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1.41783L252.467 2.47876L251.45 2.3637L251.707 0.60165C252.118 0.401088 252.563 0.253475 253.041 0.15797C253.519 0.0529708 253.958 1.99446e-05 254.359 0Z\"\n    fill=\"currentColor\" />\u003C/g>",{"tile":13,"orbsWithOnlyMarkdownPages":310},{"id":14,"data":15,"type":16,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"orbs":20},"fcc51b9d-7992-4023-8198-539479fab88d",{"type":16,"title":17,"tagline":18},9,"Caral-Supe ","A land without war (3500 BCE - 1800 BCE)",3,[21,107,235],{"id":22,"data":23,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":26,"introPage":34,"pages":41},"5c606a52-7051-469f-9762-8363d86db24b",{"type":24,"title":25},2,"Who were the Caral-Supe?",{"id":27,"data":28,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"e5f367df-10f5-460f-a298-77eb3b20ff7a",{"type":19,"summary":29},[30,31,32],"The Caral-Supe built monumental pyramids from stone blocks on Peru's coast","They created advanced irrigation canals to grow crops in a harsh environment","No written records or visual art make understanding the Caral-Supe difficult",1,{"id":35,"data":36,"type":37,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"bbac3f4b-8e48-4291-9a07-8d42ae0df86c",{"type":37,"intro":38},10,[39,40],"Why is it challenging for historians to understand the Caral-Supe civilization?","Why was the geographical location of the Caral-Supe so surprising?",[42,67,93],{"id":43,"data":44,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":47},"90288100-14c0-4d07-bb51-5add16edc9b6",{"type":33,"markdownContent":45,"audioMediaId":46},"Ancient Sumer and Ancient Egypt both flourished in the heart of the Middle East, but on the other side of the world, in South America, another civilization took form.\n\nThis maritime culture was centered around a network of cities on the coast of Peru. The Caral-Supe were skilled architects, constructing monumental pyramids from stone blocks. They also developed an advanced system of irrigation canals which allowed them to cultivate crops.\n\nDespite their advanced level of development, very little is known about this ancient culture. They left no written records behind, which makes it difficult for historians to know who they were or how they lived. Archaeologists learn as much as they can from city ruins, but unless written sources emerge in the future, the Caral-Supe will always be shrouded in mystery.\n\n![Graph](image://13229d67-2da2-4f52-81b1-82d8d1700416 \"The ruins of a Caral-Supe city. Image: I, Xauxa, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","8115c713-545c-4d3c-8b75-2c5d4fb7cb63",[48,58],{"id":49,"data":50,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"9af9fe0a-d88d-49f1-a996-5cdc64724a1e",{"type":51,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":33,"binaryQuestion":52,"binaryCorrect":54,"binaryIncorrect":56},11,[53],"What is the name of the ancient maritime culture that flourished in South America in the period 3500-1800 BCE?",[55],"Caral-Supe",[57],"Sumer",{"id":59,"data":60,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"fee69035-3614-4b58-9047-ef4e0e0e87cd",{"type":51,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":33,"binaryQuestion":61,"binaryCorrect":63,"binaryIncorrect":65},[62],"What type of structures were the Caral-Supe known for constructing?",[64],"Pyramids",[66],"Bridges",{"id":68,"data":69,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":72},"e937ec5d-8ef0-4a9e-a911-ecfa9f97848c",{"type":33,"markdownContent":70,"audioMediaId":71},"The first signs of the Caral-Supe civilization were discovered in the 1940s, when ruins of a city were discovered in the Norte Chico region of Peru.\n\n![Graph](image://52e0d9a8-5f9b-41e3-8fb7-de9572c1ca64 \"Norte Chico region. Image: Daniel Weiss (Skaifyomonul), CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nArchaeologists were intrigued by the size and complexity of the ruined city, but could not determine how old it was or who had built it. It wasn’t until carbon dating techniques became much more widely available in the 21st century that researchers were able to accurately date the ruined city and understand its true significance.\n\nThe studies showed that the ruined city was truly ancient, and must have belonged to a forgotten culture as old as the Ancient Egyptians. Further studies uncovered additional ruins, including evidence of trade networks stretching across Peru and beyond. But there was still something missing – written sources – which made the culture hard to understand.","77c1c46b-4688-42b8-b0a5-7606dd5bd28a",[73],{"id":74,"data":75,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"60a6e444-bf25-4c20-922e-3679b42303ee",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":76,"multiChoiceQuestion":80,"multiChoiceCorrect":82,"multiChoiceIncorrect":84,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":88,"matchPairsPairs":90},[77,78,79],"a32535c7-6e85-481e-ba8b-962e3b87ec7f","a62049f4-7ff0-4a1a-9baf-bf51d491a58f","64125ba7-fb5d-4619-bac0-5412d685f7ba",[81],"Where was the home of the Caral-Supe civilization?",[83],"Norte Chico",[85,86,87],"Mesopotamia","Levant coast","Yellow River Valley",[89],"Match the pairs below:",[91],{"left":83,"right":92,"direction":19},"Home of Caral-Supe civilization",{"id":94,"data":95,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":98},"a9c4c708-3602-4a29-83b2-2b8112942589",{"type":33,"markdownContent":96,"audioMediaId":97},"The lack of written Caral-Supe sources is compounded by a surprising lack of visual art. While other ancient civilizations painted images on pots and carved pictures into walls, the Caral-Supe created nothing of the kind. This makes it even harder to understand them – visual art is a useful window into ancient cultures, but for the Caral-Supe, that window is closed.\n\nSome scholars have speculated that the Caral-Supe people were too focused on practicality to bother with artistic pursuits. They lived in a harsh, arid region, and may have focused on survival instead of spending time creating visual art.\n\nBut this theory is undermined by the presence of other Caral-Supe art forms. For example, musical instruments have been discovered made from pelican bone. They also made rich, elaborate textiles. Some historians have wondered whether these textiles once had pictures on them, only for the dye to fade away.","45729415-b53e-49d7-b2e4-9e55f6463cc7",[99],{"id":100,"data":101,"type":51,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":19},"3bf84194-1143-4aea-ba8b-cd7c6292d91f",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":102,"activeRecallAnswers":104},[103],"What type of artifacts have been discovered from the Caral-Supe civilization?",[105,106],"Bone musical instruments","Elaborate woven textiles:multi",{"id":108,"data":109,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":111,"introPage":118,"pages":124},"de4f1e2a-9aa6-40e0-a99c-d95653480de6",{"type":24,"title":110},"Pyramids and peace",{"id":112,"data":113,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"a3b53021-9d51-46ef-87c1-ceb0a07d1be6",{"type":19,"summary":114},[115,116,117],"The Pirámide Mayor is a massive pyramid which might be older than Egypt’s first pyramid","Caral-Supe workers were paid in dried anchovies, suggesting a sophisticated labor system","No evidence of warfare has been found in Caral-Supe, suggesting they lived in peace",{"id":119,"data":120,"type":37,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"75839058-6e79-4bef-bfab-f7b33156d6f7",{"type":37,"intro":121},[122,123],"How did the Caral-Supe civilization adapt to their arid environment?","What unique aspect of the Caral-Supe challenges one common belief about ancient societies?",[125,140,183,196,221],{"id":126,"data":127,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":130},"7946dba4-e69c-4f55-a0b0-7d7e3d35899a",{"type":33,"markdownContent":128,"audioMediaId":129},"Historically, most ancient civilizations arose in rich, fertile regions, like the floodplains around a river. But the Caral-Supe civilization flourished in an arid environment, where the lack of rainfall should have made it difficult to sustain a large, urban population.\n\nTo combat this, the people developed a sophisticated system of irrigation canals that allowed them to collect rainwater and grow crops during drier periods. They also learned to exploit the coastline for fish and other marine resources.\n\nBy using these different techniques, the Caral-Supe turned this seemingly inhospitable region into a place where their people could thrive. The fact this civilization existed at all is a credit to their ingenuity and resourcefulness.","36b4d525-d9b5-4c5f-bcd9-ce0936ef56c6",[131],{"id":132,"data":133,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"dcf3fa6d-ba5f-4e0f-ae7a-4ddedc665853",{"type":51,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":33,"binaryQuestion":134,"binaryCorrect":136,"binaryIncorrect":138},[135],"In which type of environment did the Caral-Supe civilization thrive?",[137],"Arid",[139],"Fertile",{"id":141,"data":142,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":145},"de81e810-baf1-4f35-9913-f128c80f4aca",{"type":33,"markdownContent":143,"audioMediaId":144},"One of the few things that survives from the Caral-Supe civilization is its impressive architecture, which often included large stone platforms and plazas.\n\nThe most famous of these is the Pirámide Mayor, a stepped pyramid that covers an area as large as several football fields. It was built between 4000 and 5000 years ago, making it at least as old as Egypt’s first pyramid, and maybe even older. It may have been used as an astronomical observatory, or a temple complex, but this is only speculation.\n\n![Graph](image://b6cbf315-7652-4433-a868-7f1c3bf3e986 \"Pirámide Mayor. Image: HJPD, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nArchaeological evidence suggests that workers may have been paid in dried anchovies during construction projects such as the Pirámide Mayor. This indicates a sophisticated system of labor within Caral-Supe society – one that helped them to build large monuments despite their arid environment and limited resources.","bf5a107e-ce8f-4edf-97e7-188e24813633",[146,165,172],{"id":147,"data":148,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"1d0c67a2-02d4-4145-b62d-b952bac387e5",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":149,"multiChoiceQuestion":153,"multiChoiceCorrect":155,"multiChoiceIncorrect":157,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":161,"matchPairsPairs":162},[150,151,152],"ac80d03b-b48e-489d-b757-90b4de1533da","1db65403-90d6-4971-9c04-42d5969d23b9","c9fda18b-1a87-43a6-bad5-3e2ca4e806d7",[154],"Which of these is a surviving Caral-Supe structure?",[156],"Pirámide Mayor",[158,159,160],"Ziggurat at Uruk","Pyramid at Saqqara","Pyramid at La Venta",[89],[163],{"left":156,"right":164,"direction":19},"Caral-Supe structure",{"id":166,"data":167,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"10a4ae4a-24f3-4b80-8fa4-e29a5036a632",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":168,"activeRecallAnswers":170},[169],"How old is the Pirámide Mayor, the stepped pyramid that covers an area as large as several football fields?",[171],"4000 to 5000 years old",{"id":173,"data":174,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"4f58841c-ea78-4002-89c7-538354c9b16b",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":175,"multiChoiceCorrect":177,"multiChoiceIncorrect":179,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[176],"What type of payment did archaeological evidence suggest was used to pay workers during construction projects in Caral-Supe society?",[178],"Dried anchovies",[180,181,182],"Gold coins","Barley cutting","Stone beads",{"id":184,"data":185,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":188},"d6648813-6bb5-4b36-bb17-953881c43cb6",{"type":33,"markdownContent":186,"audioMediaId":187},"In 2003, a single piece of visual art was discovered at a Caral-Supe site: a cartoonish figure carved roughly into the side of a gourd. This figure had a leering smile, as well as a hood and fangs.\n\n![Graph](image://a56ab40d-ac4a-403e-9123-88c0ecd51533 \"Caral-Supe figure. Image: Drawing by Jill Seagard, Courtesy of the Field Museum\")\n\nHistorians believe that this figure is an early depiction of the Staff God – a major deity among later South American cultures. If this were true, it would offer a valuable glimpse into Caral-Supe religion.\n\nBut other historians have argued that this figure is something else entirely. It has been speculated that the figure could represent some kind of priest or leader, or that it might be linked to ancestor worship. Unfortunately, the image is too ambiguous – it just opens up more questions.","871b1f19-ddb4-410e-8b48-3848a53029df",[189],{"id":190,"data":191,"type":51,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":19},"7690f323-ebea-4ca1-a28c-8bf7ed7bc3f3",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":192,"activeRecallAnswers":194},[193],"Which deity is (possibly) depicted in the only known work of visual art from the Caral-Supe people?",[195],"The Staff God",{"id":197,"data":198,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":201},"d0d690f2-61fe-4820-b436-0ad5e9468dd8",{"type":33,"markdownContent":199,"audioMediaId":200},"Historians have also found various textiles at Caral-Supe sites. This has included several examples of intricate knots known as quipu.\n\n![Graph](image://c1140e73-f6f3-4282-a3c5-802a657a1e19 \"Quipu. Image: See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThese knots may just have been decorative, but in later South American civilizations, similar knots were used to record information. Each thread would be knotted in a particular way which might represent a number, or an abstract idea, exactly the same as a writing system.\n\nSome researchers believe that the knots at Caral were used for a similar purpose, which would explain the absence of traditional writing – the Caral-Supe used knots to record information instead. Unfortunately, even if these knots are a form of writing, nobody knows how to read them.","fd86b07e-9829-416e-ad4d-800bc8f18cf2",[202],{"id":203,"data":204,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"a80c72a2-65a6-4b29-b377-f9f3cfdddee7",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":205,"multiChoiceQuestion":209,"multiChoiceCorrect":211,"multiChoiceIncorrect":213,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":217,"matchPairsPairs":218},[206,207,208],"dc0cbfbf-e775-4f58-9d47-df30170dce86","58e01209-a028-4b8d-9649-9b60bee73db6","0958908d-fd29-494b-8c38-c586c5fadebc",[210],"Which of these is a Caral-Supe artifact, which might have used to record information?",[212],"Quipu knots",[214,215,216],"Lyres of Ur","Pashupati seal","Basalt heads",[89],[219],{"left":212,"right":220,"direction":19},"Caral-Supe artifact",{"id":222,"data":223,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":226},"91ea0805-8ec1-460a-9d58-0dcef98a520d",{"type":33,"markdownContent":224,"audioMediaId":225},"There is one profoundly unique quality about the Caral-Supe civilization: historians are yet to find any evidence of warfare. There are no fortifications around their cities, and no mutilated bodies in their graves.\n\nIf the Caral-Supe really lived in peace, it would make them a rarity in the Ancient World. Many people believe that warfare is inevitable among human beings, but the Caral-Supe suggest otherwise.\n\nThis peaceful atmosphere may have been encouraged by religious beliefs. The Staff God, for example, was thought to represent social harmony. Alternatively, maybe the Caral-Supe were united in opposition to the hostile environment, and knew that a breakdown in cooperation would cause all of them to suffer.","753db483-f5fa-418d-9722-8a314d572404",[227],{"id":228,"data":229,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"04b6bd29-8a14-4c4f-b46d-6e0c121457cc",{"type":51,"reviewType":230,"spacingBehaviour":33,"clozeQuestion":231,"clozeWords":233},4,[232],"There is one profoundly unique quality about the Caral-Supe civilization: historians are yet to find any evidence of warfare. ",[234],"warfare",{"id":236,"data":237,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":239,"introPage":246,"pages":252},"664aec0e-409a-4bf1-84ca-18a8498c516b",{"type":24,"title":238},"Decline of the Caral-Supe",{"id":240,"data":241,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"4c5ad3da-a7e7-43cf-a357-f4413865c256",{"type":19,"summary":242},[243,244,245],"A slow migration to fertile lands is the most likely reason for Caral-Supe decline","Extensive canals found north of Caral-Supe suggest they moved there, bringing irrigation knowledge","Their religious customs and quipu knots may have inspired the Inca civilization later on",{"id":247,"data":248,"type":37,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"653b41d2-093e-4cfb-ab6d-d40c85b0f54e",{"type":37,"intro":249},[250,251],"What internal and external factors led to the decline of Caral-Supe?","How did the legacy of Caral-Supe influence future civilizations?",[253,275],{"id":254,"data":255,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":258},"10026436-21ad-4a76-ae72-ccbb4656e26f",{"type":33,"markdownContent":256,"audioMediaId":257},"Like so much else about the Caral-Supe, their decline is shrouded in mystery. It is possible that they were unable to sustain their population due to environmental changes such as drought and soil erosion, leading them to migrate in search of more fertile land.\n\nThis theory is supported by extensive canals found in regions north of Caral-Supe. These canals suggest that the Caral-Supe migrated there, and brought their knowledge of irrigation with them.\n\nIt has also been suggested that external forces could have played a role in the collapse of Caral-Supe. Neighboring peoples may have taken advantage of their peaceful nature, and launched an attack. However, there is no real evidence to support this theory. As things stand, a slow migration to more fertile lands is a more likely explanation.","f343763d-0b86-4bdc-b3ba-69383da92944",[259,268],{"id":260,"data":261,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"641905f6-c2ae-4a58-8d05-3d2bbbbad2ad",{"type":51,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":33,"binaryQuestion":262,"binaryCorrect":264,"binaryIncorrect":266},[263],"What is a likely explanation for the decline of the Caral-Supe civilization?",[265],"Environmental changes",[267],"Attacks from rivals",{"id":269,"data":270,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"ac310d62-d9b0-4305-9203-bcf4f30b4138",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":271,"activeRecallAnswers":273},[272],"What evidence suggests that some Caral-Supe might have migrated north?",[274],"Canal systems that match Caral-Supe styles of irrigation",{"id":276,"data":277,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":280},"7f99939a-82f6-455f-9ea3-21a164090636",{"type":33,"markdownContent":278,"audioMediaId":279},"The Caral-Supe civilization left a lasting impression on South America, with its influence felt in many later civilizations. The Incas of Peru used quipu knots which resembled those of the Caral-Supe, while the Staff God may have been worshiped by both cultures, with religious beliefs passed down through generations.\n\nHowever, the full impact of the Caral-Supe civilization is yet another thing which modern historians might never know for certain. We cannot know how they interacted with other cultures, or how their beliefs shaped those around them.\n\nAll we can study are lumps of rubble and strips of faded cloth. These artifacts hint at a resilient society ahead of its time – but they never quite tell us the answers we long to know.\n\n![Graph](image://38e782d7-623f-4362-945c-23e20e80db91 \"Caral-Supe ruins. Image: I, KyleThayer, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","a9d863ea-ef75-4364-b732-24db54f5a502",[281,300],{"id":282,"data":283,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"3462b75d-f217-42a3-b358-414da87f94a4",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":284,"multiChoiceQuestion":288,"multiChoiceCorrect":290,"multiChoiceIncorrect":292,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":296,"matchPairsPairs":297},[285,286,287],"3138d31d-0410-4c1b-85ae-ed9a1a0d303c","ebfd468e-b5c7-423d-aad7-d86c17df3f25","9804cb05-b285-48b5-be62-d818a0676093",[289],"Who adopted aspects of the Caral-Supe society?",[291],"Incas",[293,294,295],"Assyrians","Zhou","Mycenaeans",[89],[298],{"left":291,"right":299,"direction":19},"Adopted aspects of Caral-Supe society",{"id":301,"data":302,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"20028945-6a85-45b6-98e0-d40313aa190d",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":303,"multiChoiceCorrect":305,"multiChoiceIncorrect":306,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[304],"In particular, what did the Incas of Peru appear to have learned from the Caral-Supe civilization?",[212],[307,308,309],"Writing systems","Stepped pyramids","Anchovie currency",[311,402,538],{"id":22,"data":23,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":26,"introPage":34,"pages":312},[313,350,380],{"id":43,"data":44,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":47,"parsed":314},{"data":315,"body":318,"toc":348},{"title":316,"description":317},"","Ancient Sumer and Ancient Egypt both flourished in the heart of the Middle East, but on the other side of the world, in South America, another civilization took form.",{"type":319,"children":320},"root",[321,328,333,338],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":324,"children":325},"element","p",{},[326],{"type":327,"value":317},"text",{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":329,"children":330},{},[331],{"type":327,"value":332},"This maritime culture was centered around a network of cities on the coast of Peru. The Caral-Supe were skilled architects, constructing monumental pyramids from stone blocks. They also developed an advanced system of irrigation canals which allowed them to cultivate crops.",{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":334,"children":335},{},[336],{"type":327,"value":337},"Despite their advanced level of development, very little is known about this ancient culture. They left no written records behind, which makes it difficult for historians to know who they were or how they lived. Archaeologists learn as much as they can from city ruins, but unless written sources emerge in the future, the Caral-Supe will always be shrouded in mystery.",{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":339,"children":340},{},[341],{"type":322,"tag":342,"props":343,"children":347},"img",{"alt":344,"src":345,"title":346},"Graph","image://13229d67-2da2-4f52-81b1-82d8d1700416","The ruins of a Caral-Supe city. Image: I, Xauxa, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":316,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":349},[],{"id":68,"data":69,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":72,"parsed":351},{"data":352,"body":354,"toc":378},{"title":316,"description":353},"The first signs of the Caral-Supe civilization were discovered in the 1940s, when ruins of a city were discovered in the Norte Chico region of Peru.",{"type":319,"children":355},[356,360,368,373],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":357,"children":358},{},[359],{"type":327,"value":353},{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":361,"children":362},{},[363],{"type":322,"tag":342,"props":364,"children":367},{"alt":344,"src":365,"title":366},"image://52e0d9a8-5f9b-41e3-8fb7-de9572c1ca64","Norte Chico region. Image: Daniel Weiss (Skaifyomonul), CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":369,"children":370},{},[371],{"type":327,"value":372},"Archaeologists were intrigued by the size and complexity of the ruined city, but could not determine how old it was or who had built it. It wasn’t until carbon dating techniques became much more widely available in the 21st century that researchers were able to accurately date the ruined city and understand its true significance.",{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":374,"children":375},{},[376],{"type":327,"value":377},"The studies showed that the ruined city was truly ancient, and must have belonged to a forgotten culture as old as the Ancient Egyptians. Further studies uncovered additional ruins, including evidence of trade networks stretching across Peru and beyond. But there was still something missing – written sources – which made the culture hard to understand.",{"title":316,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":379},[],{"id":94,"data":95,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":98,"parsed":381},{"data":382,"body":384,"toc":400},{"title":316,"description":383},"The lack of written Caral-Supe sources is compounded by a surprising lack of visual art. While other ancient civilizations painted images on pots and carved pictures into walls, the Caral-Supe created nothing of the kind. This makes it even harder to understand them – visual art is a useful window into ancient cultures, but for the Caral-Supe, that window is closed.",{"type":319,"children":385},[386,390,395],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":387,"children":388},{},[389],{"type":327,"value":383},{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":391,"children":392},{},[393],{"type":327,"value":394},"Some scholars have speculated that the Caral-Supe people were too focused on practicality to bother with artistic pursuits. They lived in a harsh, arid region, and may have focused on survival instead of spending time creating visual art.",{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":396,"children":397},{},[398],{"type":327,"value":399},"But this theory is undermined by the presence of other Caral-Supe art forms. For example, musical instruments have been discovered made from pelican bone. They also made rich, elaborate textiles. Some historians have wondered whether these textiles once had pictures on them, only for the dye to fade away.",{"title":316,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":401},[],{"id":108,"data":109,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":111,"introPage":118,"pages":403},[404,426,456,486,516],{"id":126,"data":127,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":130,"parsed":405},{"data":406,"body":408,"toc":424},{"title":316,"description":407},"Historically, most ancient civilizations arose in rich, fertile regions, like the floodplains around a river. But the Caral-Supe civilization flourished in an arid environment, where the lack of rainfall should have made it difficult to sustain a large, urban population.",{"type":319,"children":409},[410,414,419],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":411,"children":412},{},[413],{"type":327,"value":407},{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":415,"children":416},{},[417],{"type":327,"value":418},"To combat this, the people developed a sophisticated system of irrigation canals that allowed them to collect rainwater and grow crops during drier periods. They also learned to exploit the coastline for fish and other marine resources.",{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":420,"children":421},{},[422],{"type":327,"value":423},"By using these different techniques, the Caral-Supe turned this seemingly inhospitable region into a place where their people could thrive. The fact this civilization existed at all is a credit to their ingenuity and resourcefulness.",{"title":316,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":425},[],{"id":141,"data":142,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":145,"parsed":427},{"data":428,"body":430,"toc":454},{"title":316,"description":429},"One of the few things that survives from the Caral-Supe civilization is its impressive architecture, which often included large stone platforms and plazas.",{"type":319,"children":431},[432,436,441,449],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":433,"children":434},{},[435],{"type":327,"value":429},{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":437,"children":438},{},[439],{"type":327,"value":440},"The most famous of these is the Pirámide Mayor, a stepped pyramid that covers an area as large as several football fields. It was built between 4000 and 5000 years ago, making it at least as old as Egypt’s first pyramid, and maybe even older. It may have been used as an astronomical observatory, or a temple complex, but this is only speculation.",{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":442,"children":443},{},[444],{"type":322,"tag":342,"props":445,"children":448},{"alt":344,"src":446,"title":447},"image://b6cbf315-7652-4433-a868-7f1c3bf3e986","Pirámide Mayor. Image: HJPD, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":450,"children":451},{},[452],{"type":327,"value":453},"Archaeological evidence suggests that workers may have been paid in dried anchovies during construction projects such as the Pirámide Mayor. This indicates a sophisticated system of labor within Caral-Supe society – one that helped them to build large monuments despite their arid environment and limited resources.",{"title":316,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":455},[],{"id":184,"data":185,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":188,"parsed":457},{"data":458,"body":460,"toc":484},{"title":316,"description":459},"In 2003, a single piece of visual art was discovered at a Caral-Supe site: a cartoonish figure carved roughly into the side of a gourd. This figure had a leering smile, as well as a hood and fangs.",{"type":319,"children":461},[462,466,474,479],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":463,"children":464},{},[465],{"type":327,"value":459},{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":467,"children":468},{},[469],{"type":322,"tag":342,"props":470,"children":473},{"alt":344,"src":471,"title":472},"image://a56ab40d-ac4a-403e-9123-88c0ecd51533","Caral-Supe figure. Image: Drawing by Jill Seagard, Courtesy of the Field Museum",[],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":475,"children":476},{},[477],{"type":327,"value":478},"Historians believe that this figure is an early depiction of the Staff God – a major deity among later South American cultures. If this were true, it would offer a valuable glimpse into Caral-Supe religion.",{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":480,"children":481},{},[482],{"type":327,"value":483},"But other historians have argued that this figure is something else entirely. It has been speculated that the figure could represent some kind of priest or leader, or that it might be linked to ancestor worship. Unfortunately, the image is too ambiguous – it just opens up more questions.",{"title":316,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":485},[],{"id":197,"data":198,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":201,"parsed":487},{"data":488,"body":490,"toc":514},{"title":316,"description":489},"Historians have also found various textiles at Caral-Supe sites. This has included several examples of intricate knots known as quipu.",{"type":319,"children":491},[492,496,504,509],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":493,"children":494},{},[495],{"type":327,"value":489},{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":497,"children":498},{},[499],{"type":322,"tag":342,"props":500,"children":503},{"alt":344,"src":501,"title":502},"image://c1140e73-f6f3-4282-a3c5-802a657a1e19","Quipu. Image: See page for author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":505,"children":506},{},[507],{"type":327,"value":508},"These knots may just have been decorative, but in later South American civilizations, similar knots were used to record information. Each thread would be knotted in a particular way which might represent a number, or an abstract idea, exactly the same as a writing system.",{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":510,"children":511},{},[512],{"type":327,"value":513},"Some researchers believe that the knots at Caral were used for a similar purpose, which would explain the absence of traditional writing – the Caral-Supe used knots to record information instead. Unfortunately, even if these knots are a form of writing, nobody knows how to read them.",{"title":316,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":515},[],{"id":222,"data":223,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":226,"parsed":517},{"data":518,"body":520,"toc":536},{"title":316,"description":519},"There is one profoundly unique quality about the Caral-Supe civilization: historians are yet to find any evidence of warfare. There are no fortifications around their cities, and no mutilated bodies in their graves.",{"type":319,"children":521},[522,526,531],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":523,"children":524},{},[525],{"type":327,"value":519},{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":527,"children":528},{},[529],{"type":327,"value":530},"If the Caral-Supe really lived in peace, it would make them a rarity in the Ancient World. Many people believe that warfare is inevitable among human beings, but the Caral-Supe suggest otherwise.",{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":532,"children":533},{},[534],{"type":327,"value":535},"This peaceful atmosphere may have been encouraged by religious beliefs. The Staff God, for example, was thought to represent social harmony. Alternatively, maybe the Caral-Supe were united in opposition to the hostile environment, and knew that a breakdown in cooperation would cause all of them to suffer.",{"title":316,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":537},[],{"id":236,"data":237,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":239,"introPage":246,"pages":539},[540,562],{"id":254,"data":255,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":258,"parsed":541},{"data":542,"body":544,"toc":560},{"title":316,"description":543},"Like so much else about the Caral-Supe, their decline is shrouded in mystery. It is possible that they were unable to sustain their population due to environmental changes such as drought and soil erosion, leading them to migrate in search of more fertile land.",{"type":319,"children":545},[546,550,555],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":547,"children":548},{},[549],{"type":327,"value":543},{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":551,"children":552},{},[553],{"type":327,"value":554},"This theory is supported by extensive canals found in regions north of Caral-Supe. These canals suggest that the Caral-Supe migrated there, and brought their knowledge of irrigation with them.",{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":556,"children":557},{},[558],{"type":327,"value":559},"It has also been suggested that external forces could have played a role in the collapse of Caral-Supe. Neighboring peoples may have taken advantage of their peaceful nature, and launched an attack. However, there is no real evidence to support this theory. As things stand, a slow migration to more fertile lands is a more likely explanation.",{"title":316,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":561},[],{"id":276,"data":277,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":280,"parsed":563},{"data":564,"body":566,"toc":590},{"title":316,"description":565},"The Caral-Supe civilization left a lasting impression on South America, with its influence felt in many later civilizations. The Incas of Peru used quipu knots which resembled those of the Caral-Supe, while the Staff God may have been worshiped by both cultures, with religious beliefs passed down through generations.",{"type":319,"children":567},[568,572,577,582],{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":569,"children":570},{},[571],{"type":327,"value":565},{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":573,"children":574},{},[575],{"type":327,"value":576},"However, the full impact of the Caral-Supe civilization is yet another thing which modern historians might never know for certain. We cannot know how they interacted with other cultures, or how their beliefs shaped those around them.",{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":578,"children":579},{},[580],{"type":327,"value":581},"All we can study are lumps of rubble and strips of faded cloth. These artifacts hint at a resilient society ahead of its time – but they never quite tell us the answers we long to know.",{"type":322,"tag":323,"props":583,"children":584},{},[585],{"type":322,"tag":342,"props":586,"children":589},{"alt":344,"src":587,"title":588},"image://38e782d7-623f-4362-945c-23e20e80db91","Caral-Supe ruins. Image: I, KyleThayer, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":316,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":591},[],{"left":4,"top":4,"width":593,"height":593,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":594},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":593,"height":593,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":596},"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"M4 5h16M4 12h16M4 19h16\"/>",1778228209440]