwa instead?",[3084,3096,3118,3123],{"id":3085,"data":3086,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":3089},"0a458bd2-1ae7-4619-a6aa-24ebd4d1ada4",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3087,"audioMediaId":3088},"Since the days of Tenochtitlán, European powers had ravenously colonized the rest of the world, and the Battle of Adwa was the first time in history that a non-European nation had successfully repulsed their advances. As news of the Ethiopian victory spread, it shattered the worldview of millions of people all across the globe.\n\nThe American scholar, Molefe Asante, explains how European nations, who had previously viewed the people of Africa as 'an inferior barbaric race', were now forced to recognize Ethiopia as an equal. France and Britain also signed treaties with Emperor Menilek, firmly establishing the Ethiopian Empire as a valid, independent nation.\n\nAs for the people of Africa, the Ethiopian Empire became a symbol of hope and self-belief.","8d1c8d9d-2073-4530-9f45-7e273aeb0a40",[3090],{"id":3091,"data":3092,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"d4adee1d-fc02-4a6f-ac25-eb91652e9ac4",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":3093,"activeRecallAnswers":3095},[3094],"Which event was the first time in history that a non-European nation had managed to repulse a European colonizer?",[3055],{"id":3097,"data":3098,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":3101},"3c741c6d-7609-41dd-9b06-a3ac1ec47cdf",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3099,"audioMediaId":3100},"In later years, many nationalist movements in colonized countries used the success of Ethiopia as a point of reference, reminding themselves that independence was an achievable dream.\n\nIn some places, these movements managed to release their countries from the chains of imperialism. In other places, these resistance movements were violently repressed. But in 1960, the United Nations voted to abolish colonialism, and by 1977, the vast majority of African countries had been granted independence.\n\nMany of these countries incorporated the colors of Ethiopia – green, red and yellow – into their new flags, in an act of homage to the country’s victory in the face of European control.\n\n![Graph](image://62282b62-0ad6-4ed2-a19e-33f7ddd74aa5 \"Ethiopia flag. Image: Public domain\")","62736a8e-35ee-426b-9563-abb50c4feff7",[3102,3111],{"id":3103,"data":3104,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"693a0753-51c1-4cb8-94a8-f43d33b790c5",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":3105,"binaryCorrect":3107,"binaryIncorrect":3109},[3106],"In what year did the United Nations vote to abolish colonialism?",[3108],"1960",[3110],"1977",{"id":3112,"data":3113,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"147b0b65-a8c5-442c-b9f7-4ad4c89c604c",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":3114,"activeRecallAnswers":3116},[3115],"Many African countries remember Adwa by flying the colors of the Ethiopian Empire in their flags. What were those three colors?",[3117],"Green, red, yellow",{"id":3119,"data":3120,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25},"797a0224-50c1-4c75-8422-f3a66fed906e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3121,"audioMediaId":3122},"What if the Italians had won?\n\nEuropean nations wouldn't have been forced to acknowledge the Ethiopians as a valid country. This would have influenced race relations in the decades since; the Battle of Adwa did not solve world racism, but it was a positive step forward, and an Italian victory would have prevented that from happening.\n\nVictory at Adwa could have also changed the course of Italian politics. After being humiliated on the world stage, the country demanded stronger leaders. Benito Mussolini, the fascist dictator, grew up in this atmosphere, and rose to prominence on a wave of Italian nationalism. If the country had won at Adwa, he may never have come to power.\n\nOne of Mussolini’s very first actions was actually to attack Ethiopia, directly disobeying the treaty signed in 1896. This time, the modernized Italian army emerged victorious, and Mussolini declared, in 1936, that 'Adwa has been avenged.'\n\nHowever, this Italian victory was short-lived. In 1941, with the help of the British, the Ethiopians regained their independence.","811a3ee7-42f4-446d-8cd2-4b51dc1c53f5",{"id":3124,"data":3125,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":3128},"fa693730-0d54-457b-b446-b38fc274908d",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3126,"audioMediaId":3127},"People often say that ‘history is written by the victors’, and after hundreds of years of European domination, history has taken a distinctly Eurocentric approach. The vast majority of historical texts are written from a European perspective, and mainly concern themselves with European events, European battles, and European people of interest.\n\nAfrocentrism is a scholarly movement which seeks to study events from an African perspective, giving a voice to people whose stories have traditionally been ignored. For example, the Battle of Adwa has often been studied from the perspective of the humiliated Italians, until Afrocentric scholars began to study it instead from the perspective of the victorious Ethiopians.\n\nFor hundreds of years, Europeans repressed the cultures of African nations. Afrocentrism seeks to reverse this trend, making sure that the African perspective is properly remembered. This has benefits for everyone: by combining the two sides, European and African, it gives a more balanced perspective of the Battle of Adwa as a whole.","64597ac8-670f-4999-84ac-6c7dbfce9da1",[3129,3138,3147],{"id":3130,"data":3131,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"949b07e2-1d83-4194-aede-eb278b707705",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":3132,"binaryCorrect":3134,"binaryIncorrect":3136},[3133],"What is the name of the scholarly movement which seeks to study historical events from an African perspective?",[3135],"Afrocentrism",[3137],"Afrography",{"id":3139,"data":3140,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c38e6e92-878f-464f-9e29-0b7fec7e77e7",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":3141,"binaryCorrect":3143,"binaryIncorrect":3145},[3142],"How was the Battle of Adwa traditionally studied prior to Afrocentric perspectives?",[3144],"As a humiliating defeat for Italy",[3146],"As an important victory for Ethiopia",{"id":3148,"data":3149,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"985c680c-f0c3-423d-bf31-6cb4ffa68670",{"type":66,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":24,"matchPairsQuestion":3150,"matchPairsPairs":3151,"matchPairsShowExamples":6},[243],[3152,3154,3156,3158],{"left":3153,"right":2438,"direction":34},"English Channel",{"left":3155,"right":2782,"direction":34},"Belgium",{"left":3157,"right":3055,"direction":34},"Ethiopia",{"left":1109,"right":458,"direction":34},{"id":3160,"data":3161,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"orbs":3164},"6a0fd568-52d4-4473-acf6-97ad4b2f43af",{"type":27,"title":3162,"tagline":3163},"The Siege of Stalingrad (1942 CE)","The defining battle of World War Two",[3165,3239,3343],{"id":3166,"data":3167,"type":25,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":3169,"introPage":3176,"pages":3182},"631668a4-cbf6-4306-b459-766fe72131cd",{"type":25,"title":3168},"Nazis and Soviets",{"id":3170,"data":3171,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"96dee730-96e9-432d-883e-ac97126e391c",{"type":34,"summary":3172},[3173,3174,3175],"In the 20th century, two powerful dictators came to power in Germany and Russia: Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin","The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was a 10-year peace treaty between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union","The Nazis and Soviets invaded Poland together in 1939, kicking off World War Two",{"id":3177,"data":3178,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"79f854d5-58fa-4660-92ae-0219aa16463e",{"type":52,"intro":3179},[3180,3181],"What sparked the rise of the Nazis in Germany and the Communists in Russia?","How did a secret pact between Germany and Russia ignite the start of World War Two?",[3183,3206],{"id":3184,"data":3185,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":3188},"89327f18-1865-4081-8f63-5ada758df8fb",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3186,"audioMediaId":3187},"In 1942, Nazi Germany and Communist Russia squared off outside the city of Stalingrad. The Nazis had come to power a decade earlier, after their leader, Adolf Hitler, ignited a blaze of fierce nationalism in the wake of World War One. The Nazis boosted the German economy, strengthened the military, and set their eyes upon imperial expansion.\n\nIn the Soviet Union, the Communist Party came to power slightly earlier, after assassinating the Russian monarch, Tsar Nicholas II, in 1917. Just like the French Revolution before it, the Communist Revolution had noble goals: they wanted to replace the monarchy with a fairer system, so that the lives of the populace would improve.\n\nHowever, in both instances, the removal of the monarchy created a power vacuum. In France, this vacuum was filled by Napoleon, and in the Soviet Union, it was filled by Joseph Stalin. Just like Napoleon, Stalin wanted to spread his influence into other countries. Shortly after coming to power, he began absorbing them into a Union of Soviet Socialist Republics – the USSR.","d2d3b34a-2bb8-45b2-ac51-4899f8d7537b",[3189,3196],{"id":3190,"data":3191,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"7a3f42db-1f47-47b3-8701-6c93fe42123d",{"type":66,"reviewType":41,"spacingBehaviour":24,"clozeQuestion":3192,"clozeWords":3194},[3193],"Hitler rose to power in Germany after igniting a blaze of nationalism in the aftermath of World War One.",[3195],"World War One",{"id":3197,"data":3198,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"57fd0d25-e5b0-48fc-add6-56c54379654a",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":3199,"multiChoiceCorrect":3201,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3203,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[3200],"The Communist Party rose to power in Russia after assassinating which monarch?",[3202],"Tsar Nicholas II",[3204,3205,458],"Tsar Nicholas I","Tsar Alexander I",{"id":3207,"data":3208,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":3211},"113a2a46-554d-4384-b2c4-01e20e660ee4",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3209,"audioMediaId":3210},"In the 1930s, Stalin’s Russia and Hitler’s Germany were separated from one another by Poland. Stalin was nervous about the prospect of a German invasion, and tried to form a defensive alliance with Britain and France, but neither country was interested. They were also nervous about German attacks, and did not want to provoke the Nazis into action.\n\nIn 1939, Stalin decided to take a different approach, sending his Foreign Minister to negotiate a peace treaty with Germany. In August of that year, the two countries signed the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. This agreement made sure that neither country would attack the other, and was meant to last for 10 years.\n\nThis pact also contained a secret protocol: the two of them would invade Poland together, with the Nazis attacking from the west and the Soviets attacking from the east, with the aim of dividing the country into two halves. This joint-invasion shocked the rest of Europe, and marked the beginning of World War Two.\n\n![Graph](image://9178d48b-dbfc-4f62-8005-71b9265c177e \"Hitler reading the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Image: Public domain\")","fd380e31-3ab4-4428-b2b6-44d28396eff4",[3212,3219,3230],{"id":3213,"data":3214,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"3ac190a2-0e00-454e-8fe1-af1c2181cf92",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":3215,"activeRecallAnswers":3217},[3216],"In the 1930s, Stalin’s Russia and Hitler’s Germany were separated from one another by which country?",[3218],"Poland",{"id":3220,"data":3221,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"c259d0d0-7d23-4fcc-8ba0-d07fde847a89",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":3222,"multiChoiceCorrect":3224,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3226,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[3223],"What was the name of the peace agreement drawn up between Stalin and Hitler in 1939?",[3225],"Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact",[3227,3228,3229],"Stalin-Hitler Pact","Communist-Nazi Pact","Fascist-Soviet Pact",{"id":3231,"data":3232,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"3bcf3a5e-92b0-4124-bd41-96d467268075",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":3233,"binaryCorrect":3235,"binaryIncorrect":3237},[3234],"What secret protocol was contained in the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact?",[3236],"A joint-invasion of Poland",[3238],"A joint-invasion of France",{"id":3240,"data":3241,"type":25,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":3243,"introPage":3251,"pages":3257},"562b1461-5f5f-4d63-9ef8-32447e69b19a",{"type":25,"title":3242},"The Siege of Stalingrad",{"id":3244,"data":3245,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"13fefbf3-6705-46e2-8658-302e4360e781",{"type":34,"summary":3246},[3247,3248,3249,3250],"In 1941, Hitler broke the Nonaggression Pact, and sent 3 million soldiers to invade the Soviet Union","Stalingrad was a key target for the Germans, due to its industrial power and symbolic name","The Siege of Stalingrad stretched into winter, which the Russian army was better prepared to handle","They launched a counter-offensive in the middle of the winter, and forced the Germans to surrender",{"id":3252,"data":3253,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"65486b19-7b62-4d91-8e40-6131477df93d",{"type":52,"intro":3254},[3255,3256],"Why did Hitler go back on his pact with the Russians, and launch an attack on Stalingrad?","How did a harsh Russian winter impact the outcome of the battle?",[3258,3282,3310],{"id":3259,"data":3260,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":3263},"b30ea85f-a2a4-4ba5-af5b-9b75b323261e",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3261,"audioMediaId":3262},"Despite the Nonagression Pact between the Nazis and the USSR, Hitler still viewed the Russians as his enemy. He despised communism, distrusted Stalin, and feared that the Russians would stab the Germans in the back.\n\nIn 1941, the Nazis launched Operation Barbarossa – a total invasion of the USSR, tearing up the Nonaggression Pact along the way. Barbarossa, or ‘red beard’, was the nickname of Frederick I, a Holy Roman Emperor and Prussian king who conquered parts of Europe in the 12th century.\n\nThe Nazis were not the first to draw inspiration from Frederik. Wilhelm I, the first Kaiser of Germany, styled himself as Barbablanca, or ‘white beard’.","c3b6a9c3-69c7-4188-91b2-fde7083b38e5",[3264,3275],{"id":3265,"data":3266,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"014dd7be-56ea-4b68-8386-cfc7b5f70da9",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":3267,"multiChoiceCorrect":3269,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3271},[3268],"In 1941, the Nazis tore up the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, and launched an invasion of the USSR. What was this invasion called?",[3270],"Operation Barbarossa",[3272,3273,3274],"Operation Barbablanca","Operation Valkyrie","Operation Hammerfall",{"id":3276,"data":3277,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"1c5f73a0-1b2f-41f1-9a36-55c057a727b6",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":3278,"activeRecallAnswers":3280},[3279],"Who was Operation Barbarossa ('red beard') named after?",[3281],"Holy Roman Emperor Frederik I",{"id":3283,"data":3284,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":3287},"88e9ba61-2d7a-4e47-954e-3d41d5e2805b",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3285,"audioMediaId":3286},"For the campaign in Russia, the Nazis allocated about 3 million soldiers, making it the largest invasion force in human history.\n\nThis was still only a small percentage of the Nazis overall force. A total of 12.5 million Germans served in World War Two, divided up across a number of battlefronts in France, Scandinavia, Greece, the Netherlands, and even North Africa.\n\nThe Nazi attack, from a supposed ally, caught the USSR off guard. In the first few days, the Germans obliterated the Soviet army, sending defensive units into disarray. As they advanced into the Soviet Union, the Nazis set their eyes upon Stalingrad. This large, industrial city was an important producer of Soviet armaments, while also holding symbolic significance: Hitler wanted to claim the city which bore Joseph Stalin’s name.","9db49833-f8a6-48cc-b17f-6e7c9188c8b0",[3288,3299],{"id":340,"data":3289,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":3290,"multiChoiceQuestion":3291,"multiChoiceCorrect":3293,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3294,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":3295,"matchPairsPairs":3296},[335,338,339],[3292],"What was the size of the German force that entered Russia as part of Operation Barbarossa?",[348],[344,346,347],[243],[3297],{"left":3298,"right":348,"direction":34},"German force in Russia",{"id":3300,"data":3301,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"abd9c5d3-f862-4627-91b0-542a52631dff",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":3302,"multiChoiceCorrect":3304,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3307,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":21,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[3303],"Why did the Germans target the city of Stalingrad?",[3305,3306],"It was named after Stalin","It was an important industrial hub",[3308,3309],"It was the Russian capital at the time","It housed important Russian officials",{"id":3311,"data":3312,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":3315},"41e15667-0e16-44ec-9a5d-54192329b709",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3313,"audioMediaId":3314},"The Soviets managed to reorganize themselves, and took a defensive stand at Stalingrad. When the two armies clashed in the streets of the city, it was some of the fiercest fighting seen during World War Two.\n\nTo make the situation more difficult, a bitter winter was approaching, as the battle stretched from July 1942 into December. The Soviets were better prepared for this, with heavy coats and boots designed to withstand the winter conditions in Russia. And they decided to launch a counter-offensive, catching the shivering German invaders by surprise.\n\nThis counter-offensive was devastating. And in January 1943, the German generals were forced to surrender, ignoring the direction of Hitler himself.\n\nAt last, the siege had come to an end. Historians estimate that more than a million soldiers were killed on both sides, making it one of the deadliest battles of all time.\n\n![Graph](image://ed45f55f-75e7-4d92-af5e-52fc260c3131 \"Stalingrad during the siege. Image: Public domain\")","0e346d29-0db6-440e-b9f5-5d9e0fb3c0f8",[3316,3325,3332],{"id":3317,"data":3318,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"bcefc7ec-2452-437e-baa5-472ac2fea5fd",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":3319,"binaryCorrect":3321,"binaryIncorrect":3323},[3320],"What shifted momentum from the Germans to the Russians at Stalingrad?",[3322],"A biting winter",[3324],"A blistering summer",{"id":3326,"data":3327,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"0b5b7007-28d9-4615-98c9-2a0c429b1c73",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":3328,"activeRecallAnswers":3330},[3329],"Why were the Russians better prepared for the biting winter at Stalingrad?",[3331],"They had thicker boots and coats than the Germans",{"id":3333,"data":3334,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"f96edef6-7911-4742-a462-344a867529ee",{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"multiChoiceQuestion":3335,"multiChoiceCorrect":3337,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3339,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[3336],"When the Russians launched their counter-offensive at Stalingrad, what did the German generals do?",[3338],"Surrender (against Hitler's orders)",[3340,3341,3342],"Surrender (based on Hitler's orders)","Keep fighting (against Hitler's orders)","Keep fighting (based on Hitler's orders)",{"id":3344,"data":3345,"type":25,"version":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"summaryPage":3347,"introPage":3354,"pages":3360},"788efff9-3223-43f9-bb2a-c80a26296f1c",{"type":25,"title":3346},"The impact of Stalingrad",{"id":3348,"data":3349,"type":34,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"bfbb5ed1-2a60-4b1a-8b82-6fb2c6c626e7",{"type":34,"summary":3350},[3351,3352,3353],"The Siege of Stalingrad was the first major defeat for the Nazi army during World War Two","Germany's enemies gained confidence after Stalingrad, while fear spread across Germany","In 1945, Soviet forces arrived in Berlin, and brought an end to World War Two",{"id":3355,"data":3356,"type":52,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":24},"a5a24287-0214-41a3-88d5-e43bebde9d28",{"type":52,"intro":3357},[3358,3359],"What impact did the Siege of Stalingrad have on the wider world?","What might the world have looked like if the Russians had lost the Siege of Stalingrad instead?",[3361,3387,3400],{"id":3362,"data":3363,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":3366},"c2741a73-f750-45fc-942c-ad47ed13a3af",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3364,"audioMediaId":3365},"Historians view the Siege of Stalingrad as the most significant turning point in World War Two. Strategically, the battle drained a significant portion of Nazi resources. But on top of that, it was symbolically important: this was the very first time that the Nazi army had lost such a major battle.\n\nGermany's enemies gained confidence. One British general wrote of the battle: 'We start 1943 under conditions I would never have dared to hope.' As for the Germans themselves, fear and misery spread across the country, as people realized that the momentum of the war had changed.\n\nIn 1945, Soviet forces arrived in Berlin, led by General Zhukov, who had played an important role at Stalingrad. The Germans surrendered, and Hitler committed suicide before the Soviet forces could reach him. This marked the official end of World War Two in Europe.","ec465503-4902-4921-9bc6-8e720470b025",[3367,3378],{"id":2516,"data":3368,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":3369,"multiChoiceQuestion":3370,"multiChoiceCorrect":3372,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3373,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":3374,"matchPairsPairs":3375},[2511,2514,2515],[3371],"What was the most significant consequence of the Siege of Stalingrad?",[2524],[2520,2522,2523],[243],[3376],{"left":3377,"right":2524,"direction":34},"Siege of Stalingrad",{"id":3379,"data":3380,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"4a19f956-6be3-4149-ac79-afcc5b492ca9",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":3381,"binaryCorrect":3383,"binaryIncorrect":3385},[3382],"Which Russian general, who played an important role at Stalingrad, led a Soviet invasion of Berlin in 1945?",[3384],"General Zhukov",[3386],"General Zhirkov",{"id":3388,"data":3389,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":25,"reviews":3392},"9908647b-52d7-4ecd-8301-ae0dc5702fa5",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3390,"audioMediaId":3391},"If the Nazis had won the Siege of Stalingrad, it could have won them the war as a whole.\n\nThe USSR was rich in resources, which would have significantly boosted the German war economy, helping in their fight against the Allied forces of Britain, the United States, and others. It would also have boosted German morale, giving them a psychological advantage over the other armies.\n\nThe prospect of a Nazi victory at World War Two has been widely considered by counterfactual historians, as well as works of literature such as Philip K. Dick’s *The Man in the High Castle*. This book imagines an alternative world in which the Nazis seize control of Europe and Africa, and are now fighting with Japan for ownership of the United States. The Jewish population has been exterminated, as well as other minorities which the Nazis wanted to destroy.\n\nIn 1943, shortly after the Nazi defeat at Stalingrad, *The Daily Telegraph* wrote that Russia had 'saved Continental civilisation'. If the battle had ended differently, then the modern world might never have been the same.","178646c9-5762-44bd-a8bf-2286a6fd49cd",[3393],{"id":3394,"data":3395,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},"a680d19b-3858-409c-8d05-1d1dbac1d981",{"type":66,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":24,"activeRecallQuestion":3396,"activeRecallAnswers":3398},[3397],"Shortly after the Siege of Stalingrad, The Daily Telegraph wrote that Russia had saved what?",[3399],"\"Continental civilization\"",{"id":3401,"data":3402,"type":24,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":34,"reviews":3405},"f2c36dd7-2f7a-48a8-8eeb-3a3625de21a2",{"type":24,"markdownContent":3403,"audioMediaId":3404},"When a scholar considers the historical significance of any battle, they are taking a military approach to history.\n\n![Graph](image://c4fe9ca6-78c5-40c1-a460-32c1eb4cb68e \"Ruins at Stalingrad. Image: Public domain\")\n\nThis isn't the only way to think about the past, and other scholars could approach an event from an entirely different perspective. An economic historian thinks about the impact of trade and finances. A social historian considers the role of culture, race and gender.\n\nThere's a place for all of these approaches. History is rich and complex, and true understanding can only be achieved after approaching a topic from several different angles.\n\nBut even non-military historians would find it hard to deny the importance of some conflicts. From the Battle of Megiddo in 1457 BCE, to the Siege of Stalingrad more than 3000 years later, these battles really changed the world.","1ed7b776-9859-4547-9efd-d4c60b33e837",[3406,3417],{"id":3407,"data":3408,"type":66,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":34},"d2133902-a753-4295-ae59-5ab4af28f3ee",{"type":66,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":24,"binaryQuestion":3409,"binaryCorrect":3411,"binaryIncorrect":3413,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3415},[3410],"What do we mean when we say that a historian has a military approach to history?",[3412],"They study the broader historical significance of battles",[3414],"They only study battles in isolation",[3416],"They focus on the historical significance of battles",{"id":2125,"data":3418,"type":66,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":34},{"type":66,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":24,"collapsingSiblings":3419,"multiChoiceQuestion":3420,"multiChoiceCorrect":3422,"multiChoiceIncorrect":3423,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":24,"orderQuestion":3424,"orderItems":3425},[2119,2122,2123,2124],[3421],"When was the Siege of Stalingrad?",[2434],[2129,2131,2132],[138],[3426],{"label":3377,"reveal":2434,"sortOrder":41},{"left":4,"top":4,"width":3428,"height":3428,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":3429},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":3428,"height":3428,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":3431},"\u003Cg fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\">\u003Cpath d=\"M12.586 2.586A2 2 0 0 0 11.172 2H4a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v7.172a2 2 0 0 0 .586 1.414l8.704 8.704a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 3.42 0l6.58-6.58a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 0-3.42z\"/>\u003Ccircle cx=\"7.5\" cy=\"7.5\" r=\".5\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",1778179466693]