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And why should we study it?",3,[37,90,160],{"id":38,"data":39,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":41},"d4a4a6a6-a1d9-4962-8c8f-8934f0cf1047",{"type":21,"title":40},"Understanding Literature",[42,58,74],{"id":43,"data":44,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":48},"55dd4904-99ba-41f1-a21b-ce45b52ecb61",{"type":25,"title":45,"markdownContent":46,"audioMediaId":47},"What is Literature?","The term ‘literature’ can have a lot of different meanings. For example, one definition of the word is simply, ‘writing in prose or verse.’ But some definitions are more specific, identifying literature as works that are ‘considered of superior or lasting artistic merit.’ \n\n ![Graph](image://6ba6ec83-f66b-4f6e-b224-5be8c45eddfa \"Literature has a history that spans millennia\")\n\nThe second definition, though narrower, opens up a world of questions. What is art? What is considered superior or of merit? These subjective descriptions leave the door open for an ongoing conversation about what is and isn’t literature – and the definition can differ from person to person. \n\nToday, even the idea that literature is written can come under question. Why can’t a film or song be literature? Most agree, however, that even though pieces like songs and movies have written elements, their quality comes from the works as a whole, not just the writing.\n\nIn general, when discussing literature as an art form, the term most often means writings – fiction or nonfiction – that are high quality and have withstood the test of time. ","fb007471-e3d4-47ca-b21d-f0a99dedb122",[49],{"id":50,"data":51,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"4a21428f-4070-4c34-a0ea-7f72b122e4b8",{"type":52,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":53,"clozeWords":55},11,[54],"Literature is often defined as writing in prose or verse.",[56,57],"prose","verse",{"id":59,"data":60,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":64},"46215e18-8c50-4827-b298-174135e5b917",{"type":25,"title":61,"markdownContent":62,"audioMediaId":63},"Why Does Literature Matter?","\nAt some point, almost everyone has been required to read literature; across the world, students are assigned dramas, poems, and stories. Reading literature is an important part of most education systems for a reason: it helps you step outside your own life and experience new ideas and perspectives. \n\nThrough literature, you can experience history and philosophy in new and personal ways. It can teach morality or serve as a warning, and through satire and humor writers can shine light on contemporary issues. \n\nIn fact, research shows that reading literary fiction can strengthen empathy and improve how we relate to one another. \n\n ![Graph](image://69f7fc21-df41-4b18-8298-46e12845d962 \"Lisa Simpson\")\n\nReading literature can give us a foundation for connecting with others. From pop culture media like Doctor Who and The Simpsons to conversations with coworkers and friends, having an understanding of popular literature can help you navigate and participate in the world around you. ","f3106b7e-5951-4e7e-86f9-e35f2e092f8c",[65],{"id":66,"data":67,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"e76d9aee-d3f5-4875-8409-93acffa21d82",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":68,"binaryCorrect":70,"binaryIncorrect":72},[69],"Research shows that reading literature can ...",[71],"Strengthen empathy",[73],"Improve numeracy",{"id":75,"data":76,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":80},"f6a42cc3-0c00-4e65-b1d6-b44054735dad",{"type":25,"title":77,"markdownContent":78,"audioMediaId":79},"Types of Texts"," ![Graph](image://22232932-daf5-4970-b87d-e9c99df0d105 \"A 19th-century biography\")\n\nLiterature can come in many different forms. The main three types of literary texts are prose, drama, and poetry. \n\nProse is the largest of the three categories and includes any writing that follows a natural style of speech and grammar. Prose can be formal or informal and fiction or nonfiction. Examples of prose include novels, short stories, biographies, diaries, and essays. (Even the writing in this tile is prose!).\n\nBecause prose has been written throughout history, it doesn’t have to have a contemporary style of speech and grammar to fall under this definition. Although the term ‘prose’ wasn’t coined until the 14th century, any writing from history can be prose – If a work has paragraphs and sentences, it’s probably prose. ","72fe61f3-44f7-4a2d-959d-3436299fe0bb",[81],{"id":82,"data":83,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"036cd6ac-1d1a-4082-a3c7-36c3ea31e12d",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":84,"binaryCorrect":86,"binaryIncorrect":88},[85],"What term is used to describe any writing that follows a natural style of speech and grammar?",[87],"Prose",[89],"Drama",{"id":91,"data":92,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":94},"975a276e-6ec1-4438-a5d8-e9c11cee74c2",{"type":21,"title":93},"Forms of Literary Expression",[95,112,128,144],{"id":96,"data":97,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":101},"6f5710cd-9aaf-4229-9aa0-33fdd4590ab1",{"type":25,"title":98,"markdownContent":99,"audioMediaId":100},"Introduction to Drama","The word ‘drama’ defines literature that is intended to be performed. In addition to plays, literary drama includes opera and musical theater librettos, as well as TV and movie scripts. \n\n ![Graph](image://b729bc5c-7cf2-4987-b4d4-19f2c45b5520 \"A performance of a Shakespeare play\")\n\nGenerally a work of literary drama will include character dialogue as well as setting and stage direction. Most dramas are organized into acts, with the 3-act structure being the most popular. In this form there is an act for setup, confrontation, and resolution. Acts are then divided into scenes.\n\nPlays come in many different types, but the most common are tragedy, comedy, history, and problem plays. Generally, you can tell the difference between the types because tragedies end in death, comedies end in marriage, history plays depict a moment in history, and problem plays deal with contemporary social issues.  \n\nThroughout history, drama was most often written in verse – this means it had a metrical rhythm and often a rhyme scheme, making each line sound like poetry. Today, however, most plays are written in natural language (or ‘prose’). ","dd198ce7-cc42-4550-85fd-264a12245499",[102],{"id":103,"data":104,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"aa50af02-b4cc-43b1-9abb-d70834afb9a6",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":105,"multiChoiceCorrect":107,"multiChoiceIncorrect":108},[106],"The three most common types of literature are prose, poetry and what?",[89],[109,110,111],"Film","Non-fiction","Audiobooks",{"id":113,"data":114,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":118},"a51c8522-0cce-436c-a841-fc3a74044eb1",{"type":25,"title":115,"markdownContent":116,"audioMediaId":117},"Introduction to Poetry","Poetry, which is also called ‘verse,’ is literature that uses the qualities of language to evoke meaning – it’s a vague definition because poetry has taken on so many different forms and styles throughout history. Basically, poetry utilizes language itself as its artistic medium. Where prose and drama usually focus on meaning, poetry integrates the sounds and weight of language into its design. \n\n ![Graph](image://e3c08a00-cb9c-4cd4-b0e8-e41fd30db9da \"A poem\")\n\nPoetry includes a wide range of style elements, but two common traits of poetry are meter and rhyme scheme. It’s a common misconception that a poem must have meter and rhyme to count as a poem, but it doesn’t. \n\nMeter is a rhythmic structure that arranges words’ stressed and unstressed syllables into a pattern. For example, the phrase ‘As I was going to St. Ives’ sounds like ‘As **I** was **go**ing **to** St. **Ives**” when said out loud. This is an unstressed/stressed meter.\n\nRhyme schemes are formed when the poet ends each line with a rhyming word, often in a pattern. \n\nFor example, a poem might have an alternating rhyme scheme, meaning the end of each line rhymes with the line that came two lines before it. For example, in these (rather sad) lines from W.B. Yeats, 'mind' rhymes with 'behind', and 'breath' with 'death':\n\n*I balanced all, brought all to mind,*\n\n*The years to come seemed waste of breath,*\n\n*A waste of breath the years behind*\n\n*In balance with this life, this death.*","572c26b1-841c-41db-96f0-018475d9849f",[119],{"id":120,"data":121,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"6e2e6b1c-e1b2-4b18-832b-22dff223d1a3",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":122,"binaryCorrect":124,"binaryIncorrect":126},[123],"What is the term used to describe the rhythmic structure of words in poetry?",[125],"Meter",[127],"Rhyme",{"id":129,"data":130,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":134},"398e447a-5cb4-4562-8936-4913f7f5525e",{"type":25,"title":131,"markdownContent":132,"audioMediaId":133},"Introduction to the Novel"," ![Graph](image://93e8bcd5-a2c3-4fb4-8e1b-f360f65e9bab \"Don Quixote\")\n\nAlthough the novel is one of the most common types of literature you’ll encounter today, it’s also one of the newest forms. In fact, the word itself is derived from the Italian word ‘novella,’ meaning ‘new.’ \n\nThere are two schools of thought concerning what counts as a novel in Western Literature: At its most basic a novel is a long, fictional narrative. \n\nWith this definition, some scholars include Ancient Greek and Roman texts, Medieval Romances, and even some histories such as *Le Morte d’Arthur* (which blurs the line between fact and fiction) under the definition of novel.\n\nBy contrast, it’s widely accepted that the modern novel begins with the works of Miguel de Cervantes (author of *Don Quixote*). This form rose in popularity in the 18th century and was distinctly different from earlier narratives because it was written in plain prose and focused on average people, not heroes. \n\nThe first novel in English is thought to have been Daniel Defoe’s *Robinson Crusoe*, published in 1719. This marked the beginning of a wave of interest in the novel as a form across Europe – one that continues to this day.","4476d13a-d1e4-4f40-b2fb-e0c6ef41a0f9",[135],{"id":136,"data":137,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"5c566422-8269-4748-8f04-b262f2589e01",{"type":52,"reviewType":138,"spacingBehaviour":25,"imageRecallQuestion":139,"imageRecallMediaId":141,"imageRecallAnswers":142},5,[140],"Which novel is usually considered the first example of the form?","50671c8d-29aa-445e-89d3-6321b4197c35",[143],"Don Quixote",{"id":145,"data":146,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":150},"2735deda-feae-43ed-8ad1-b2517ecaba32",{"type":25,"title":147,"markdownContent":148,"audioMediaId":149},"Essays, Diaries and Other Nonfiction"," ![Graph](image://1f61edea-2566-48a0-a65d-036dd6b0bc47 \"A diary\")\n\nWhen someone says ‘literature,’ most people will think of plays, poetry, or fictional prose. However, non-fiction texts are an equally important aspect of literature. \n\nExamples of literary nonfiction include essays, biographies and autobiographies, diaries, nature and travel writings, journalism, philosophical and theoretical texts, and even scientific or technical writings.\n\nAny text can be literature if it’s ‘of particular merit.’ Although some nonfiction works are purely pragmatic like an instruction manual or brochure, and only exist to record and/or convey necessary information, some nonfiction writings do the same thing but in a way that uses language not just as a necessity but as an artistic element. This attention to aesthetic quality is what moves some nonfiction into the realm of literature. ","a7411166-b537-4414-b989-0ff17d52a594",[151],{"id":152,"data":153,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"367b58e5-a35d-4b54-9af9-501adaf47dbf",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":154,"binaryCorrect":156,"binaryIncorrect":158},[155],"Essays, biographies and travel writings are examples of what?",[157],"Literary nonfiction",[159],"Literary fiction",{"id":161,"data":162,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":164},"7b7a57e1-7369-4473-8f46-5a376722a541",{"type":21,"title":163},"Perspectives on Literature",[165,181,197],{"id":166,"data":167,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":171},"da610f1f-811d-4125-a3af-23366e77c447",{"type":25,"title":168,"markdownContent":169,"audioMediaId":170},"Misconceptions about Literature"," ![Graph](image://56378d83-325b-415d-bbf8-b0845fe303f4 \"A Shakespeare play being performed\")\n\nThe basic idea of literature can be off-putting to a lot of people. As much as school can teach the importance of literature, it often leaves people with an unfortunate dislike for the topic.\n\nOne misconception about literature is that it’s stuffy, or too high-brow. Likewise, there’s an idea that older texts are formal because they use a version of language that isn’t used any more. \n\nFor example, many people think of Shakespeare’s writing not only as high-quality, but also fussy or pretentious – and unfortunately the way his works are performed often doesn’t help. But Shakespeare’s plays are full of dirty jokes, innuendo, and bawdy humor. Once you’re accustomed to the language, they’re laugh-out-loud funny! \n\nThough sometimes written in a style or with archaic language that may take a little extra work, literature is rarely as stale or boring as many expect. ","e4002906-3731-42ea-a243-b53a7409b131",[172],{"id":173,"data":174,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"c110c554-4853-4489-930e-29d3e70ebbce",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":175,"binaryCorrect":177,"binaryIncorrect":179},[176],"Which of these can be found in Shakespeare?",[178],"Bawdy jokes",[180],"Long-form prose narratives",{"id":182,"data":183,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":187},"d6e0ccf6-8734-450b-bccd-739a463e3247",{"type":25,"title":184,"markdownContent":185,"audioMediaId":186},"Western Literature and The Canon","Literature is created around the world, and history’s most influential texts are as likely to have Asian, Arabic or African roots as they are to be Greek or Roman. Global cultures have different styles, forms, genres, and quality metrics.\n \nThe term ‘Western Literature’ generally includes any works written in the Indo-European family of languages including English, Spanish, French, Italian, and Russian and any works that have a Greek or Roman literary heritage. The styles and forms of prose, drama, and poetry in Western Literature are not universal. \n\nWithin each region’s literature, there is also what may be thought of as their ‘literary canon’: a body of written texts considered to be the most important and influential. As you can imagine, there is often little agreement on what texts fit into this definition, even within individual regions.\n \nAlthough this Pathway focuses on the Western canon, there is a world of artistically and historically important texts that come from other literary backgrounds. \n","252c62ae-9262-4d8e-ac60-c339f048f56e",[188],{"id":189,"data":190,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"f152fd69-6e2b-4778-a1da-0888b1304793",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":191,"binaryCorrect":193,"binaryIncorrect":195},[192],"What term is used for the family of languages including English, Spanish, French, Italian, and Russian?",[194],"Indo-European",[196],"Chinese",{"id":198,"data":199,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":203},"a5f1f6c2-bf13-4402-98f2-1986ddf910b2",{"type":25,"title":200,"markdownContent":201,"audioMediaId":202},"Expanding the Western Canon","\n ![Graph](image://0639a783-706b-44cb-a9ea-814a3053d744 \"Harold Bloom\")\n\nPeople sometimes think of Western literature as a ‘bunch of dead white men.’ While this description is reductive for a number of reasons, there is a core truth that the traditional Western canon heavily favors historical texts from writers who were male and European.\n\nThis imbalance is one of the important reasons that the idea of the canon is under scrutiny today. Some scholars, like literary theorist Harold Bloom, argue that knowledge of the Western canon is a critical component of a good education and that it helps learners understand universal truths and avoid cultural relativism.\n \nOthers disagree and say that the canon is exclusionary and a misrepresentation of the diversity of high-quality written works throughout history. While some theorists seek to do away with the canon altogether, many others call for an ‘expanded canon’ that includes more writers of marginalized genders as well as wider racial diversity. Feminist, post-colonial, and LGBTQ+ texts are gaining more attention and acclaim as the idea of the Western canon is reassessed.\n\n","77509aac-b7a2-4f31-844f-96f6ca2c644d",[204],{"id":205,"data":206,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"856da32b-0030-40db-8d24-39103c860f8a",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":207,"multiChoiceCorrect":209,"multiChoiceIncorrect":211},[208],"What term is used for the body of texts that are generally thought to be the most important and highest-quality?",[210],"The canon",[212,213,214],"The library","The collection","The corpus",{"id":216,"data":217,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"orbs":220},"6acb0557-0c12-4a48-9bd3-77e927c92004",{"type":27,"title":218,"tagline":219},"That’s Ancient History: Classic Greek & Roman Literature","The story of the roots of the Western canon in Ancient Greece and Rome.",[221,278,328],{"id":222,"data":223,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":225},"84495d58-5a29-42c7-b0ad-ceea1e6b632a",{"type":21,"title":224},"Foundations of Classical Literature",[226,242,260],{"id":227,"data":228,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":232},"5115469f-be6e-4c38-9b4c-e53ce1633075",{"type":25,"title":229,"markdownContent":230,"audioMediaId":231},"Defining Classical Literature","The term ‘classical studies’ is used in the case of Western literature to describe works written in ancient Greek and Latin during the time of the ancient Greek and Roman empires; this period is also sometimes called ‘antiquity.’\n\n ![Graph](image://d587cfb5-ad34-4477-bbd9-ec48d0448954 \"Writing in Ancient Greek\")\n\nThe earliest surviving works of Greek literature were likely composed around the 8th century BCE, and new works were being created up until the Roman conquest of Greece in 146 BCE. Classic Roman literature started later than Greek and was written in Latin, and while there are earlier examples, most Classic Roman literature was written between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE. \n\nIt’s important to know that when talking about literature, the term ‘classics’ can be confusing, because it can identify specifically ancient Greek and Roman texts, but it’s also used interchangeably with ‘the canon.’ That’s why, if you look in a Classics section in a bookstore, you may find texts written from a wide variety of time periods. In conversation, context clues will be important to know which kind of ‘classic’ someone is referring to. \n","da274737-ffd0-428e-a9ac-85ace6c6cf6b",[233],{"id":234,"data":235,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"7669aa75-964c-4808-b952-f2cbc157e0ff",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":236,"binaryCorrect":238,"binaryIncorrect":240},[237],"Which era saw most Classic Roman literature being written?",[239],"1st century BCE-2nd century CE",[241],"5th-4th century BCE",{"id":243,"data":244,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":248},"84566c08-90d7-423b-9603-a7249340cf91",{"type":25,"title":245,"markdownContent":246,"audioMediaId":247},"Influence of Classics Across Disciplines","Classical literature includes epics and dramas, but also Greco-Roman nonfiction works on philosophy, history, archaeology, anthropology, art and mythology. \n\n ![Graph](image://400d2816-9c1a-486e-981b-445d64ee9f29 \"Socrates\")\n\nMany subjects studied today find their roots in ancient Greek and Roman writings. From the sciences to the arts, much of Western thought has been influenced by writers and thinkers of these early ages: the works of Pythagoras continue to influence Mathematics, the Socratic Method remains a popular teaching style, and art and architecture still refer to Vitruvius’ writings for understanding balance and scale. \n\nIn literature, the influence of the West’s earliest writers cannot be overstated. While some styles such as Neoclassicism are more obviously influenced by these ancient texts, as we will see, the majority of works in the Western canon have been impacted by classical literature in some way – whether the author seeks to copy it or rebel against it. \n","9a40336b-96b7-4d00-8402-8cbfaef4ed4a",[249],{"id":250,"data":251,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"d1d3e547-2623-4beb-b7e1-53532eeb3db9",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":252,"multiChoiceCorrect":254,"multiChoiceIncorrect":256},[253],"Which Roman thinker was influential on the development of architecture?",[255],"Vitruvius",[257,258,259],"Cicero","Virgil","Seneca",{"id":261,"data":262,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":266},"7a27c285-e771-4308-b704-5c3264cf2f8a",{"type":25,"title":263,"markdownContent":264,"audioMediaId":265},"The Epic Poem"," ![Graph](image://16146228-a3a5-4d63-bf94-ff7fb473eab5 \"The Epic of Gilgamesh\")\n\nDid you know that the epic poem is one of the earliest known forms of literature in the world? \n\nSometimes simply called an ‘epic,’ it’s a long-form narrative – often book-length – that is written in poetic verse. Ancient Greek epics like Homer’s the *Iliad* and the *Odyssey* from around 800 BCE are some of the earliest works of Western literature. The oldest recognized epic is the *Epic of Gilgamesh*, recorded in ancient Sumer circa 2500-1300 BCE. \n\nThese earliest epics were composed as songs – not written down – and shared orally. Because the narratives were created as poems with rhyme and meter, it helped the creators memorize these lengthy works. Being able to memorize the poem was important so that it could be performed and passed on to new orators. \n\nIn Western literature, heroic epics are the most common form of epic poem. These depict extraordinary characters or people performing extraordinary deeds (so, heroes), usually dealing with gods, deities or other superhuman forces. These forces sometimes work against the hero, for him (in classical epics the heroes are male), or the gods are oblivious to the hero but create a conflict that he has to manage. The *Odyssey* has examples of all three. ","af6280e1-ed47-4978-a043-a654f0d5f98f",[267],{"id":268,"data":269,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"f03da331-6fee-47e6-95d9-c54dda73a9d8",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":270,"multiChoiceCorrect":272,"multiChoiceIncorrect":274},[271],"What is the oldest recognized epic poem?",[273],"The Epic of Gilgamesh",[275,276,277],"The Iliad","The Odyssey","Beowulf",{"id":279,"data":280,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":282},"b4bb041d-082d-4e1b-9835-24deab12e1fa",{"type":21,"title":281},"Greek Contributions to Literature",[283,297,312],{"id":284,"data":285,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":289},"ef345858-ab3c-4176-ba7c-9b70cc60a80d",{"type":25,"title":286,"markdownContent":287,"audioMediaId":288},"Greek Dramas","Most literary scholars agree that the ancient Greek theater was the birthplace of Western drama.\n \nThe city-state of Athens became an important cultural center around 700 BCE, with plays performed as part of religious festivals and has continued to be a source of art and inspiration ever since.\n \nGreek drama has unique characteristics that you don’t usually see in the theater today. Sophocles’s *Oedipus Rex* is one of the most famous Greek dramas and displays many of these characteristics. \n\n ![Graph](image://4c41b725-8d25-4526-b439-01c28f8deec1 \"Comedy and tragedy masks\")\n\nFirst, all plays were written in verse. This means they had meter and rhyme schemes.\n \nSecond, actors always wore masks and relied on the masks to show emotion; the masks were usually extreme and showed faces with huge smiles or abject weeping. Today, you can often see theater represented by two masks, one happy and one sad. These masks, called ‘Comedy and Tragedy’ are associated with ancient Greek drama. \n\nThird, ancient Greek casts were very small, never consisting of more than three actors in addition to the chorus – the Greek chorus was a group of actors that spoke in unison, and their role within a drama was to describe and comment upon the main action of the play.\n","62d7602a-a7ff-45b1-87da-3a3a960e6622",[290],{"id":291,"data":292,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"97a0526a-827c-4795-9991-f6fc9389fc84",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":293,"activeRecallAnswers":295},[294],"What was the role of the Greek chorus in ancient Greek drama?",[296],"To describe and comment upon the main action of the play",{"id":298,"data":299,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":303},"d7ba1db6-800a-4042-9e8d-b957a018f8b5",{"type":25,"title":300,"markdownContent":301,"audioMediaId":302},"Greek Philosophy","\n ![Graph](image://b34c303f-563f-439e-b5de-4da5b77dd408 \"Plato\")\n\nAncient Greek philosophy marked an important shift in Greek literature when it arose in the 6th century BCE. As writing became standard and more widely used, scholars began to write their ideas down, instead of relying on memory and oral tradition.\n \nFrom this time through the Hellenistic period and into the time of the Roman Empire, Greek Philosophy blossomed.\n\nThe most notable Greek philosophers are Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Socrates is often called the ‘father of Western philosophy’ – he introduced the Socratic method, which is a question-and-answer style of learning.\n\nSocrates’ works also heavily influenced the philosophers that came after him, including Plato. In Plato’s *Republic*, for example, Socrates shows up as a character that is an important source of dialogue and discussion.\n\nPossibly the most influential philosopher of all time, Aristotle was a student of Plato. He invented the field of formal logic, defined the scientific disciplines, and made ground-breaking contributions to philosophy and science. ","497ed4c6-4243-4718-9244-dfb059671317",[304],{"id":305,"data":306,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"b262956d-832e-471b-90c9-8a9dde51291c",{"type":52,"reviewType":138,"spacingBehaviour":25,"imageRecallQuestion":307,"imageRecallMediaId":309,"imageRecallAnswers":310},[308],"Which influential Greek philosopher is this?","12b1cb4c-f4c4-4d05-9cc2-14912b750ce2",[311],"Plato",{"id":313,"data":314,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":318},"82cec273-db96-459e-a5c1-cb9a29c17697",{"type":25,"title":315,"markdownContent":316,"audioMediaId":317},"Key Figure: Homer","Homer is often considered the most influential author of all time, and the epic poems the *Iliad* and the *Odyssey* are both attributed to him. From what we can tell, he most likely lived during the late 8th century BCE. Many accounts say that he was visually impaired, and he’s often referred to as ‘the blind bard.’\n\n ![Graph](image://24215ed2-bc14-45a4-a2c7-428474908b78 \"Image - an image of Homer the Poet\")\n\nThe *Iliad* and the *Odyssey* were both originally constructed in ‘Homeric Greek,’ a literary language that blended dialects. Both epics are divided into 24 books and both contain exactly 15,693 lines! \n\nThe *Iliad* is, narratively, the earlier of the two works. It is set during the Trojan War – a ten-year siege on the city Troy – and it focuses on King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles. Interestingly, although the famous story of the Trojan Horse takes place during the Trojan War, it’s not mentioned in the *Iliad*, which ends before the event. \n\nThe *Odyssey*, which is arguably the more famous of the two epics, occurs after the fall of Troy and follows the hero Odysseus on his long and difficult journey home, which takes many years and during which he encounters many trials. \n","15c987d5-f124-4ab5-a5a0-247d1e173617",[319],{"id":320,"data":321,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"ecf98068-93e0-48b8-afcb-e235bfd6e10d",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":322,"binaryCorrect":324,"binaryIncorrect":326},[323],"How many books make up the *Odyssey*?",[325],"24",[327],"12",{"id":329,"data":330,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":332},"40a18d44-145e-4080-91d4-b3bfb98346c6",{"type":21,"title":331},"Key Figures in Classical Literature",[333,355,378],{"id":334,"data":335,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":339},"428dbe69-8466-40e4-b65c-f55e97d0b000",{"type":25,"title":336,"markdownContent":337,"audioMediaId":338},"Key Figure: Virgil","\n ![Graph](image://baec86de-5a08-47ce-9d03-a46a21078b28 \"The poet Virgil\")\n\nPublius Vergilius Maro, most widely known as ‘Virgil’ was an ancient Roman poet who lived from 70 BCE to 19 BCE during the reign of Caesar Augustus. He is known for composing some of the most famous poems in the Latin language: particularly *Eclogues*, the *Georgics*, and the epic poem the *Aeneid*. \n\nOf these three, the *Aeneid* is by far the best known – and it has remained popular throughout history. Since its creation, the poem has held the title as a national epic of ancient Rome. \n\nThis epic was inspired by the works of Homer and uses much of the same style, though it’s written in Latin and Homer wrote in Greek. However, despite the similarities, Virgil also helped to expand the genre by integrating other poetic devices and figurative language into his epic.\n\nThe story of the *Aeneid* centers on Aeneas after the fall of Troy as he struggles to reach Italy and fulfill his destiny to become the ancestor of the Romans. The story helped the Romans to feel that they were part of a grand historical narrative – with a mythology that could rival that of the Greeks. \n\n\n","fcc90ef1-ba99-499d-9122-91c4f061f6cf",[340,347],{"id":341,"data":342,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"c9a14582-c89f-44d6-a82a-04c6636ccc3d",{"type":52,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":343,"clozeWords":345},[344],"Virgil was a famous Roman poet who wrote the epic poem the Aeneid.",[346],"Aeneid",{"id":348,"data":349,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"dedf9188-e986-441d-834c-f03f6a69c961",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":350,"multiChoiceCorrect":352,"multiChoiceIncorrect":354},[351],"Which of these is a poem by Virgil?",[353],"The Georgics",[275,273,276],{"id":356,"data":357,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":361},"991b6373-5f9c-42ba-947e-c0f449dc8c6b",{"type":25,"title":358,"markdownContent":359,"audioMediaId":360},"Key Figure: Sophocles","\n ![Graph](image://e65baaa3-7eb2-4229-ba42-6137ea3a896e \"An early 20th century production of Oedipus Rex\")\n\nSophocles was one of the greatest ancient Greek tragedians and one of only three from whom any complete plays still survive; the other two tragedians are Aeschylus and Euripides. Sophocles lived from around 497 BCE to 406 BCE. \n\nAlthough he wrote over 120 plays, only 7 still exist in their complete form. Drama was central to Ancient Greek culture, and competitions were held during religious festivals. Sophocles was the most celebrated playwright for 50 years, competing in 30 competitions, winning 24, and never placing lower than second. In his first competition, his success was so clear that the reigning champion Aeschylus went into voluntary exile afterwards. \n\nSophocles’ most famous plays are *Oedipus Rex*, *Oedipus at Colonus*, and *Antigone*. These three together are called the ‘Theban plays’ because they take place in the city of Thebes during and after the reign of King Oedipus. \n\n\n","764cceb9-5dfc-4a75-b6cc-8014e493f345",[362,371],{"id":363,"data":364,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"43b7d1ab-bde5-46a2-988b-c40f73c49c64",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":365,"binaryCorrect":367,"binaryIncorrect":369},[366],"Sophocles wrote 120 plays, but how many remain today?",[368],"7",[370],"52",{"id":372,"data":373,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"8a2b116c-9ec9-4411-8294-9428f7253e03",{"type":52,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":374,"clozeWords":376},[375],"Sophocles's most famous plays are known as the Theban plays.",[377],"Theban",{"id":379,"data":380,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":384},"e63e39df-2b25-405f-abe8-7962397bbe3b",{"type":25,"title":381,"markdownContent":382,"audioMediaId":383},"The Expanded Canon: Sappho","\n\n ![Graph](image://94122954-0673-4810-9d2a-7b6563e58ead \"The poet Sappho\")\n\nSappho was an Ancient Greek poet from the island of Lesbos. She was highly respected as a lyrical poet during her time and was often referred to as the ‘Tenth Muse’ or simply ‘The Poetess.’ She lived from about 630 BCE to 570 BCE.\n\nSappho’s work was foundational for Ancient Greek and Roman writers, and she is one of the earliest writers to record homoerotic feelings. The words 'sapphic’ and ‘lesbian’ are both inspired by her. \n\nAlthough Sappho was a prolific poet, likely composing more than 10,000 lines, unfortunately very little of her work survives today. The only existing complete poem is ‘Ode to Aphrodite.’ Sappho’s legacy began to be criticized during the 3rd century CE due to being a woman and because of her sexuality – and her works were all but lost by a century later. \n\nToday, Sappho is regaining appreciation and is widely considered for the expansion of the canon. \n\n","80db3f94-81b8-456f-8a8b-f6a18ddbf248",[385],{"id":386,"data":387,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"f51a3bc6-a0a8-416e-b6ea-86361649f54b",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":388,"binaryCorrect":390,"binaryIncorrect":392},[389],"How many complete poems of Sappho’s survive today?",[391],"One",[393],"Two",{"id":395,"data":396,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"orbs":399},"e4b5e46b-2843-4804-8cad-5986ffa84970",{"type":27,"title":397,"tagline":398},"It’s Practically Medieval: Literature in the Early and High Middle Ages","How medieval writers developed the Western tradition from their classical predecessors.",[400,460,514],{"id":401,"data":402,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":404},"ff90e0ee-cc6e-4dac-8bd8-296c32f9882c",{"type":21,"title":403},"Defining Medieval Literature",[405,422,436],{"id":406,"data":407,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":410},"8ada0975-b4a5-426f-b182-d5ba3ebd583c",{"type":25,"title":403,"markdownContent":408,"audioMediaId":409},"\n\nWhile virtually anything written between 476 and 1500 can be classified as medieval literature, the term applies most commonly to poetry, drama, romance, epic prose, and histories – particularly those written in vernacular languages, that is, languages spoken by ordinary people.  \n\n\n ![Graph](image://7935d2eb-7aa1-4cfa-875e-fe4d39e96817 \"An early medieval text in Latin\")\n\nBefore the Middle Ages, all Western Literature was written in Latin or Greek. However, literature in the vernacular grew in popularity in the 7th century, and it eventually came to characterize this era. \n\nA lot of medieval literature was poetic. Like in the Classical period, literature was still mostly shared through oration during medieval times, and poetry was easier to memorize and more engaging for an audience.\n \nMedieval histories are classified as literature because they were based more on legends, or fables, than real events. For example, *Ecclesiastical History of the English People* by the writer known as The Venerable Bede is made of historical facts, myths and legends all mixed together.\n\n\n","423abcd7-704b-43f1-88cb-8a498ae0f4f9",[411],{"id":412,"data":413,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"577490ef-44af-4fa8-a2ec-82cd225e3d96",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":414,"multiChoiceCorrect":416,"multiChoiceIncorrect":418},[415],"Which medieval writer wrote the Ecclesiastical History of the English People?",[417],"The Venerable Bede",[419,420,421],"Julian of Norwich","The Gawain Poet","Geoffrey Chaucer",{"id":423,"data":424,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":428},"dbe3582d-9a7f-4909-b23c-ae258c39648f",{"type":25,"title":425,"markdownContent":426,"audioMediaId":427},"Historical Context of Medieval Literature","\n\n ![Graph](image://dc018585-7b9e-4ffe-bb32-1e3cc97443d5 \"A depiction of the Anglo-Saxons\")\n\nNear the beginning of the 5th century,  Roman troops began withdrawing from Roman colonies to fight Germanic invaders in Rome. In England, the Roman withdrawal opened the way for the Anglo Saxon Invasion of 449 and an influx of paganism. \n\nHowever, the Romans left behind strong Christian influences, and by the end of the 6th century, the Anglo Saxons were Christian at least in name. Monastic centers sprang up across Europe, preserving classical literature and leading to the growth of medieval literature.\n\nBy the end of the High Middle Ages, the Catholic church, centered in Rome, was the highest authority throughout Europe, and a lot of Medieval literature focuses on Christianity. However, elements of paganism can be found in English medieval writing throughout the period, even when it’s mixed with Christian themes.\n\n\n","6b753267-d5e3-4629-b266-24f42aec1a00",[429],{"id":430,"data":431,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"92ff2666-59b0-4bdc-8784-8c1c53d3ca59",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":432,"activeRecallAnswers":434},[433],"When did the Anglo Saxon Invasion of England take place?",[435],"449",{"id":437,"data":438,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":442},"9cb1e896-5bc3-409c-b774-58f8ad2e3873",{"type":25,"title":439,"markdownContent":440,"audioMediaId":441},"Medieval Literature around the World","Although the term ‘medieval’ applies most commonly to Western Europe and the Byzantine Empire, other cultures experienced a historical period with the same features as the European middle ages. Japan, China and India offer good examples. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://4728f275-f4ef-4a2f-9ee8-12a0a8c98886 \"The Ramayana\")\n\nJapanese medieval literature continued the literary trends of its classical period with the emergence of the ‘war tales' and strong advancements in waka poetry, which consists of five lines with 31 syllables.  The medieval period in China covered the Tang and Song Dynasties.  Poetry was the hallmark of the Tang Dynasty, and fiction and drama appeared during the Song Dynasty.  \n\nSomewhat later than the medieval period in Europe, medieval literature in India appeared around 1000 CE. It was strongly influenced by Hindu and Muslim religions, but an uptick in migration through India prompted dynamic changes in thought and writing. The *Ramayana* and *Mahabaharata* are the best-known pieces of Indian literature from this period.","5f8d0c9d-a298-41f2-b8e9-8ead58efb137",[443,450],{"id":444,"data":445,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"31027547-5052-408c-b354-a4cbf9deacd0",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":446,"activeRecallAnswers":448},[447],"What type of poetry was popular in Japan during the medieval period?",[449],"Waka poetry",{"id":451,"data":452,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"e95a7935-5640-4aaa-8c51-b8a4a131911c",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":453,"multiChoiceCorrect":455,"multiChoiceIncorrect":457},[454],"Which of these is a well-known piece of medieval Indian literature?",[456],"The Ramayana ",[458,459,273],"The Dream of the Red Chamber","The Romance of the Three Kingdoms",{"id":461,"data":462,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":464},"3512d84e-2095-41f9-a36b-a24a8186063d",{"type":21,"title":463},"Anonymity and the Oral Tradition",[465,480,496],{"id":466,"data":467,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":470},"f13d7743-0474-4843-9933-9762dee72021",{"type":25,"title":463,"markdownContent":468,"audioMediaId":469},"Because literacy was limited and not highly prized in the early medieval period, most literature was entirely oral. Poetry, tales of love or valor, and religious teachings alike were recited to a group and passed on from one storyteller to another, and each speaker adjusted their tales for various audiences. \n\nBecause of this process, original authors are largely unknown – works were shared across a variety of speakers, and the form and details of works were fluid.  \n\n ![Graph](image://4e899dce-4bab-4598-b998-3bfe30bfa6b8 \"A depiction of a storyteller\")\n\nMedieval writers also had a very different understanding of the author’s role. Because they were in awe of classical writers and church fathers, medieval authors were hesitant to create new stories, so they re-told and embellished stories they had heard or read. \n\nThey saw themselves more as conduits than creators. As literacy increased, more and more works were written down, but even those were often anonymous because writers hesitated to take individual credit for a cooperatively compiled work.","38b15e61-a526-4a2c-8f76-51bce933dae4",[471],{"id":472,"data":473,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"04061594-822d-434e-b924-b1eb456a5e11",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":474,"binaryCorrect":476,"binaryIncorrect":478},[475],"Medieval writers prized originality over tradition.",[477],"False",[479],"True",{"id":481,"data":482,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":486},"22eba8b3-c82e-441d-8c3e-f3fe6468b982",{"type":25,"title":483,"markdownContent":484,"audioMediaId":485},"Allegory and Religious Literature","The church dominated medieval life, and a lot of the literature of the time shows the Catholic church’s methods of instructing its members.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://d5862a96-bbe2-4d0f-a467-cf9d9713e991 \"A medieval depiction of The Last Supper\")\n \nAllegory was one of the most common approaches to making the abstract content of Biblical scripture more accessible to the common person.\n \nThere are two distinct forms of allegory: The first is personification allegory, where concepts like jealousy or friendship become characters in a story. They are understood not to be real people, but they teach a moral lesson through their interactions.\n \nThe second is symbol allegory, in which characters may be real people who symbolize something beyond themselves. The story, therefore, has at least two levels of meaning. \n\nMedieval readers looked for up to four levels of meaning in allegories: beyond the literal level, they looked for meaning referring to the church or a universal truth, to the individual’s spiritual life and behavior, and for symbolism representing the afterlife.\n","5fc931fb-41db-4c16-882a-dae68c38b096",[487],{"id":488,"data":489,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"e6cad12f-ce36-4699-8aac-2a3244d3bce4",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":490,"binaryCorrect":492,"binaryIncorrect":494},[491],"What term is used for allegories where abstract concepts become characters in the story?",[493],"Personification allegory",[495],"Symbol allegory",{"id":497,"data":498,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":502},"c25e99e3-181e-4137-a2af-01bd311c0aa3",{"type":25,"title":499,"markdownContent":500,"audioMediaId":501},"Courtly Love and the Arthurian Romance","The Arthurian Romance can be seen across texts from the Medieval period and  includes references in Latin, Welsh, French and English. \n\n ![Graph](image://cb1f270c-dd8b-4883-9786-863a688cde65 \"A medieval depiction of King Arthur\")\n\nThomas Malory’s *Morte D’arthur* was written near the end of the medieval period, and is one of the best known Arthurian tales today. It brings together the tales of Arthur and his knights, Merlin, the illicit love of Lancelot and Guinevere, and the quest for the Holy Grail. However, there is no single, original King Arthur work of literature. Instead, many Medieval authors wrote on this subject, creating an entire genre called the Arthurian Romance.\n \nKing Arthur is possibly based on the historic King Alfred the Great, and the fictional character ruled the utopian kingdom of Camelot and led a noble party of knights. Although there were suggestions of Arthur’s reign in works from the beginning of the Medieval period, the full-fledged legend began in France in the 12th century. \n\nWorks of Arthurian Romance always include the complex moral and behavioral codes of chivalry. One of those codes is courtly love in which a knight conducts an illicit but unconsummated affair with a married noblewoman (like Lancelot and Guinevere). ","b37878eb-d7ce-4d2a-8680-b8653cf5ec9d",[503],{"id":504,"data":505,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"8183f29a-cb2a-47c2-9026-0b34da740d1c",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":506,"multiChoiceCorrect":508,"multiChoiceIncorrect":510},[507],"Which text by Thomas Malory is one of the most prominent examples of Arthurian Romance?",[509],"Le Morte D'Arthur",[511,512,513],"The Knight and the Lion","The Sword in the Stone","Sir Gawain and the Green Knight",{"id":515,"data":516,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":518},"40d85b99-0ce1-43c2-9a88-194ac4b145eb",{"type":21,"title":517},"Key Texts of Medieval Literature",[519,535,551,567],{"id":520,"data":521,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":525},"b91e0dd8-aab0-4c46-8141-68cc5db93c59",{"type":25,"title":522,"markdownContent":523,"audioMediaId":524},"Key text: Beowulf","Written in Old English between 975 and 1025 CE, *Beowulf* was the first European epic to be written in the vernacular – meaning contemporary, spoken language, rather than the biblical languages of Latin or Greek. It includes historical facts, fiction, and legends from the Anglo Saxon and the Danes. Although there is some archaeological evidence for some parts of the epic, most of it, including the hero Beowulf and the monster Grendel, is fictional. \n\n ![Graph](image://8c1f8623-c33f-4ff2-b067-31ce55d39423 \"An early edition of Beowulf in Old English\")\n\nSet in the 6th century, just after the Anglo Saxon Invasion, the story describes Beowulf’s encounter with three monsters: The first is Grendel, who hates celebration and devours the king’s knights as they celebrate in the mead hall.  Beowulf comes and rips Grendel’s arm off to stop the killing. In revenge Grendel’s mother kidnaps one of the king’s knights. Beowulf stalks her and kills her with a magic sword. After becoming king and ruling peacefully for 50 years, Beowulf confronts a fire-breathing dragon. He kills the dragon but is fatally wounded in the process.","e8d42cc7-3ef4-4e83-8c42-3dc75e7df612",[526],{"id":527,"data":528,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"7f998b8c-dba8-4096-8898-0ba053d10a8f",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":529,"binaryCorrect":531,"binaryIncorrect":533},[530],"Who does Beowulf fight in the epic poem that bears his name?",[532],"Grendel",[534],"Grima",{"id":536,"data":537,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":541},"c5088557-f01e-4cff-9854-aef48db92dfe",{"type":25,"title":538,"markdownContent":539,"audioMediaId":540},"Key Text: Caedman’s Hymn","*Caedman’s Hymn* is important to Western Literature because it is the first work written in English where the author is identified. Written in the 7th century, Caedman, an illiterate cow herder, reported that the hymn was sung to him in a vision; he then performed it at a feast at Whitby Abbey.  \n\n ![Graph](image://29b92716-4a12-4c07-88be-4ae910ee67dc \"An early edition of Caedman's Hymn, in Old English\")\n\nThe hymn is a simple song of religious praise, written down by an anonymous scribe and first recorded in the writings of the historian the Venerable Bede. It’s one of the oldest surviving examples of Germanic alliterative verse. \n\nTwenty-one manuscripts of the hymn – dating from the 8th century to the 16th century – have survived. These show significant variations in the text; some are in Bede’s Northumbrian dialect, and some are in the West Saxon dialect most common for Old English texts.  Although usually presented as Christian, some scholars argue that it could have been praise for Anglo Saxon pagan deities.\n","21b9c9a6-60a8-4577-acff-2904412d230d",[542],{"id":543,"data":544,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"a46d1f34-c457-45f9-bb7f-4751b2f9874c",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":545,"multiChoiceCorrect":547,"multiChoiceIncorrect":549},[546],"What is the first work in English with an identified author?",[548],"Caedmon's Hymn",[513,550,277],"The Canterbury Tales",{"id":552,"data":553,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":557},"2974eb15-7c77-406c-a05d-93e89d715068",{"type":25,"title":554,"markdownContent":555,"audioMediaId":556},"\tKey Text: The Song of Roland","Written between 1040 and 1115, *The Song of Roland* is the oldest surviving piece of French literature. It is a complicated story of defeat, victory, betrayal and revenge; the epic depicts a disastrous battle between Roland’s army and a group of invaders. Roland dies attempting to call for reinforcements by blowing his horn until his temples burst. \n\n ![Graph](image://b08c1d9a-ebd3-427f-889f-0eaf25e4b4b8 \"A modern edition of the Song of Roland\")\n\nThe Song was repeated in the oral tradition for centuries, and many versions of the manuscript exist. It has influenced writers across time, from Robert Browning (‘Childe Roland to the Dark Tower Came’)  to Stephen King (The *Dark Tower* series).\n","5b47197c-fc46-4a26-950a-82529ffe821e",[558],{"id":559,"data":560,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"f0a363ae-da8d-4dc1-9110-2d18693eb918",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":561,"binaryCorrect":563,"binaryIncorrect":565},[562],"When was *The Song of Roland* written?",[564],"1040-1115",[566],"1220-1285",{"id":568,"data":569,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":573},"c8dfbc3d-b9da-41b2-9b39-96bcd7eed441",{"type":25,"title":570,"markdownContent":571,"audioMediaId":572},"Expanding the Canon: Hildegard of Bingen","Most people today don’t know who Hildegard of Bingen was, but she was incredibly important for her time and ours. A Benedictine abbess, she was also a writer, composer, philosopher, and medical practitioner. \n\nHildegard lived from 1098 to 1179 and is one of the best-known Medieval hymn composers. She has more surviving chants than any other person of her time. \n\nHildegard of Bingen is credited with the authorship of a musical drama known as \"Ordo Virtutum\" or \"Play of the Virtues.\" It is a morality play composed around the 12th century. The play is unique because it is one of the earliest surviving examples of a musical drama composed by a known author.\n\nScholars also identify Hildegard as the founder of German scientific natural history.\n\n ![Graph](image://a5409617-cbf3-4238-befd-dcf6615e13d4 \"Hildegard of Bingen\")\n\nA religious visionary, Hildegard wrote three volumes of theology, each detailing her visions and giving  theological interpretations. As a medical practitioner, she compiled two major works on medicine. The first consists of nine books detailing the medicinal benefits of various plants, stones, fish, reptiles and other animals. The second work explores the causes and cures of various diseases and connects the body to the rest of the natural world. As a woman who could write in Latin, she shared some ‘women’s knowledge’ about healing that is not recorded anywhere else.\n\n","c5f6ca8a-db3c-42a0-985f-bbad266a8247",[574,585],{"id":575,"data":576,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"01c04d4e-563d-4a9d-856b-8244dbb08b08",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":577,"multiChoiceCorrect":579,"multiChoiceIncorrect":581},[578],"What is the oldest surviving morality play that is attributed to Hildegard of Bingen?",[580],"The Play of Virtues",[582,583,584],"The Play of Vices","The Play of Nature","The Play of Life",{"id":586,"data":587,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"68bf30a1-3b06-47eb-a262-9f837930d232",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":588,"activeRecallAnswers":590},[589],"Who is known as the founder of German scientific natural history?",[591],"Hildegard of Bingen",{"id":593,"data":594,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"orbs":597},"ac526df2-d6e6-4fa9-9120-aa641e195f9f",{"type":27,"title":595,"tagline":596},"The Dawn of Modernity: Late Middle Ages & Italian Renaissance Literature","The dawn of the Early Modern era.",[598,686],{"id":599,"data":600,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":602},"f5c817aa-3a99-47cb-a2da-8c220693f115",{"type":21,"title":601},"The Transition to the Renaissance",[603,621,644,658,672],{"id":604,"data":605,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":609},"c1595486-1bc5-4647-be9a-7884d0787dc6",{"type":25,"title":606,"markdownContent":607,"audioMediaId":608},"The End of the Middle Ages","The transition from the Middle Ages into the Renaissance happened at different times in different countries, so there’s no clear-cut date marking the end of medievalism. However, events in the 14th century initiated significant social change: The Hundred Years War, the Black Death, and the Peasants Revolt all nudged society toward redefinition. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://0c3a2b9e-4a6c-400b-b7d8-058dd68bab55 \"A depiction of the Black Death\")\n\nThe Black Death wiped out one-third of the European population. Since peasants were hardest hit, they became more valuable, and their increased value led to the Peasants Revolt, the first move toward the end of feudalism. \n\nEvents of the 15th century were also significant, including the introduction of the printing press into Europe, Columbus’ voyage to the new world, and the fall of Constantinople. The synergy created between the printing press, mass education, and increased availability of reading material most significantly impacted late medieval literature, moving further from the oral tradition and stabilizing the language.\n\n\n","2401b9d0-0f7a-4bf9-b920-401dff870f60",[610],{"id":611,"data":612,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"3cb956f6-6479-4688-99b1-086e7a853641",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":613,"multiChoiceCorrect":615,"multiChoiceIncorrect":617},[614],"What event in the 14th century initiated significant social change?",[616],"The Black Death",[618,619,620],"The Spanish Armada","The invention of the printing press","The First Crusade ",{"id":622,"data":623,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":627},"0b9a95e5-94a0-4d16-9fbf-2e54e5b4452c",{"type":25,"title":624,"markdownContent":625,"audioMediaId":626},"Writing in the Vernacular","\n ![Graph](image://429fd7cd-65d2-49ec-8f54-aeb1d0aa32a5 \"John Barber’s Brus in Scots\")\n\nAlthough the term ‘vernacular’ can refer to any casual forms of a language that are spoken but not written, here we use it to refer to the commonly used language of a people or nation. Until near the end of the Middle Ages, all serious writing was in either Koine Greek or Latin, creating a lingua franca, or a common language, for educated Europeans.  \n\nThe writings in the various vernacular languages of Europe emerged at different times across the continent, but the first uses of vernacular in literature were Irish, Welsh, English and Gothic in the 7th to 10th centuries. Although English appeared early, the Norman Conquest in 1066 replaced English with French until the 14th century, when it re-emerged in the works of Chaucer.\n\nItalian writer Dante Aligheiri argued for the use of vernaculars in literature, and his *Divine Comedy* is an important example. John Barber’s *Brus* in Scots, Chaucer’s *Canterbury Tales* in English, and Jacob Van Maerlants *Spieghel Historiael* in Dutch are other important examples.\n","ff2025b0-b947-4145-9852-ececc259b3a7",[628,635],{"id":629,"data":630,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"486d4cc8-f611-4585-9b87-d1c8f2cb33e5",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":631,"activeRecallAnswers":633},[632],"What languages were commonly used for serious writing until near the end of the Middle Ages?",[634],"Koine Greek or Latin",{"id":636,"data":637,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"f79f8d71-a44d-416d-9859-b98852779faf",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":638,"binaryCorrect":640,"binaryIncorrect":642},[639],"What is the term used for the commonly used language of a people or nation?",[641],"Vernacular",[643],"Lingua franca",{"id":645,"data":646,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":650},"7fa44de9-8b33-4756-a14e-06ae1ab8cacc",{"type":25,"title":647,"markdownContent":648,"audioMediaId":649},"The Gutenberg Bible"," ![Graph](image://9283cbcd-3541-4f1b-aa3a-1bfeb861c053 \"An early Gutenberg bible\")\n\nCompleted in 1455, the Gutenberg Bible is one of the earliest texts reproduced in Europe by moveable type. Moveable type was new to Europe at the time, and proved to be an important step forward for Western literature. It used individual letter pieces that could be moved around – instead of wood blocks that would contain a whole page of text. This made printing different texts way easier than it was before. \n\nGutenberg was a printer, and one of the first to use this style of printing in Europe. He also developed an oil based ink for his press. With the publication of the Bible, Gutenberg established that literature could be mass-produced in a way that was practical, beautiful, and accessible to a wider economic group than hand-written manuscripts. \n\nConsidered to be Gutenberg’s masterpiece, copies are now considered to be invaluable. Historians disagree on the total number of copies that were originally printed, but 49 complete or partial copies are still in existence.  \n","babe579d-244c-45ea-b53a-c57e383d4f97",[651],{"id":652,"data":653,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"989311b8-ac33-495c-8af5-677af5a9818d",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":654,"activeRecallAnswers":656},[655],"What is the name of the earliest text reproduced in Europe by moveable type?",[657],"Gutenberg Bible",{"id":659,"data":660,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":664},"7834e133-2afc-4107-a31d-1e101744fbd1",{"type":25,"title":661,"markdownContent":662,"audioMediaId":663},"Defining Renaissance Literature","Renaissance literature reflected a move away from the church as the central authority and was produced in Europe after 1300. Common themes include the recovery of the classics and humanist philosophy.  \n\n ![Graph](image://cf2d5363-4ff1-4f2d-935b-9539ecdb51dd \"The First Folio of Shakespeare\")\n\nDuring this time, writers reverted to classical styles and content, making humankind the focus, rather than the Catholic church or Christian God.  This literature incorporated ideas of Platonism, the search for sensual pleasure, and a rational mindset. \n\nDuring this time, the essay grew to be a recognized literary form (much to the disappointment of high schoolers everywhere). \n\nThe Renaissance began in Italy in the 14th century and spread across Europe.  Although Chaucer is sometimes considered to be a Renaissance writer, the movement didn’t really take hold in England until the 15th century, peaking in the 17th century with Shakespeare and the other Elizabethans. \n\nThe development of the printing press and the spread of education contributed to the temperment of the age as universities replaced the church as centers of learning.\n\n","1a47d2b6-8df7-41db-a814-1dcc48a7738e",[665],{"id":666,"data":667,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"68f19409-3e7c-4691-8429-8c62c3deadd1",{"type":52,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":668,"clozeWords":670},[669],"The Renaissance began in Italy in the 14th century.",[671],"Italy",{"id":673,"data":674,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":678},"e4d4d184-2e4d-4a62-a086-ee545c04b963",{"type":25,"title":675,"markdownContent":676,"audioMediaId":677},"Renaissance Humanism","\n ![Graph](image://bafcaf46-4f61-4ce3-84a0-0db0d45472ea \"A 15th century monastery\")\n\nDuring the medieval period, the Catholic church was the center of life and thought for the Western world, as well as the source of information and perspective. However, as the power of the church began to wane with the Protestant Reformation, writers began to look to other sources for moral authority and education. \n\nThe most appealing sources for Renaissance writers were the classics, and writers returned to the idea of humans, rather than God, as the measure of all things. This resulted in Renaissance humanism – the study of the humanities as they were recovered from classical antiquity.  \n\nBy the 15th century, grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry and moral philosophy emerged as the most popular subjects of study. Although the interest in the classics originated from the same source, not everyone came to the same conclusions, and humanists could be either Catholic or Protestant and might pursue very different branches of thought.    ","9d4e59bc-ccba-4d89-a2c6-1a2bf703d437",[679],{"id":680,"data":681,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"61f65873-b589-4a9d-8510-8b89874c546f",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":682,"activeRecallAnswers":684},[683],"What is the name of the study of the humanities as they were recovered from classical antiquity?",[685],"Renaissance humanism",{"id":687,"data":688,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":690},"420f9cff-5745-400d-be67-e94e9db7902e",{"type":21,"title":689},"Key Literary Forms and Figures",[691,705,711,729,742],{"id":692,"data":693,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":697},"762f4b69-6d08-42c7-8420-f0b5b33f2e75",{"type":25,"title":694,"markdownContent":695,"audioMediaId":696},"Morality Plays","Because literacy was almost non-existent for the everyday person in the Middle Ages, the church used allegorical plays to teach values and Christian principles. Starting in the 15th century, these plays were put on by the Catholic church and were intended to teach more than to entertain.\n\nBecause these plays were largely allegorical, characters in the morality plays were personifications of moral concepts or abstractions such as mercy, death, greed and justice, not real people. In most plays the hero, representing humanity as a whole or a specific social group, found himself in competition between good and evil, and events in the play were intended to guide the hero to salvation.  \n\nAt the end of the medieval period, morality plays began to shift toward more secular ideas and were essential to the development of Western drama and flourished during the Elizabethan Era, influencing the craft of playwriting throughout the Renaissance. \n","55d5912b-413d-436c-a06d-c24c8f9bc905",[698],{"id":699,"data":700,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"aa50b35b-bebf-4c43-8585-ace8055dcb66",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":701,"activeRecallAnswers":703},[702],"What was the purpose of morality plays in the Middle Ages?",[704],"To teach values and Christian principles",{"id":706,"data":707,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"35b8a2d8-1d01-49f0-bcd0-ffe48226fd47",{"type":25,"title":708,"markdownContent":709,"audioMediaId":710},"Key Figure: Dante Alighieri ","Born in 1265, Dante Alighieri was an Italian poet who helped usher in the Renaissance. He is the author of the *Divine Comedy*, both a personal story and a sweeping allegory. It’s widely considered his masterwork.  \nDante wrote the poem in Italian rather than Latin, a choice that made a significant impact on Italian literature and solidified Italian as the literary language of the Renaissance. \n\n ![Graph](image://afb401ac-e3eb-4fc9-bf6b-156a3064f547 \"Dante Alighieri\")\n\nWritten in 100 cantos, or divisions, and grouped in three sections, the *Divine Comedy* takes Dante on a tour of hell, purgatory, and paradise. The *Divine Comedy* was quickly recognized as a masterpiece and has remained a key literary work ever since. \n\nIn addition to poetry, Dante wrote theoretical works on everything from rhetoric to moral philosophy, drawing on his extensive knowledge of the classics. \n\n\n","108c1083-8f4e-49d3-9a31-841f9a4ce0bc",{"id":712,"data":713,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":717},"833a4b77-073e-42e4-95bd-ac751403875c",{"type":25,"title":714,"markdownContent":715,"audioMediaId":716},"Key Figure: Petrarch","Francesco Petrarca is often called the father of Renaissance humanism. He was born in Arezzo, Italy, on July 20, 1304 and became a key figure in the Italian Renaissance. Petrarch actively searched medieval libraries to find ancient manuscripts, which he collected and edited. He was particularly interested in Cicero, whose life strongly influenced Petrarch’s own. \n\n ![Graph](image://0a0aeed7-a55c-4bec-b4fd-7bdbc4f52b3c \"Petrarch\")\n\nPetrarch wrote in both Italian and Latin, and his masterwork of literature, *Canzoniere*, is in Italian. It’s a collection of love poems about an unattainable woman named Laura, and Canzoniere offers excellent examples of what is now called the Petrarchan sonnet – a sonnet in two stanzas, one with eight lines and one with six. \n\nThrough his scholarly research, editing, and original works, Petrarch turned back to the classical focus on human lives rather than the medieval focus on religious questions. Ironically, he remained very religious and pursued Christian studies, writing religious treatises in Latin.  \n","7016b6ed-e213-4414-b801-0599fb1065c7",[718],{"id":719,"data":720,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"897df3c9-9592-4311-9193-ae7688b010c1",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":721,"multiChoiceCorrect":723,"multiChoiceIncorrect":725},[722],"What is often considered Petrarch's master work?",[724],"Canzoniere",[726,727,728],"The Decameron","The Divine Comedy","The Purgatorio",{"id":730,"data":731,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":735},"ab2322e5-a1be-4ef6-8584-c3b8fb78090e",{"type":25,"title":732,"markdownContent":733,"audioMediaId":734},"Key Figure: Geoffrey Chaucer","Born in London in 1343, Geoffrey Chaucer is known as the father of English literature.  \n\n ![Graph](image://9266d7b1-fff4-4268-92f8-cb601212a7b8 \"Geoffrey Chaucer\")\n\nAlthough we now consider the works of Chaucer as high literature, readers are often surprised to discover that his works contain a lot of dirty humor and fart jokes. Chaucer also wrote mostly in English, which was in disfavor at the time and seen as lower class, while French was the preferred language of the upper classes. \n\nBetween the Norman Invasion in 1066 and Chaucer’s writing, no literature appeared in English, and all of England’s correspondence, laws and legal documents were in French. Chaucer began by writing in French but soon turned to English, showing that it could be used for great literature. \n\nThe *Canterbury Tales*, his great masterpiece, is a lively, entertaining work that follows a group of Pilgrims on a long journey. Each of them tells stories to one another, which are by turns bawdy, heroic and heartfelt. They’re a fascinating insight into the lives of ordinary medieval people. Chaucer is remembered for the complexity and creativity of his writing and for his recognition of the power and potential of the English language.\n\n","5d775def-2d27-46df-95ff-0e4735c882e9",[736],{"id":737,"data":738,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"e5db2b5c-f814-4d78-8429-0eda339e2daa",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":739,"activeRecallAnswers":741},[740],"Who is known as the father of English literature?",[421],{"id":743,"data":744,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":748},"30951346-30e3-4fa9-b552-98a8f9a36d0d",{"type":25,"title":745,"markdownContent":746,"audioMediaId":747},"The Spread of the Renaissance through Europe","\n\n ![Graph](image://a4772451-fd08-4645-8c86-bd016f3ddd5c \"The Gutenberg Press\")\n\nAlthough it started in Italy, the Renaissance spread eventually to France, Germany, Flanders, Holland, England and Spain, primarily through trade, travel, and education. While the Italian Renaissance started as early as 1500, in the rest of Europe it was another 100 years before it was truly underway.\n\nItaly was the center of several trade routes, and people passed from all parts of the world through Italy; visitors also spread Renaissance ideas as they came from all over the world to Italy to learn about humanism and medicine, painting and sculpture.  When they returned home, these visitors sometimes started universities to share the riches of Renaissance thought and writing.\n\nThe printing press helped the spread of Renaissance thinking, creating much greater access to written material.  Reasonably inexpensive, identical copies of a single book could be duplicated and distributed with relative ease. The availability of books increased people’s interest in literacy, and publishing, literacy, education, and Renaissance thinking came together to create a force for change. \n\n","c198d9c8-971e-4f66-809b-0c63c3fd4c5a",[749],{"id":750,"data":751,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"c4568e19-075e-4692-8c78-5fa2f7788114",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":752,"multiChoiceCorrect":754,"multiChoiceIncorrect":756},[753],"What invention was instrumental in the spread of the Renaissance?",[755],"The printing press",[757,758,759],"Parchment","Ink","Newspapers",{"id":761,"data":762,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"orbs":765},"8441eab4-d5dc-4590-9ee6-bc9cc04e5826",{"type":27,"title":763,"tagline":764},"Light Bulb Moments: From Elizabethan to Enlightenment","How the Renaissance era gave way to Enlightenment values.",[766,858,917],{"id":767,"data":768,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":770},"8067b6c1-05a4-4744-b527-90e223ee891b",{"type":21,"title":769},"The Elizabethan Era",[771,789,807,825,841],{"id":772,"data":773,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":777},"e254c8aa-3416-47c1-83cb-8287948a93ed",{"type":25,"title":774,"markdownContent":775,"audioMediaId":776},"Defining Elizabethan Literature","\n\n ![Graph](image://7013c17e-73df-4dc5-a2b6-9b3a62539563 \"Queen Elizabeth I\")\n\nWhile the Renaissance occurred earlier in Italy than elsewhere (which is why it’s usually differentiated as the ‘Italian Renaissance’), for the rest of Europe the Renaissance is a period that lasted from around the 15th to the 17th century.\n\nWith increased contact between European powers and other cultures through trade and exploration, written languages became more regular, and life became fundamentally more stable, leaving room to think about ideas beyond basic survival and supplying the tools to record those ideas.  \n\nThe Elizabethan age is a particular era of English history that occurred during the larger Renaissance era. It’s marked by the reign of Queen Elizabeth I from 1558 to 1603. This era is often called the ‘golden age’ of English history and the height of the English Renaissance. It is during this time that English poetry, theater, and music experienced some of its greatest creations. ","f81996c3-83a3-4ca6-b207-5ec28e5c939f",[778],{"id":779,"data":780,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"fb2f8933-9899-427a-96a6-4e996088f87e",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":781,"multiChoiceCorrect":783,"multiChoiceIncorrect":785},[782],"Which English queen reigned from 1558-1603",[784],"Elizabeth I",[786,787,788],"Mary I","Anne","Victoria",{"id":790,"data":791,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":795},"2809fe72-0d52-49f5-8620-4021039a557d",{"type":25,"title":792,"markdownContent":793,"audioMediaId":794},"Historical Context of the Elizabethan Age","The Elizabethan age marked a time of peace for the nation –  in sharp contrast to what came before and after. In the previous century England experienced the Wars of the Roses, the result of which saw the Tudors installed in the monarchy. The Tudors reigned from 1485 to 1603, and England experienced a strengthening of prestige and power during this time, particularly under Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth I. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://3e0c884b-aaf5-4b51-8d14-884c4e9d9fe9 \"King Henry VIII\")\n\nThough religious reformation was sweeping across the rest of Europe, during Elizabeth’s reign, the Elizabethan Religious Settlement was arranged that effectively ended the English Reformation and laid the foundations for the future of the Anglican church. However, under the reign of Elizabeth’s successors, the Puritan movement continued to grow, eventually bringing about the English Civil War. \n\nWhile art and literature were at a high point under Elizabeth I, many of these same creators fell under political and religious scrutiny before and after, as these lines continued to shift.\n","120a5a63-dee6-488e-9ece-8627d1379278",[796],{"id":797,"data":798,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"1bc39e23-8e5b-476a-a3f1-4a5a6116c4e3",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":799,"multiChoiceCorrect":801,"multiChoiceIncorrect":803},[800],"Which king was father to Elizabeth I?",[802],"Henry VIII",[804,805,806],"Henry VII","Edward V","James I",{"id":808,"data":809,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":813},"0bfddc9a-d35d-4a03-be66-fbeb93c2caf4",{"type":25,"title":810,"markdownContent":811,"audioMediaId":812},"The Sonnet","A sonnet is a 14-line poem that follows a specific rhyme scheme and structure. It originated in Italy in the 13th century (the word ‘sonnet’ comes from the Italian word ‘sonneto’ meaning ‘little song’). During the Renaissance however, the sonnet spread across Europe and became one of the most popular ways to express romantic love. \n\nIn English literature, the most popular style of sonnet is the English Sonnet, also known as the Shakespearean Sonnet. \n\n ![Graph](image://a1ab9e78-506d-4461-8ed2-345d27fed5c7 \"Shakespeare's Sonnet No. 1\")\n\nThe Shakespearean sonnet is written in iambic pentameter – meaning each line has five pairs of unstressed/stressed syllables – and it has three alternately rhymed quatrains ending in a final rhyming couplet (A quatrain is a stanza, or section of a poem, that is made up of four lines). \n\nIn a Shakespearean sonnet, the end of each line rhymes in an alternating pattern, for example ABAB. Each quatrain has a new set of rhymes, then, the final stanza is a couplet, or two lines, that rhyme with each other. All in all, the rhyme scheme of an English Sonnet is ABAB CDCD EFEF GG. \n","a9d682ad-9676-4c30-a9a2-ab0cac1a0bd9",[814],{"id":815,"data":816,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"c9bfa9a8-3ab3-4248-b37f-689ac2507563",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":817,"multiChoiceCorrect":819,"multiChoiceIncorrect":821},[818],"Which type of sonnet follows the rhyme scheme ABAB CDCD EFEF GG?",[820],"The Shakespearean Sonnet",[822,823,824],"The Curtail Sonnet","The Petrarchan Sonnet","The Keatsian Sonnet",{"id":826,"data":827,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":831},"4414e499-7310-420c-8742-e6352e972926",{"type":25,"title":828,"markdownContent":829,"audioMediaId":830},"Drama in the time of Queen Elizabeth I","Under Elizabeth I, English theater flourished, supported by both the royal court and the common people. Early productions closely followed the template of Italian Renaissance tragedies and comedies, though English playwrights quickly began to experiment, borrowing elements to suit their own purposes.\n\n ![Graph](image://b004fb05-ab08-43de-9e88-d53b9a2861d5 \"An artist's impression of the royal court\")\n\nOf course, the most famous of the Elizabethan playwrights is William Shakespeare. Though his artistry and prolific achievements are the highlight of an already illustrious era, there were others writing in the genre with a high level of skill and talent, including Christopher Marlowe and Thomas Dekker.\n\nLondon was the center of English theater during the era, and the Globe – where Shakespeare’s plays were performed – was its heart. Plays were accessible to most people, with entry costing as little as a penny – only a fraction of a day’s expenses. Women were not allowed to perform, though they could attend, and female roles were played by boys or young men.","2b551692-8ee5-46dc-bd2a-dc98d7b7c2d5",[832],{"id":833,"data":834,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"6a00b231-dbc0-4ee6-928b-b1b6a91f3f48",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":835,"binaryCorrect":837,"binaryIncorrect":839},[836],"Which of these was a highly skilled Elizabethan playwright?",[838],"Christopher Marlowe",[840],"Thomas Sheridan",{"id":842,"data":843,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":847},"fff3e4b5-9054-4695-9a20-23cbe2f1bf3a",{"type":25,"title":844,"markdownContent":845,"audioMediaId":846},"The Epic’s Renaissance","During the Elizabethan era of literature and after, the epic poem also experienced a surge in popularity.\n \nUnder Queen Elizabeth I, one of the most notable poets was Edmund Spenser, who wrote both sonnets and epics. He’s probably best known for *The Faerie Queene*, an epic poem of fantasy and allegory that represented the Tudor dynasty and Elizabeth I. At over 36,000 lines, it is one of the longest poems in the English language!\n\n ![Graph](image://0a29132f-ee43-4fe7-a1e4-b987643bb1ca \"Edmund Spenser\")\n\nA second notable English poet who helped solidify the English epic’s place in Western literature is John Milton, author of many works including the epic poems *Paradise Lost* and *Paradise Regained*. *Paradise Lost* is written in blank verse – meaning it uses meter (specifically iambic pentameter) but no rhyme scheme. Its 10,000+ lines tell the biblical story of the Fall of Man. Milton was born shortly after the death of Elizabeth I and wrote during the tumultuous times surrounding the English Civil War, which proved to be a dangerous era to be writing religious themes. \n\n\n\n ![Graph](image://5613b783-4820-44ed-ac42-3f78a6b5d2a3 \"John Milton\")\n\n","b41c18c2-c165-4982-a5b6-191b673288da",[848],{"id":849,"data":850,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"26b6302f-2034-460c-91cd-6113f89d31ba",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":851,"multiChoiceCorrect":853,"multiChoiceIncorrect":855},[852],"Who wrote the epic poem The Faerie Queene?",[854],"Edmund Spenser",[856,857,421],"John Milton","William Shakespeare",{"id":859,"data":860,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":862},"4226e3ef-840a-44de-afb7-54888dfb6f5b",{"type":21,"title":861},"Elizabethan Poetry and Drama",[863,881,899],{"id":864,"data":865,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":869},"442daaf0-6362-41f4-ab6e-cedb36328090",{"type":25,"title":866,"markdownContent":867,"audioMediaId":868},"Defining the Age of Enlightenment","The Age of Enlightenment, also simply called ‘The Enlightenment,’ was an intellectual and philosophical movement that swept across Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. \n\n\n\n ![Graph](image://812fc6c0-596b-4757-b942-873eb3edfbfd \"René Descartes’ Discourse on the Method\")\n\nThe Enlightenment was preceded by the Scientific Revolution, and together these two important movements marked an age of intellectual pursuit centering on a wide range of values including reason, happiness, liberty, progress, and knowledge gained from the evidence of the senses. The central doctrines of the Enlightenment were individual liberty, religious tolerance, and a rejection of absolute monarchy and religious dogma.\n\nRené Descartes’ *Discourse on the Method*, was an important early work of the Enlightenment. It introduced his iconic dictum ‘cogito, ergo sum,’ or ‘I think, therefore I am.’\n\nAlthough the Enlightenment influenced thought across Europe and there were many national variations, French thought and writing were at the heart of the movement. Prominent thinkers in the French Enlightenment included Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu and Diderot, to name a few.","a9541c70-1329-4f22-9385-dd89835dca14",[870],{"id":871,"data":872,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"8790513b-3a84-4a81-b734-57447bd5adc1",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":873,"multiChoiceCorrect":875,"multiChoiceIncorrect":877},[874],"Who is credited with introducing the iconic dictum ‘cogito, ergo sum,’ or ‘I think, therefore I am’?",[876],"René Descartes",[878,879,880],"Voltaire","Rousseau","Montesquieu",{"id":882,"data":883,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":887},"5bebff2e-1605-4f72-9879-6faf0f932ae6",{"type":25,"title":884,"markdownContent":885,"audioMediaId":886},"The Enlightenment and the Dissemination of Information","The written works of the Enlightenment are largely nonfiction. Philosophers and scientists of the time would circulate their ideas in settings like scientific academy meetings, literary salons, and in coffeehouses, and through print publications including books, journals, and pamphlets.\n\n\n\n ![Graph](image://fbbee8fb-c15a-417e-88d7-634f21405aed \"Immanuel Kant\")\n\n\nOne of the most influential publications of the Enlightenment was the *Encyclopédie* – or *Encyclopedia* – compiled by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert, along with a collection of 150 other scholars. The printing and successful sharing of this text helped to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment throughout Europe.\n\nWhile the Enlightenment was a broad intellectual movement rather than a literary one, many of the movement’s thinkers were skilled writers, and their works continue to impact philosophy and reason today. \n\nCritically important contributors include Voltaire and Jean-Jacque Rousseau in France, John Locke, David Hume, and Mary Wollstonecraft in Great Britain, and Immanuel Kant in Germany. ","cbd13176-2177-44e0-b375-671c160e896c",[888],{"id":889,"data":890,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"8b5914a3-a053-41b1-8440-e3b385651775",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":891,"multiChoiceCorrect":893,"multiChoiceIncorrect":895},[892],"Who compiled the influential publication of the Enlightenment, the Encyclopédie?",[894],"Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert",[896,897,898],"Voltaire and Jean-Jacque Rousseau","John Locke and David Hume","Immanuel Kant",{"id":900,"data":901,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":905},"6a8e8b02-3395-4385-9892-ada8f64f7bf9",{"type":25,"title":902,"markdownContent":903,"audioMediaId":904},"Key Figure: William Shakespeare","To attempt to sum up Shakespeare’s legacy in a few paragraphs is an exercise in futility. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world’s greatest dramatist. Though some of his works have been lost, at least 37 of his plays, 154 sonnets, and three narrative poems are still in existence. Such is his impact on the literary canon, he is often referred to simply as ‘the Bard.’ \n\n ![Graph](image://19d1da75-30b1-4146-9ae6-1b9dc0ccf67e \"William Shakespeare\")\n\nShakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564, and died at age 52 in 1616. He was married to Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children. The death of his son Hamnet inspired one of his greatest plays, *Hamlet*. \n\nShakespeare produced most of his works between 1589 and 1613; his early plays were mostly comedies and histories. Later he wrote some of the most impactful tragedies in Western literature including *Romeo and Juliet*, *Othello*, *King Lear*, and *Macbeth*. \n\nShakespeare was known for inventing words and phrases, many that we still use today! ‘Bandit,’ ‘critic,’ and ‘dwindle’ are just a few examples, as well as sayings like ‘fight fire with fire’ or ‘love is blind.’ \n","87b422dc-0012-45bd-b540-1fa634afcfb8",[906],{"id":907,"data":908,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"a0151afa-67f1-4922-9b4c-cfbd4f32edb6",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":909,"multiChoiceCorrect":911,"multiChoiceIncorrect":913},[910],"What was the name of the Shakespeare's son, who he lost?",[912],"Hamnet",[914,915,916],"Mapbeth","Leary","Romelo",{"id":918,"data":919,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":921},"e0f34c13-0b31-4c7f-a30e-a6019bf7367b",{"type":21,"title":920},"The Enlightenment",[922,936],{"id":923,"data":924,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":928},"b84e81eb-48fb-4f63-a412-fd17ea81448d",{"type":25,"title":925,"markdownContent":926,"audioMediaId":927},"Key Figure: John Donne"," ![Graph](image://f31e6063-c0fc-49d0-a08c-ff7a136444e8 \"John Donne\")\n\nJohn Donne was an English poet and scholar who’s considered an iconic representation of the metaphysical poets, a name coined by the critic Samuel Johnson and given to an unaffiliated group of Baroque poets that utilized similar characters. \n\nDonne lived from 1572 to 1631 and wrote in a wide variety of styles including sonnets, love poems, religious poems, elegies, songs, and satires. His works are known for their metaphorical and sensual style.\n\nStylistically, Donne utilized dramatic and everyday speech rhythms – instead of the traditional lyrical and smooth style of Elizabethan poetry. Writing at the end of the Elizabethan age, Donne’s work criticized popular Elizabethan topics through sharp satire.\n\nDonne is also considered the preeminent writer of the ‘metaphysical conceit,’ an extended metaphor that brings together two completely opposite ideas into a single thought, usually through imagery. One example of this can be seen in his poem ‘A Valediction’, where he compares himself and his lover to a pair of compasses (the kind used for drawing circles). This unusual simile is used to suggest that she helps him to feel like a complete, perfect circle:\n\n*“Such wilt thou be to me, who must,\n   Like th' other foot, obliquely run;\nThy firmness makes my circle just,\n   And makes me end where I begun.”*\n\n","7cf3e2c4-5c64-4b96-a7bd-b0ef7031d909",[929],{"id":930,"data":931,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"a5d738fd-7f12-4d92-ba78-1fb36465b0cf",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":932,"activeRecallAnswers":934},[933],"What is the name given to the extended metaphor used by John Donne?",[935],"Metaphysical conceit",{"id":937,"data":938,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":942},"6c63014d-aba0-4276-b0b1-7397e1aecde7",{"type":25,"title":939,"markdownContent":940,"audioMediaId":941},"Women Writers in Elizabeth I’s England"," ![Graph](image://9b256786-15c9-49a9-aecf-e157cd2d2c77 \"Emilia Lanier\")\n\nToday, there are no known commercial plays attributed to women writers during the Elizabethan era. This does not, however, mean that women did not write at this time or even write for profit. From the 16th and 17th centuries, more than half of the commercial plays we have today are unattributed to any author. Scholars believe that many of these could have been written by or in collaboration with women. \n\nThere are other examples of women writers during the era including the following:\n\nEmilia Lanier was an Elizabethan poet and the first woman to assert herself as a professional poet. Her collection of poems *Salve Deus Rex Judaeorum* was only the fourth book of poems by an English woman to ever be published.\n\nJane Lumley, an English noblewoman, was the first person to translate Euripides into English, and this translation is considered the first known dramatic work by a woman in English. \n\nThe *Tragedy of Mariam* by Elizabeth Cary, also known as Lady Falkland, is considered the first original play by an Englishwoman.\n\n\n","2c6e4f8f-8295-4f07-a363-ccb86f271952",[943],{"id":944,"data":945,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"283dc1ac-c972-4fb5-b3cd-b301da5b5c17",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":946,"multiChoiceCorrect":948,"multiChoiceIncorrect":950},[947],"Who is believed to be the first Englishwoman to write an original play?",[949],"Elizabeth Cary",[951,952,953],"Emilia Lanier","Jane Lumley","Mary Sadler",{"id":955,"data":956,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"orbs":959},"8cd7041d-8227-44c9-8890-e46851b99806",{"type":27,"title":957,"tagline":958},"Isn’t It Romantic(ism)?","The birth of Romanticism - an era of emotion and individual expression.",[960,1019,1086],{"id":961,"data":962,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":964},"37d0f9c1-3706-4419-a2c2-21aedde79bba",{"type":21,"title":963},"Understanding Romanticism",[965,981,1005],{"id":966,"data":967,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":971},"fff7541b-7719-43e7-b987-d0d4fe0e5bd8",{"type":25,"title":968,"markdownContent":969,"audioMediaId":970},"Defining Romanticism","Romantic literature – not to be confused with Romance literature – describes written works created during Romanticism, also called the Romantic movement or Romantic era. \n\n ![Graph](image://c7cd6076-6b35-499d-b335-c1e3de1942ce \"Jean-Hean-Honoré Fragonard's 'The Swing'\")\n\nThis was an intellectual movement that started in Europe near the end of the 18th century and lasted until about 1850. The Romantic movement impacted more than literature but also art and music of the time.\n\nRomanticism can be defined by its characteristics including an emphasis on individualism, idealizing nature, and glorifying the past – with an emphasis on the medieval. It often includes a rejection of science and industrialization, and came about as a reaction to both the Age of Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution. Intense emotion is a key component of the Romantic aesthetic, and it views traditionally negative emotions such as horror or terror as equal to the sublime or beautiful. \n","e495e09e-a8af-42c1-a350-7e309e64bf61",[972],{"id":973,"data":974,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"83009fb8-fa24-4791-8083-0927693a090e",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":975,"binaryCorrect":977,"binaryIncorrect":979},[976],"Romanticism arrived in part as a reaction to ...",[978],"The Industrial Revolution",[980],"The Gutenberg Press",{"id":982,"data":983,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":987},"ece94af7-b5ab-4372-8c5a-8d0f5d8c00bb",{"type":25,"title":984,"markdownContent":985,"audioMediaId":986},"Historical Context of the Romantic Era"," ![Graph](image://3b941d9c-7380-4e36-8bb4-23c7b257c93a \"A German 'Sturm und Drang' painting\")\n\nRomanticism rose to popularity across Europe as a response to the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution. While the Enlightenment drew on classical Greek and Roman philosophy and championed reason, Romanticism took a note from medievalism in an attempt to revive a chivalric and pastoral past. \n\nThe Romantic era had a variety of influences that came together to create a singular outlook. On one hand, the Romantics’ appreciation of nature was a direct response to the population growth, industrialism, and urban sprawl they experienced in their day-to-day lives. \n\nAdditionally, European Romanticism came out of the German *Sturm und Drang* movement that began in the 1760s as a response to rationalism. The name translates to ‘storm and stress,’ emphasizing individual subjectivity and emotional extremes. \n\nUltimately, Romanticism was also heavily influenced by the French Revolution – many early Romantics were cultural revolutionaries who valued the ‘heroic’ characteristics and achievements they perceived as part of the revolution.  \n\n","d858dd80-59bd-4a5e-9443-e93e935b26e8",[988,995],{"id":989,"data":990,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"41f05cad-01a8-47ff-84ba-70aeb331adab",{"type":52,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":991,"clozeWords":993},[992],"The Romantic era was influenced by the Sturm und Drang movement in Germany",[994],"Sturm und Drang",{"id":996,"data":997,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"e2799246-63d0-4251-aa2e-79a0dca7470b",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":998,"multiChoiceCorrect":1000,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1001},[999],"What German movement of the 1760s is credited with influencing European Romanticism?",[994],[1002,1003,1004],"Enlightenment","Industrial Revolution","French Revolution",{"id":1006,"data":1007,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1011},"47525519-bf84-49ff-8cb0-360c8afce413",{"type":25,"title":1008,"markdownContent":1009,"audioMediaId":1010},"Romanticism vs. Romance - what’s the difference?","\n ![Graph](image://441e145d-1021-45fe-be2a-be06d81eac02 \"Romance is not Romanticism\")\n\nIt’s easy to confuse Romanticism and Romance literature. Romance literature is one of the oldest types of literature, dating back to Hellenistic and Greek romances.\n\nTo add to the confusion, modern Romance novels trace their origins to the works of Jane Austen and the Brontë sisters, who were writing during the same period of time as the Romantics. \n\nThese early romance novels featured female protagonists struggling under oppressive social conventions and overcoming personal struggles in the pursuit of love. These works established the two core requirements of the modern Romance novel: the development of a romantic relationship and a ‘happily ever after.’\n\nIn contrast, Romanticism often has little to do with romance or love. During this time, the word ‘Roman’ was used in various European languages to mean ‘novel,’ or popular. The founders of Romanticism used ‘romantic’ as a derivative of ‘Roman,’ to contrast with ‘classic.’\n","6981a93f-1535-447f-b430-b0dd9a3f9c2b",[1012],{"id":1013,"data":1014,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"446bc687-d547-4162-978a-7e9e3fe7c5c6",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1015,"activeRecallAnswers":1017},[1016],"What did 'Roman' mean in various European languages?",[1018],"Novel",{"id":1020,"data":1021,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":1023},"4f86d6ab-dc8c-4152-852b-9f5533685d0d",{"type":21,"title":1022},"Themes in Romantic Literature",[1024,1042,1060],{"id":1025,"data":1026,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1030},"e2c1c519-b7ac-44df-8187-f55e2c089fe2",{"type":25,"title":1027,"markdownContent":1028,"audioMediaId":1029},"The Gothic Novel","\n ![Graph](image://1ab5b4b4-b6e3-4b0b-8a57-c4fa39a6ef2e \"Mary Shelley\")\n\nGothic fiction is a literary style that focuses on fear (especially caused by the surrounding environment), supernatural threats, hauntings, and the past intruding upon the present. \n\nThe name is inspired by the Gothic architecture of the European Middle Ages, as the earliest Gothic works were set in this style of castle. The first author to identify his work as Gothic was Horace Walpole about his 1764 work *The Castle of Otranto*. \n\nMore than a decade later, the late 18th century saw a meteoric rise in the popularity of the Gothic novel. The works of Ann Radcliffe, including *The Romance of the Forest* and *The Mystery of Udolpho* were particularly popular, and Radcliffe's publications were highly anticipated in her own time. \n\nThe Gothic novel entered a second wave in the 1810s, which saw the establishment of the Byronic hero – a variant of the Romantic hero inspired by the poet Lord Byron – and the creation of Mary Shelley’s *Frankenstein*. \n\n","182d102a-75c2-40ba-a169-dc44466ee29d",[1031],{"id":1032,"data":1033,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"d3770d16-228e-4cbb-bd0c-e7bf1b202a92",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1034,"multiChoiceCorrect":1036,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1038},[1035],"Who was the first author to identify their work as Gothic?",[1037],"Horace Walpole",[1039,1040,1041],"Ann Radcliffe","Lord Byron","Mary Shelley",{"id":1043,"data":1044,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1048},"36b6e157-219b-4093-b0e7-ce02e1049272",{"type":25,"title":1045,"markdownContent":1046,"audioMediaId":1047},"Emotion and the Sublime","Key characteristics of Romanticism included emotion and individualism. Although most particular to the Romantic writers, these ideas also impacted the cultures at large during this era and found their way into texts from a variety of genres.\n\nThe free expression of the feelings of the artist was paramount for Romantic writers. To achieve this ‘spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings,’ as Wordsworth put it, the poet could not be constrained by any rules of style or influenced by other works. Originality was key.\n\n ![Graph](image://4c565661-dad1-4906-8c3d-e27684c6a88a \"John Keats' 'Ode on a Grecian Urn'\")\n \nDespite this, Romantic poetry emphasized the importance of rhythmic meter and rhyme schemes. For example, John Keats’ ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn’ is written in iambic pentameter.\n \nThe concept of ‘the Sublime’ was one of the most important elements of Romantic poetry. It describes using language or description to move the reader to thoughts or emotions beyond ordinary experience. This may be a positive experience, but it can also include the terrible or grotesque. \n\n\n","fcbe2130-5df3-48c1-b543-8cc0ab6213e3",[1049],{"id":1050,"data":1051,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"205baa76-8dab-4cf6-bd59-7c0a48794116",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1052,"multiChoiceCorrect":1054,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1056},[1053],"What type of poetic meter is John Keats' 'Ode on a Grecian Urn' written in?",[1055],"Iambic pentameter",[1057,1058,1059],"Free verse","Trochaic tetrameter","Anapestic tetrameter",{"id":1061,"data":1062,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1066},"e75df1ee-8e96-4a27-8c79-fe1e89ed9082",{"type":25,"title":1063,"markdownContent":1064,"audioMediaId":1065},"The Romantic Poet","\n\n ![Graph](image://794dfc9e-2360-4829-aa0c-1f4877a9fe27 \"Samuel Taylor Coleridge\")\n\nAlthough Romanticism was a movement that affected all the arts, it’s best remembered today for inspiring some of the greatest poets in the English language. \n\nIn the early years of the 1800s, William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge kicked off the Romantic poet movement by defining their innovative new poetry in the Preface to the 2nd edition of *Lyrical Ballads*.\n\nIn addition to Wordsworth and Coleridge, the best known Romantic poets were, and are, John Keats, Percy Shelley, Lord Byron, and William Blake. While these poets held similar key ideals, each wrote in a unique style and eventually developed individual priorities. \n\nBlake, Wordsworth and Coleridge are considered ‘first-generation’ Romantics, but their outlooks – and Wordsworth’s in particular – were already shifting as the second-generation, including Byron, Shelley, and Keats, took to the stage.  \nWordsworth, Coleridge, and Robert Southey were also known as the Lake Poets, as they all lived in the Lake District of England in the first half of the 19th century. \n","60fee8df-12f6-4912-808a-7f3318d9b5bc",[1067,1077],{"id":1068,"data":1069,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"5b3faada-c455-4384-b863-571986d9c884",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1070,"multiChoiceCorrect":1072,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1074},[1071],"Samuel Taylor Coleridge collaborated with which poet to produce a collection called Lyrical Ballads?",[1073],"William Wordsworth",[1075,1040,1076],"John Keats","Percy Bysshe Shelley",{"id":1078,"data":1079,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"b84f2879-e3ef-453c-b993-fcd7de53629e",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1080,"multiChoiceCorrect":1082,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1083},[1081],"Which of these was part of the second generation of Romantic poets?",[1040],[1073,1084,1085],"Samuel Taylor Coleridge","Robert Southey",{"id":1087,"data":1088,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":1090},"ac1208ed-1fdf-4e7e-b189-0861f9362032",{"type":21,"title":1089},"Key Figures in Romanticism",[1091,1107,1123],{"id":1092,"data":1093,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1097},"40fda36e-de31-46dd-904d-314f4129ebe3",{"type":25,"title":1094,"markdownContent":1095,"audioMediaId":1096},"Key Figure: Jane Austen","\n ![Graph](image://80547c27-101e-4e8f-ac24-a243659c70c0 \"Jane Austen\")\n\nJane Austen is often considered the most famous female writer in Western literature. She was an English novelist who lived from 1775 to 1817, and today her novels have sold countless copies, been translated into languages from around the globe, and inspired blockbuster movie adaptations. In 2017, her image replaced that of Charles Darwin on the £10 note.\n \nAusten is best known for her 6 major novels, all of which explore issues of women’s dependency and the necessary pursuit of marriage for social standing and economic security. Her works are on the cutting edge of literary realism, a 19th century style that came after Romanticism. In addition to social commentary and realism, her works are loved for their irony and wit.\n \nAustin experienced only mild success in her lifetime – particularly with the publication of *Sense and Sensibility*, *Pride and Prejudice*, *Mansfield Park*, and *Emma*. She died at age 41 of an illness now thought to have resulted from Hodgkin’s lymphoma.\n\n","ccd4639b-e6a1-4fda-8ebf-02b4854a3c30",[1098],{"id":1099,"data":1100,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"d2dcc34c-f8f4-4539-bd92-0e885f5e0b99",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1101,"binaryCorrect":1103,"binaryIncorrect":1105},[1102],"How many major novels did Jane Austen write?",[1104],"6",[1106],"4",{"id":1108,"data":1109,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1113},"35d02766-6671-452a-b6cf-28bbd034404e",{"type":25,"title":1110,"markdownContent":1111,"audioMediaId":1112},"Key Figure: Edgar Allan Poe","Edgar Allan Poe is an icon of American literature. He was a central writer for the American Romantic movement and is best known for his Gothic poetry and short stories that feature the mysterious and the macabre. \n\n ![Graph](image://df4bb32b-e4d9-4118-9e91-f1fce5346434 \"Edgar Allan Poe\")\n\n\nPoe was highly influential in the growth of American literature and is thought to be the first American writer to earn a living exclusively by writing. He lived from 1809 to 1849. \n\nPoe’s writing often focuses on death by looking at it from different angles including the effects of decomposition, concerns with premature burial, the physical signs of death, the reanimation of the dead, and mourning the dead. In this way, his works bridge the gap between Gothic horror and dark romanticism.\n\nPoe’s most famous poem is undoubtedly ‘The Raven,’ made up of 18 stanzas of 6 lines each and is, roughly, in trochaic octameter – with eight pairs of stressed/unstressed syllables per line. Its use of refrain, or the repetition of a phrase, has immortalized the words, ‘Quoth the Raven, “Nevermore!”’\n\n\n","05689e2f-55a1-421d-814c-8971e2080b04",[1114],{"id":1115,"data":1116,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"4d7722cb-956a-4e26-93a7-ddd604936a56",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1117,"binaryCorrect":1119,"binaryIncorrect":1121},[1118],"What is the title of Edgar Allan Poe's most famous poem?",[1120],"The Raven",[1122],"Song of Myself",{"id":1124,"data":1125,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1129},"4d9c889b-cc71-4d78-af2f-35c44e3ce4d5",{"type":25,"title":1126,"markdownContent":1127,"audioMediaId":1128},"Key Figure: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe","Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was a German poet, playwright, and novelist – as well as scientist, statesman, and critic. He lived from 1749 to 1832 and is widely regarded as the most influential writer in the German language. The range of his works have had a profound effect on Western literature, politics, and philosophy.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://dbf2b229-1b6f-48f4-a9c3-877b4ca36ca9 \"Goethe\")\n\nIn 1775 Goethe published his first novel, *The Sorrows of Young Werther*, to immediate success – even earning him a nobility – and it's sometimes considered history’s first ‘best-seller.’ Goethe was an early participant in the German *Sturm und Drang* movement that inspired Romanticism.\n\nGoethe is also widely regarded for his epic drama *Faust*, which was completed in two sections. *Faust Part Two*, one of Goethe’s most famous works, was published posthumously. The play is a ‘closet drama,’ meaning it was written to be read, not performed; it’s a tragedy that follows the experiences of Dr. Faustus who sells his soul to the devil in exchange for knowledge and power. \n\n\n","13ecca68-7e60-4d50-85ee-8409ef104402",[1130],{"id":1131,"data":1132,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"7472c149-d0ba-4284-92cf-13253ddd3c5b",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1133,"multiChoiceCorrect":1135,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1137},[1134],"What is the title of the novel that Johann Wolfgang von Goethe published in 1775?",[1136],"The Sorrows of Young Werther",[1138,1139,1140],"Faust Part Two","The Sorrows of Old Werther","Faust Part One",{"id":1142,"data":1143,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"orbs":1146},"09efb7e6-bcf8-46ad-bd01-82b9cdffeef9",{"type":27,"title":1144,"tagline":1145},"Nothing But the Truth: The Victorian Era & Literary Realism","The long 19th century and the developments that came in the Victorian era.",[1147,1220,1295],{"id":1148,"data":1149,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":1151},"5d3256d3-c2ef-48ce-9890-fc580f52ad0d",{"type":21,"title":1150},"Victorian Literature and Its Context",[1152,1168,1182,1188,1204],{"id":1153,"data":1154,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1158},"140ca812-6280-4e9a-8252-0e80a4bcbf02",{"type":25,"title":1155,"markdownContent":1156,"audioMediaId":1157},"Defining Victorian Literature"," ![Graph](image://77dd1184-187b-44ba-9d26-185c0500209d \"Queen Victoria\")\n\nThe term ‘Victorian literature’ describes English literature written during the reign of Queen Victoria, from 1837 to 1901. Although this seems like a short amount of time compared to other literary eras, this period is often considered the ‘Golden Age of English Literature.’ \n\nVictorian literature is defined by the period of time in which it was written, not a central philosophy or style. However, a lot of Victorian literature does have particular themes or showcases similar forms and styles. \n\nThis was caused by changing trends in thinking and taste. Following the Romantic period, writers of the Victorian age turned away from the abstract expressionism of the former period and focused on realism, with an attention towards social issues and the sciences. \n\nBoth poetry and fictional prose were popular throughout the Victorian age, producing some of the greatest writers in English. And during this time, the novel became the leading literary genre in English! \n\nIn the theater, farces, extravaganzas, and comedic operas were popular but there were no particularly notable literary dramas until the end of the century. \n\n\n","ae4b23fe-0d85-49a0-9095-46d6666f8222",[1159],{"id":1160,"data":1161,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"f53138a9-03f3-44c2-a16e-51a1f3b85168",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1162,"multiChoiceCorrect":1164,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1166},[1163],"Which form became the leading literary form in the Victorian era?",[1165],"Novels",[89,1167,109],"Poetry",{"id":1169,"data":1170,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1174},"eff6c349-b4ea-4601-bc0e-a1a9ea22257d",{"type":25,"title":1171,"markdownContent":1172,"audioMediaId":1173},"Historical Context of Victorian Literature","Victorian literature reflects many transformations to English life. From class structure and politics to science and religion, almost every aspect of daily life and thought was affected during this time.\n\nScientific advancements like Charles Darwin’s discoveries on evolution changed the way people understood the world around them and created tension between the church and the academy.\n\nTechnology advanced at an alarming rate, with the introduction of the telegram and later telephone, the train and automobile, even the bike and camera. For Victorians, the pace of life increased suddenly – causing some people to even have nervous breakdowns!\n\nIn the cities, life was also more crowded. The Industrial Revolution was in full swing, and people poured into the cities looking for work. Social reform became critical, bringing about child labor laws and an awareness of class disparity.\n\nClass divisions also came under scrutiny politically, as workers fought for direct representation in the government and began to strike and unionize.\n","8fdd81aa-34a3-45aa-ba3f-823a499926e5",[1175],{"id":1176,"data":1177,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"b3e2ec44-8623-4496-9d1a-fa8b8f2855b7",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1178,"activeRecallAnswers":1180},[1179],"What scientific advancement caused tension between the church and the academy during the Victorian era?",[1181],"Charles Darwin's discoveries on evolution",{"id":1183,"data":1184,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"ba6c3bb0-0e63-4ba4-b7dd-7796fab2bb53",{"type":25,"title":1185,"markdownContent":1186,"audioMediaId":1187},"The Victorian Influence on Western Culture and Texts","Though the label ‘Victorian literature’ specifically describes British works written under the reign of Queen Victoria, the styles and central themes of Victorian literature can be found around the globe. In Europe and America, cities were undergoing the same changes to industry, urbanization, and invention as in England. \n\nAnd intellectual discoveries and advancements were quickly shared across the globe. Due to growing railway systems, steam-powered ships, and expanding telecommunications, news and ideas could be easily and quickly transmitted across Europe, and later with America following the installation of the trans-Atlantic telegraph. \n\nBritish colonialism was also well underway, spreading cultural, religious, and intellectual influence around the globe, and by the 19th century it became popular to say that the ‘sun never set’ on the British Empire. \n\nIn this way, globalization impacted Victorian literature, and Victorian literature impacted the globe. For better or worse, the world was becoming smaller and the arts more homogenous.\n\n\n","3f5d0ee9-297b-4f23-a866-545345bbac34",{"id":1189,"data":1190,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1194},"ccc2060c-8482-48d4-987b-dd462b010fe6",{"type":25,"title":1191,"markdownContent":1192,"audioMediaId":1193},"The Golden Age of the British Novel","The Victorian era is widely considered the ‘Golden Age of the British Novel.’ While the novel form had been in use previously, it was during this time that it became a mainstay of literary fiction. The novel’s ubiquity today can be traced back to its popularity in Victorian England.\n\n\n\n ![Graph](image://5f9d97c3-fbcc-482f-8171-2bebf156d843 \"The Brontë sisters\")\n\nBoth printing technology and literacy improved under Queen Victoria, creating the perfect atmosphere for an increased interest in long-form fiction. Novels were often printed serially – in sections over a series of months – before being collected into complete editions. The serial format helped grow excitement and anticipation for readers, leading to improved popularity. Charles Dickens is particularly remembered for the buzz his serialized novels would generate.\n\nOther famous novelists of the period include William Thackeray, the Brontë sisters, Thomas Hardy, George Eliot, and Elizabeth Gaskell. Today, the greatest Victorian novelists are remembered for their overall artistry and their social observations and critiques. ","de52c0d4-6696-440a-8c01-bbc118a4933b",[1195],{"id":1196,"data":1197,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"abd4ae82-c5dc-4e34-9829-e14bddea8958",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1198,"multiChoiceCorrect":1200,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1202},[1199],"Which of these is remembered as a great Victorian novelist?",[1201],"William Thackeray",[1039,1037,1203],"Jane Austen",{"id":1205,"data":1206,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1210},"d9959702-95d8-4001-80de-4911b8711c4e",{"type":25,"title":1207,"markdownContent":1208,"audioMediaId":1209},"Poetry in Transition","Poetry underwent tectonic shifts during the Victorian era in both content and form. Serving as the bridge between Romanticism and Modernism, poetry in the late 19th century would have been unrecognizable to an 18th century critic.\n\nDuring this era poets began experimenting with meter and rhyme, often prioritizing internal rhyme and alliteration (the repetition of consonant sounds within a line) over end rhymes. They also began writing without meter or with inconsistent meter. \n\nAn example of both of these are in Gerard Manley Hopkins’ poem ‘Pied Beauty’: ‘Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches’ wings; / Landscape plotted and pieced – fold, fallow, and plough’ (ll 4-5). \n\n ![Graph](image://f601d48b-21eb-4816-bf10-a2ec8086a32c \"Gerard Manley Hopkins\")\n\nDespite these changes, very little Victorian literature is actually in free verse, which eschews both rhyme *and* meter.  Victorian poetry is often recognized for its melancholy and its nostalgia for simpler times, though it does not completey idealize the past in the way of many Romantics. \n\n","ac50ff0a-73c3-4742-b564-ff067e38cc39",[1211],{"id":1212,"data":1213,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"dcb2772b-bd0b-47b5-884a-4d26fa92f0b3",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1214,"binaryCorrect":1216,"binaryIncorrect":1218},[1215],"Which Victorian poet used innovative techniques in his poem 'Pied Beauty'?",[1217],"Gerard Manley Hopkins",[1219],"Robert Browning",{"id":1221,"data":1222,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":1224},"a8d8f38c-35f8-4b12-b0a6-0c240614daaa",{"type":21,"title":1223},"Children's Literature and Realism",[1225,1243,1261,1279],{"id":1226,"data":1227,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1231},"a00e1b12-0da6-402d-a484-b87f02f8c1ab",{"type":25,"title":1228,"markdownContent":1229,"audioMediaId":1230},"Writing for Children","A new genre arose during the Victorian era – children’s literature. Although children had always been an audience for certain stories and tales, until the 1800’s authors had not written commercially with the goal of entertaining child readers. \n\n ![Graph](image://a62d092d-9842-480b-87d3-1edea9b0aa63 \"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland\")\n\nBoth Hans Christian Andersen and the Brothers Grimm collected and preserved traditional tales at the beginning of the century. And as literacy began to improve and social programs fought to protect childhood and ban child labor, children became increasingly popular as a commercial focus, leading to a boom in children’s literature. \n\nLewis Carroll’s *Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland* was one of the earliest English texts to tap into this new market, and certainly the most popular. Despite its social commentary, the illustrations and overall youthfulness of the book drew a lot of children readers. Its success inspired others including *Black Beauty* by Anna Sewell and *The Coral Island* by R. M. Ballantyne.  This new genre was also the first time children were included as central characters and main problem-solvers. \n\n\n","04a59d0e-e4a1-4636-a616-c933bff64122",[1232],{"id":1233,"data":1234,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"bc694046-43e9-4a33-a9ac-91c060b1d108",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1235,"multiChoiceCorrect":1237,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1239},[1236],"Who wrote the popular children’s book *Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland*?",[1238],"Lewis Carroll",[1240,1241,1242],"Hans Christian Andersen","Anna Sewell","R. M. Ballantyne",{"id":1244,"data":1245,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1249},"702611f7-8ec7-4803-bdb7-bc74e168889e",{"type":25,"title":1246,"markdownContent":1247,"audioMediaId":1248},"Defining Realism","Literary Realism is part of a large artistic movement of the 19th century that sought to represent subject matter truthfully and to depict life as it truly is – even the boring parts. \n\nRealism in the arts was partly inspired by the Enlightenment and closely aligned with the scientific advancements of the time. It wanted to apply the scientific method to the arts, rejecting the pastoralism and fantasy of Romanticism, or Gothic speculative or supernatural elements.\n\nIn practice, literary Realism shone a new light on everyday people, moving away from the aristocracy as a focus. These works look at the lives of middle class and working class people; sometimes this is to a social end, wanting to highlight individual struggles and draw attention to larger societal issues. \n\nThe writing style is very detailed and often attempts to capture the sound of spoken language in its dialogue – to mixed success. \n","7e5fb524-89d7-43b3-86fd-b5031d1f5892",[1250],{"id":1251,"data":1252,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"2e67de7c-52ba-4f94-a511-f4e3c1550e83",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1253,"multiChoiceCorrect":1255,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1257},[1254],"What artistic movement of the 19th century sought to represent subject matter truthfully and depict life as it truly is?",[1256],"Literary Realism",[1258,1259,1260],"Romanticism","Gothic","Impressionism",{"id":1262,"data":1263,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1267},"27de6c56-02d4-4e5a-9f45-11e9ca606883",{"type":25,"title":1264,"markdownContent":1265,"audioMediaId":1266},"Russian Realists","From around 1840 to 1880, literary Realism thrived in Russia, inspiring some of the greatest Russian literature in history. Writers were called up to realistically approach their country’s social problems, and they rose to the occasion, focusing particularly on issues of class disparity and serfdom.\n\n ![Graph](image://9e660f8b-f13b-4cb8-a9e5-fda75e682055 \"The Brothers Karamazov\")\n\n19th-century Russian Realism is particularly known for its nuanced approach to realism and its thoughtfully balanced presentation. While in other parts of the world, writers overemphasized the banality of life, often to the detriment of their work, the Russian realists depicted the full spectrum, supplementing serious inquiry with satire and humor. While using a direct and factual style, these writers prioritized character development over plot and action, displaying a nuanced understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the human spirit. \n\nKey Russian realists include Fyodor Dostoyevsky, author of *Crime and Punishment* and *The Brothers Karamazov*, and Leo Tolstoy, author of *War and Peace* and *Anna Karenina*.\n\n","94cbcafc-a7f1-4b93-a875-00af94aad30f",[1268],{"id":1269,"data":1270,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"9b37ffb3-9827-4c85-abf8-dceb11805013",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1271,"multiChoiceCorrect":1273,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1275},[1272],"What is the name of the literary movement that flourished in Russia from 1840 to 1880?",[1274],"Russian Realism",[1276,1277,1278],"Russian Romanticism","Russian Impressionism","Russian Expressionism",{"id":1280,"data":1281,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1285},"a2db8400-b79b-461d-a7e4-bb9fe114c617",{"type":25,"title":1282,"markdownContent":1283,"audioMediaId":1284},"American Literary Regionalism","During and after the American Civil War, the nation’s most popular literary genre was regionalism, also known as ‘local color.’ This style is considered a type of realism and was used for both poetry and prose, maintaining its popularity into the early 20th century. \n\n ![Graph](image://5b09776e-624c-4d7d-9edc-99dd119c3895 \"William Faulkner\")\n\nIn regionalism, a work’s location plays an important role in every aspect of the writing: from detailed landscape descriptions to carefully copied dialect. The locale can also take on elements of character, sometimes serving as the main character, or even the narrator, as is the case in Faulkner’s ‘A Rose for Emily.’\n\nRegionalist texts are most often set in rural or provincial settings, focusing on the lives of agricultural workers and the working class. They also address conflicts with ‘outsiders,’ especially those who want to exploit the region either economically or for its popularity as a subject matter. Key authors include William Faulker, Mark Twain, and Kate Chopin.\n\n\n","52efae96-25f3-4cc3-bb0a-e803b7142181",[1286],{"id":1287,"data":1288,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"76ce06b6-6b66-40a7-9b51-b7baf4d15a34",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1289,"binaryCorrect":1291,"binaryIncorrect":1293},[1290],"What is the name of the literary genre that focuses on rural or provincial settings, and often has the locale take on elements of character?",[1292],"Regionalism",[1294],"Realism",{"id":1296,"data":1297,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":1299},"692f71a4-7133-4adb-acf9-964c2b79b065",{"type":21,"title":1298},"Key Literary Figures",[1300,1318,1336],{"id":1301,"data":1302,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1306},"4daa2057-e2b1-4d16-a768-eb64e5e117ab",{"type":25,"title":1303,"markdownContent":1304,"audioMediaId":1305},"Key Figure: Charles Dickens","Charles Dickens continues to be one of the most widely read authors today, but did you know he also experienced unprecedented popularity in his own lifetime?\n\n\n ![Graph](image://011b54de-c3e6-491e-b04e-463d935ba4bb \"Charles Dickens\")\n\nDickens led a difficult childhood and began his writing career as a journalist; both experiences that influenced his writing and subject matter. He’s best known as an English novelist and short story writer. He was born in 1812, and died when he was 58 as the result of a stroke. \n\nWidely considered the greatest novelist of the Victorian era, Dickens is best known for his memorable and iconic characters like Miss Havisham and Ebenezer Scrooge. He was skilled at depicting both caricatures and realistic, nuanced people – even within the same work. \n\nDickens’ works are often social commentary, even though they also feature comedy and irony. His writing was heavily inspired by the picaresque novel tradition, which features roguish but appealing heroes, usually lower class, fighting against a corrupt society; like the writing of Dickens, the picaresque often features a blend of realism, comedy, and satire.\n\n","f637b11d-2059-49c8-9043-67ec063e2676",[1307],{"id":1308,"data":1309,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"f6463d99-7935-4737-aadf-877e28620f23",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1310,"multiChoiceCorrect":1312,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1314},[1311],"What is the literary tradition that heavily influenced Charles Dickens' writing?",[1313],"Picaresque novel",[1315,1316,1317],"Gothic novel","Romance novel","Epic novel",{"id":1319,"data":1320,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1324},"d0fbd122-11a6-4ad0-b08a-8eb4ed3472ca",{"type":25,"title":1321,"markdownContent":1322,"audioMediaId":1323},"Key Figure: Alfred Tennyson"," ![Graph](image://ef9a598f-339d-4d17-8a04-1efc577e01ec \"Alfred, Lord Tennyson\")\n\nThe English poet Alfred, Lord Tennyson lived from 1809 to 1892 and is one of the most celebrated poets in history. He served as the Poet Laureate for most of Queen Victoria’s reign and was an influential writer throughout the Victorian era. \n\nTennyson’s work spans genres, with influences from both Romanticism and Realism, leading some contemporaries to criticize him for being overly sentimental. His early poetry’s powerful medieval imagery served as a major influence for the Pre-Raphaelites, a group of mid-century artists dedicated to reviving the Italian Renaissance and adopting intense detail and color. \n\nMuch of Tennyson’s work was based on mythological themes from ancient Greece and Rome. This can be seen in his famous poem ‘In Memoriam A.H.H.’ – a long-form work written as an elegy to his close friend Arthur Hallam. \n\n\n","74a3ffbe-aa60-4eeb-bae7-ad2487e4c20a",[1325],{"id":1326,"data":1327,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"28029856-ba49-4815-82da-0229be319ca8",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1328,"multiChoiceCorrect":1330,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1332},[1329],"What is the title of Alfred, Lord Tennyson's long-form poem written as an elegy to his close friend?",[1331],"In Memoriam A.H.H.",[1333,1334,1335],"Remembrance of Things Past","Elegy For a Friend","Elegy in a Country Church-Yard",{"id":1337,"data":1338,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1342},"713d0986-d69c-47fb-960c-d5b15ab447f8",{"type":25,"title":1339,"markdownContent":1340,"audioMediaId":1341},"Expanding the Canon: Ida B. Wells","\n ![Graph](image://102502eb-206e-4c91-b4aa-4933bead5605 \"Ida Bell Wells-Barnett\")\n\nIda Bell Wells-Barnett was an acclaimed American journalist and civil rights leader. She was born in 1862 into slavery in Mississippi and was freed by the Emancipation Proclamation, a result of the American Civil War. \n\nAs an adult Wells co-owned and wrote for the *Memphis Free Speech and Headlight* newspaper, where she developed her skills in investigative journalism, reporting on racial inequality and segregation. Wells’ writings against lynchings and the wrongful death of Black men drew national attention, and in 1892 a mob attacked and destroyed the Free Speech office where she worked. \n\nWells had been carefully researching lynchings across the South and in late 1892 published the first of her findings in *Southern Horrors: Lynch Laws in All Its Phases*. She later also published *The Red Record* – additional findings on the same subject. Throughout her life Wells worked tirelessly to champion the rights of African Americans and to combat prejudice and violence. ","775627e7-542b-4ba5-9563-3b59f1dcc5ef",[1343],{"id":1344,"data":1345,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"a997d935-bf32-45e2-9a63-2bccc12c37ed",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1346,"binaryCorrect":1348,"binaryIncorrect":1350},[1347],"Which civil rights activist and former slave wrote 'Southern Horrors: Lynch Laws in All Its Phases'?",[1349],"Ida B. Wells",[1351],"Frederick Douglass",{"id":1353,"data":1354,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"orbs":1357},"9865171b-0d91-4240-ac84-cdfb3dcedf90",{"type":27,"title":1355,"tagline":1356},"Making It New with Literary Modernism","The revolution in literature that occurred in the early 20th century.",[1358,1434,1486],{"id":1359,"data":1360,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":1362},"1bac9049-ab5a-493b-a2db-5ca30f4502f7",{"type":21,"title":1361},"The Foundations of Modernism",[1363,1381,1398,1414,1428],{"id":1364,"data":1365,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1369},"2b395320-cce9-48c4-9494-8776346a4938",{"type":25,"title":1366,"markdownContent":1367,"audioMediaId":1368},"Defining Modernism","In the 1880s, writers abandoned realism and started experimenting with new, unconventional ways of writing, inspired by emerging philosophies and ways of understanding the human experience. Friedrich Nietzsche’s focus on psychological drives, Sigmund Freud’s theories of the subconscious and Henri Bergson’s ideas on the subjectivity of time all prompted writers to consider new ways of writing and new ideas on what to write about.  \n\n ![Graph](image://399eb014-7390-437e-89d6-eea2722476da \"Friedrich Nietzsche\")\n\nForms of plot and poetry that had stayed the same since Aristotle were overthrown in pursuit of writing that captured the internal drives and chaos of the human mind. Modernists often used non-linear narratives (stories that don’t happen in chronological order) and internal dialogue that emphasized the emotions of the individual rather than the person’s actions in the external world. \n\nModernism is marked by five key characteristics: experimentation, focus on the individual, multiple perspectives, free verse, and the use of literary devices such as symbolism and imagery. Scholars agree that Modernism began in the mid-1880s and transitioned to Postmodernism in the 1940s.\n\n","361f4cf1-2af0-4984-88c5-5e57b8b0e40b",[1370],{"id":1371,"data":1372,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"30fee4d6-e226-4dba-a9f5-ae938c5f1c55",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1373,"multiChoiceCorrect":1375,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1377},[1374],"When did Modernism transition to Postmodernism?",[1376],"The 1940s",[1378,1379,1380],"The 1880s","The 1950s","The 1930s",{"id":1382,"data":1383,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1387},"9c03ff1b-6f11-4166-b774-c060d1da64cc",{"type":25,"title":1384,"markdownContent":1385,"audioMediaId":1386},"Historical Context of Modernist Literature","The precursors to Modernists, Victorians were self-confident and optimistic — they saw the expansion of the British empire, believed in their own competence and stability, and thought that science and technology would create a bright future. \n\nHowever, as the Industrial Revolution created increasing poverty and blight, as the colonies became increasingly problematic, and as their faith in religion turned to doubt, this confidence crumbled. \n\nWhat remained for the Modernist was confidence in themselves – although the introduction of new philosophies exploring the darker side of human drives and psychology’s focus on the subconscious shook even that. \n\nSeeing all their sources of optimism destroyed, European writers also saw the limitations of traditional genre to express their new perspective of despair. World War I and putting technology into the service of mass destruction was the final blow, pushing writers further into the pursuit of completely new ways of writing about the human condition.\n","0f129f54-94a0-44c1-8198-29746147d20b",[1388],{"id":1389,"data":1390,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"464cbd4f-c143-49b5-8a8a-ae54a05bfbf5",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1391,"multiChoiceCorrect":1393,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1395},[1392],"What event was the final blow that pushed writers to pursue new ways of writing about the human condition?",[1394],"World War I",[978,1396,1397],"The expansion of the British empire","The introduction of new philosophies",{"id":1399,"data":1400,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1404},"37b4171f-1fea-4576-8eb3-235f39617a9e",{"type":25,"title":1401,"markdownContent":1402,"audioMediaId":1403},"Writings from WWI","World War I prompted an outpouring of new voices in literature. Siegfried Sassoon, Rupert Brooke, John Ciardi, and Wilfred Owen are among the best-known poets, depicting life at the front in all its raw brutality.  \nAlthough men wrote the vast majority of WWI literature, writing by women emphasizes the effect of war on brothers and husbands and its impact on domestic spaces.\n\n ![Graph](image://ebf63e2f-d49c-46cc-93b9-7b720148e2b5 \"A Farewell to Arms\")\n\nAt the beginning of the war, some writers expressed idealism and optimism.  However, as the war wore on and became increasingly bloody, writers started to depict the war’s great horrors. Poets published more than 2000 works about the war, but novelists also tackled this topic: *A Farewell to Arms* by Ernest Hemingway and *All Quiet on the Western Front* by Erich Remarque are well-known examples. Both are semi-autobiographical and capture perspectives from both sides. At home, Virginia Woolf portrays the war’s lasting impact on a stunned society in her novel *Mrs. Dalloway*.\n\n","ad9ea294-8918-4f91-b4ac-f89c3c31cec2",[1405],{"id":1406,"data":1407,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"6af2d8f9-9783-4e4c-a267-7c992becc14b",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1408,"binaryCorrect":1410,"binaryIncorrect":1412},[1409],"Who wrote A Farewell to Arms?",[1411],"Ernest Hemingway",[1413],"Robert Graves",{"id":1415,"data":1416,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1420},"14a74cb2-76f3-4d31-83da-d5e9a44ff225",{"type":25,"title":1417,"markdownContent":1418,"audioMediaId":1419},"The Loss of Absolutes"," \nAlthough different ages and cultures have clung to varying values and beliefs, until Modernism, human societies have always relied on set definitions of ethics and morality that guided both faith and practical daily decisions. \n\nMedieval philosophers, for example, assumed that a god exists, takes an interest in humankind, and is interpreted through the Bible and the church.  \n\nEnlightenment thinkers exchanged those absolutes for absolute belief in the scientific method and rational thought. In both cases, however, there was a solid foundation upon which individuals built their beliefs.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://d160e4c1-b1f1-40da-bea1-a2e04e1b2bb8 \"Herman Hesse's Steppenwolf\")\n\nModernists, however, abandoned any belief in absolutes, believing instead that everything is relative and subjective. There was no god, the human mind is not rational, and science can be wrong. \n\n\nThis lack of foundation created a real problem for Modernists: As German novelist Herman Hesse says in *Steppenwolf*, modernism ‘loses all power to understand itself and has no standards, no security, no simple acquiescence.’ Modernists, therefore, became absorbed with their own consciousness and wrote from a subjectivity that approached solipsism (being self-centered) or nihilism (the belief that life is meaningless).","b74eb1e3-d2fb-4d0d-a6c0-0a4635c1bc39",[1421],{"id":1422,"data":1423,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"c0a8a45b-cccb-41b0-974d-15327337d77f",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1424,"activeRecallAnswers":1426},[1425],"Who wrote Steppenwolf?",[1427],"Hermann Hesse",{"id":1429,"data":1430,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"751c4c28-5e6b-407a-ba13-af80add95ecc",{"type":25,"title":1431,"markdownContent":1432,"audioMediaId":1433},"Unreliable Narrators","The Modernist belief that nothing was certain or trustworthy carried over into the fiction, often through the  use of unreliable narrators.\n  \nIn traditional literature, the reader can count on narrators to be fair, accurate, and sincere.\n \nModernists, on the other hand, rejected the idea of ‘a truth,’ and reflected that in their narrators, who could no longer be trusted. Modernist writers concentrated instead on the natural way the brain jumps from idea to idea and on the way people can interpret the same event in different ways – as well as the different reasons people misrepresent what ‘truth’ there is.  \n\nModernist writers often used multiple narrators to convey the general confusion in any social situation.  With no set of shared values or beliefs, narrators tell readers their individual versions of events, emphasizing their thoughts and unique reactions. And since there is no truth, they do not attempt to lead readers to a particular conclusion. With unreliable narrators, the author has no intention that the reader learn a certain lesson or agree with the writer by the end of the work.\n","a57325c3-ae86-4415-a32c-149dedd97c3b",{"id":1435,"data":1436,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":1438},"141b9b0d-f070-4046-bebe-839ef1645e55",{"type":21,"title":1437},"Modernist Responses to War",[1439,1455,1468],{"id":1440,"data":1441,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1445},"fcbefa63-c317-4cde-858a-f0b80ec01717",{"type":25,"title":1442,"markdownContent":1443,"audioMediaId":1444},"Impressionism’s Influence","Impressionism started as an art movement in which painters emphasized their impressions of a scene and not the details of the reality in front of them. \n\nScholars originally felt that the ideas of Impressionism were impossible to copy in literature because writing involves reflection and judgment, not merely perception and impression. However, Impressionism as an influence on literature gained credibility through Henry James’ argument in *The Art of Fiction* that ‘a novel in its broadest definition is a personal, direct impression of life.’ \n\nNotable Modernists such as Thomas Hardy, Virginia Woolf, and Joseph Conrad all eventually used the term ‘impression’ to describe at least the beginning point of fiction. \n\n ![Graph](image://eb1a2205-0adb-489e-97a6-aecd05754785 \"Virginia Woolf\")\n\nSince literary Modernists increasingly dismissed the idea that writing involved careful and time-consuming plotting and reflection, the two schools began to come together. Some scholars go so far as to say that embracing Impressionism was the turning point for Literary Modernism, since it opened writers to the idea of presenting life as it appeared through a subjective lens instead of the supposed objectivity of realism.\n","dccf7562-dcf2-47d9-abe3-317b13b87e0a",[1446],{"id":1447,"data":1448,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"93a242c4-bd50-4205-b973-400a5baa3409",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1449,"binaryCorrect":1451,"binaryIncorrect":1453},[1450],"What did Henry James argue in his work \"The Art of Fiction\"?",[1452],"That a novel is a personal, direct impression of life",[1454],"That a novel needs to be political",{"id":1456,"data":1457,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1461},"cdeeaf11-9cf5-4c45-8456-fbb63d9a3724",{"type":25,"title":1458,"markdownContent":1459,"audioMediaId":1460},"Theater of the Absurd","World War II pushed Modernists further into their sense of despair, confirming and deepening their horror over World War I. As a result, Theater of the Absurd appeared after WWII, expressing writers’ feelings that life was meaningless and cruel.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://61de38a7-84fb-4a2f-83ba-c951f4a3ed76 \"Waiting for Godot\")\n\nThese plays seek to show what happens when human life lacks meaning to the point that communication entirely breaks down. The plays focus on human beings, but they’re trapped in situations that are completely illogical and nearly impossible to understand. The characters’ problems are coupled with and made more desperate by the complete inadequacy of language. In Theater of the Absurd, characters are often stereotypes who speak only in clichés and lack individual characteristics. Occasionally, dialogue even descends into nonsense sounds.\n \nThese plays often only have two characters. Sometimes one character is dominant and torments the other, and in others the characters’ dominance changes throughout the play. Samuel Beckett’s *Waiting for Godot* is a well-known example of an Absurd play that displays many of these characteristics.\n","21f3229f-569f-4dc5-8983-30060e57c3dc",[1462],{"id":1463,"data":1464,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"c1b10565-633d-4cda-bd7f-67eecf9da944",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1465,"activeRecallAnswers":1467},[1466],"What is the name of the theatrical movement that expresses feelings of life being meaningless and cruel?",[1458],{"id":1469,"data":1470,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1474},"2ac4dbc4-13c9-4c71-ba7b-d13e33bab88e",{"type":25,"title":1471,"markdownContent":1472,"audioMediaId":1473},"The Harlem Renaissance"," In the 1920s and 30s, African American music, dance, literature, and art experienced a lively cultural revival in Harlem, New York. Fueled by the Great Migration (when African Americans moved in huge numbers out of the American South), the Harlem Renaissance was the heart and soul of the energy, creativity, and intellectual power of a generation of Black artists. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://790b217c-5727-4c69-9620-d1482baca005 \"Women in Harlem in the 1930s\")\n\nAlan Locke’s anthology, *The New Negro*, brought the work of Harlem writers to a wider public, and he became known as the leader and chief recorder of the Harlem Renaissance. The anthology included writers such as Langston Hughes, Zora Neal-Hurston, Claude McKay, Gwendolyn Brooks, and Jean Toomer.  \n\nBringing their distinct culture into their work, writers of the Harlem Renaissance created ‘jazz poetry,’ exemplified in Hughes’ ‘Weary Blues.’ The energy of this convergence of Black intellectuals and artists allowed them to create authentic works that showed the complexity of their distinct culture. Although the Great Depression brought an end to this incredible moment, its after-effects are still being felt. \n\n","53b96a8e-6c86-4069-a223-45223f1b44a9",[1475],{"id":1476,"data":1477,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"2c9ea666-7b0a-473b-948b-65ea06c5a994",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1478,"multiChoiceCorrect":1480,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1482},[1479],"Who is known as the leader and chief recorder of the Harlem Renaissance?",[1481],"Alain Locke",[1483,1484,1485],"Langston Hughes","Zora Neale-Hurston","Claude McKay",{"id":1487,"data":1488,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":1490},"a62f2993-32d8-4fd9-8568-539f75a28581",{"type":21,"title":1489},"Key Figures in Modernist Literature",[1491,1507],{"id":1492,"data":1493,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1497},"afa858fa-27a3-487d-a730-07546a2c33ce",{"type":25,"title":1494,"markdownContent":1495,"audioMediaId":1496},"Key Figure: T. S. Eliot","Probably the most notable poet of the 20th century, T. S. Eliot is a central figure in Modernist literature. The first of his major poems, ‘The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,’ incorporated the main elements of Modernism. Although it was immediately dismissed by critics, it drew the attention of Ezra Pound who began to mentor Eliot, editing some of his major works and guiding his early career.\n\n ![Graph](image://131a64b4-e64c-468a-afda-784a2822f95c \"TS Eliot\")\n\n‘The Waste Land,’ published in 1922, is today considered the touchstone of Modernist poetry. Because of its complexity, the poem is often compared to James Joyce’s *Ulysses*, another groundbreaking work that was published in the same year. \n\nEliot converted to Anglicanism in 1927, and his later poems reflect the changes in his religious perspective. “Ash Wednesday” and “The Four Quartets” include Christian theology, art, and symbolism.\n","29a22357-3c97-4d7a-bb80-d498fa6d5dbc",[1498],{"id":1499,"data":1500,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"a1f907b8-b916-45ea-929d-2e178353303d",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1501,"binaryCorrect":1503,"binaryIncorrect":1505},[1502],"Who is considered the most notable poet of the 20th century?",[1504],"T. S. Eliot",[1506],"Alfred, Lord Tennyson",{"id":1508,"data":1509,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1513},"e7924cae-8f5d-48ee-a63c-a4fcc6537b39",{"type":25,"title":1510,"markdownContent":1511,"audioMediaId":1512},"Key Figure: William Faulkner","Though his style differs from other Modernist writers, William Faulkner’s work is unquestionably Modernist and experimental. It includes stream of consciousness narrating, and highly emotional, complex stories that tend toward the Gothic. He is distinctly Southern American, and his writing represents a post-Civil War culture that is at once dynamic and in decay. \n\n ![Graph](image://68451058-30bc-43d1-8b1a-7ac8e666a88c \"The Sound and The Fury\")\n\n\nFaulkner’s first major work was *The Sound and the Fury*.  Because of its complexity and the difficulties it posed for readers, editors suggested significant changes, but Faulkner refused to make compromises for the sake of marketing. This work uses stream of consciousness and multiple narration. \n\nFaulkner’s novel *Absalom! Absalom!* is seen as Faulkner’s most iconic Modernist novel. Written as a series of different narrators with their own self-centered perspectives, it is infinitely open-ended and displays incredible storytelling.\n\n\n","74f92870-7bf8-4e8d-a42a-8904425ba2aa",[1514],{"id":1515,"data":1516,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"65c310ee-0e83-4903-95c8-e80af6db6e47",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1517,"activeRecallAnswers":1519},[1518],"What is the title of William Faulkner's first major work?",[1520],"The Sound and the Fury",{"id":1522,"data":1523,"type":27,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"orbs":1526},"0021795b-632a-492e-ba56-ad2056a5d54e",{"type":27,"title":1524,"tagline":1525},"Break It Down Now: Postmodernism and Beyond","The second half of the 20th century and the radical upheaval of all assumptions.",[1527,1581,1619],{"id":1528,"data":1529,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":1531},"2de86500-82b5-4f8c-9da4-397f4c2dd2d1",{"type":21,"title":1530},"Understanding Postmodernism",[1532,1547,1565],{"id":1533,"data":1534,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1538},"ab4d42ce-933d-4c5a-8568-9f39d37b260a",{"type":25,"title":1535,"markdownContent":1536,"audioMediaId":1537},"Defining Postmodernism","Postmodernism is a late-20th century style that spanned art, literature, and philosophy. Building on the loss of absolute truth that Modernists experienced, Postmodernism focuses in on the idea that knowledge is conditional – nothing is really true, it only seems true under certain circumstances – and it considers realism or a belief in objective fact as naïve. In Postmodernism, everything is relative and individual, nothing is sacred, and you should be skeptical of everything.\n\nDespite this depressing outlook, Postmodernism often relies on humor, irony and irreverence to get its point across.\n\nAlthough in some ways Postmodernism is an extension of Modernists ideas, the Postmodern movement also saw itself as a rejection of Modernism. Both Modernism and Postmodernism reject realism, universal truths, rationalism, and often religion. But Postmodernism takes these rejections to the extreme, viewing every aspect of life as subjective and truth as relative to the individual. This affects any understanding of politics, society, art, or communication. \n\nAdditionally, post-structuralism and Deconstruction are both sub genres of Postmodernism.\n","96d71b70-2adf-4791-9212-b0244a1c0253",[1539],{"id":1540,"data":1541,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"a182366a-2229-4d68-9492-24ee8bb4074e",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1542,"binaryCorrect":1544,"binaryIncorrect":1546},[1543],"What is the name of the late-20th century style that spanned art, literature, and philosophy?",[1545],"Postmodernism",[1294],{"id":1548,"data":1549,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1553},"648865b8-5e35-4a30-8ce6-9ddc0b058531",{"type":25,"title":1550,"markdownContent":1551,"audioMediaId":1552},"Historical Context for Postmodernism","Though the phrase ‘post-modernism’ was first used in 1870, Postmodernism as we understand it today didn’t start to take shape until well into the 20th century. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://fc0391ee-d6fe-401c-af76-d88442fa8e92 \"Hélène Cixous\")\n\nJorge Luis Borges is often cited as developing the first literary works that showcase Postmodernism, including his short story ‘The Garden of the Forking Paths.’ \n\nSimilar to WWI’s impact on Modernism, the devastation and extreme violence of WWII and the Vietnam War greatly affected social thought and the literary arts, leading eventually to post-structuralism and Postmodernism. \n\nAs a movement that spanned artistic genres, Postmodernism was heavily influenced by post-structural theorists and philosophers including Michel Foucault, Roland Barthes, Gilles Deleuze, Jacques Derrida, Julia Kristeva, and Hélène Cixous.\n\nThe movement continued to grow in popularity through the 1960s and 70s, falling out of vogue in the 1990s. Some critics argue that Postmodernism is now impossible in the context of contemporary cultural production, such as social media and worldwide streaming.\n","1adb632c-c1b5-4f67-be31-e3d6d3520ed1",[1554],{"id":1555,"data":1556,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"39cfe945-b4d9-48fa-b84a-994a3be12e64",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1557,"multiChoiceCorrect":1559,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1561},[1558],"Who is often credited with developing the first literary works that showcase Postmodernism?",[1560],"Jorge Luis Borges",[1562,1563,1564],"Michel Foucault","Roland Barthes","Julia Kristeva",{"id":1566,"data":1567,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1571},"965cff1f-59bb-4150-a8e5-b4e7aad2435e",{"type":25,"title":1568,"markdownContent":1569,"audioMediaId":1570},"Characteristics of Postmodern Literature","In literature, Postmodernism can be seen through experimentation and the use of new forms, narrative styles, and themes. Notable characteristics of Postmodern writings include the use of metafiction (fiction in which the author alludes to the work as a fictional work), the unreliable narrator, self-reflexivity or self-awareness, intertextuality (where works interact with each other), temporal distortion, and fragmentation.\n\nThrough metafiction, a work identifies its existence as a construct. This can happen, for example, when characters or a narrator breaks the fourth wall – speaking directly to the audience – or when a character identifies themself as a fictional character. The intention of metafiction is to remind the reader of the thing-ness or fiction of a text. \n\nPostmodern works also often include intertextuality, where the author weaves literary history into their own works as a comment on the interconnectedness of all artistic creation. This can occur as a parallel, but another form is pastiche, in which multiple elements are ‘pasted’ together. \n","fb1c8c74-3cb1-4232-914e-b1caddf93d9f",[1572],{"id":1573,"data":1574,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"8ec6dffd-1a6f-4928-ab9d-de0a99127224",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1575,"binaryCorrect":1577,"binaryIncorrect":1579},[1576],"What is the term used to describe a work of literature that identifies its existence as a construct?",[1578],"Metafiction",[1580],"Intertextuality",{"id":1582,"data":1583,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":1585},"db1d0f78-b399-4f8c-83cf-e81fe6c615a7",{"type":21,"title":1584},"Exploring Literary Movements",[1586,1599,1613],{"id":1587,"data":1588,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1592},"072281c6-df1a-4111-b67d-fbb7455af7d9",{"type":25,"title":1589,"markdownContent":1590,"audioMediaId":1591},"Magical Realism","\nMagical realism is a narrative genre that includes magical or mythical elements – often in a matter-of-fact way –  into an otherwise realistic work of fiction. It is considered a subgenre of Postmodernism and is chiefly used by Latin-American writers like Gabriel García Márquez and Isabel Allende.\n\nThe amount of ‘magic’ within any given Magical Realism text varies. Some works are relatively realistic with only a mild suggestion of something supernatural, while other texts border on complete fantasy. \n\nThe writing style is often marked by ‘plenitude,’ or an extraordinary and disorienting abundance of detail. Authors employ vibrant descriptions that draw on all five senses. \n\nReal world, often modern-day settings are a common characteristic of Magical Realism, and authors use the format to criticize current social or political issues. By infusing magic into an otherwise real – and possibly recognizable – world, Latin American authors were able to criticize governments and their regimes in a way that was dangerous to do openly. \n\n","65f3f5b3-d0c4-49ad-916d-563e53b65f4c",[1593],{"id":1594,"data":1595,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"93d5307a-0de4-4857-8045-891dde0ffe91",{"type":52,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1596,"clozeWords":1598},[1597],"Magical Realism is a subgenre of Postmodernism, often used by Latin-American authors to criticize current social or political issues.",[1545],{"id":1600,"data":1601,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1605},"e834822f-f4ce-4565-9be2-b6be0dce817d",{"type":25,"title":1602,"markdownContent":1603,"audioMediaId":1604},"Postcolonialism","Postcolonialism continues to be an important part of modern scholarship. It studies the impact of colonialism and imperialism on the cultures, politics, and economics of colonized lands and seeks to revive lost traditions and regional identities while condemning colonizing forces and calling for decolonization – both political and social – and reparations. \n\nPostcolonial writings readdress historical works in light of the impact of colonization and create new literature, both fiction and nonfiction, that seeks to reclaim regional traditions and styles. \n\nPostcolonial literature is written by people from formerly or currently colonized regions, and it often intersects with Migrant literature and feminist literature. In particular, Postcolonial feminist literature is a response to white and Eurocentric feminism. \n\nPostcolonial literature exists on all continents, and its style, form, and content often depend on its geographical source. Subjugation, subalternism (or ‘oppressed difference’), hybridity, alternative modernity, and nationalism are all common themes in Postcolonial literature.\n","9224b848-fefb-4444-9664-a1ecc598bc1f",[1606],{"id":1607,"data":1608,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"39cc648c-550a-41dd-a606-3fa454adf828",{"type":52,"reviewType":28,"spacingBehaviour":25,"clozeQuestion":1609,"clozeWords":1611},[1610],"Postcolonial literature is written by people from formerly or currently colonized regions.",[1612],"Postcolonial",{"id":1614,"data":1615,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25},"57f5fb43-939e-487b-bc4e-64a30daa9d91",{"type":25,"title":1616,"markdownContent":1617,"audioMediaId":1618},"Post-Postmodernism","With the ‘death’ of Postmodernism in the 1990s, literature entered a new era that we currently call Post-postmodernism, or sometimes Trans-postmodernism. Scholars still don’t agree on the styles and themes that define this era, as it’s still happening.\n\nHowever, there are some elements of today’s literature that are in clear opposition to Postmodernism, it’s this change that has inspired the name Post-postmodern. \n\nIn general, this new movement rejects the irony and cynicism of Modernism and Postmodernism. While accepting the  \n Postmodern idea that truth is individual and no concepts are universal, the new movement denies the nihilism or meaninglessness of this conclusion; instead focusing on the responsibility of the individual to move towards faith, trust, sincerity, and authenticity.\n\nSome critics see this time in literature as an intensification of Postmodernism to its extremes – particularly from capitalism to late-stage capitalism – and they observe the ways in which the language of economics now touches every part of life. \n","6d418520-ebc0-4adb-a838-c1fedd096bba",{"id":1620,"data":1621,"type":21,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"pages":1623},"70635f0b-d2b1-486b-8615-12c9d56be786",{"type":21,"title":1622},"Contemporary Literary Trends",[1624,1641,1655,1673],{"id":1625,"data":1626,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1630},"7dd6be5d-7251-4e6b-8ac1-4cd612e6c7c7",{"type":25,"title":1627,"markdownContent":1628,"audioMediaId":1629},"Contemporary Literature","The term ‘contemporary literature’ is used to describe any works that are written within a certain amount of time from each other or from today. \n\nSometimes works that are considered contemporary have things in common either in style or content because of important events, popular trends, or societal norms. In this case the dividing line between ‘contemporary’ and ‘not contemporary’ might be drawn based on these similarities. At other times, or by other definitions, the line is drawn simply between one year and the next. Currently, contemporary literature is generally considered any literature set after World War II.\n\nHowever, in publishing today, there is a move to define a much smaller section of works as contemporary. \n\nLikewise, although any work from any genre can be high quality, the term ‘literary fiction’ is often used today to distinguish one type of written work from either genre fiction or popular fiction. There is still a lot of disagreement on whether or not this is a useful or accurate description.\n","64bba8ff-3783-457a-9c24-cc9e5834128c",[1631],{"id":1632,"data":1633,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"d79ad398-00f8-4731-a13d-511da2a3a11a",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1634,"multiChoiceCorrect":1636,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1638},[1635],"What is the dividing line between 'contemporary' and 'not contemporary' literature?",[1637],"Generally considered any literature set after World War II",[1639,1640,159],"Popular trends or societal norms","One year and the next",{"id":1642,"data":1643,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1647},"36df5ba4-0790-46fc-aa1b-218c2a4d59d2",{"type":25,"title":1644,"markdownContent":1645,"audioMediaId":1646},"Key Figure: Kurt Vonnegut","Kurt Vonnegut, who lived from 1922 to 2007, was an American writer known best for his dark gallows humor and satirical wit. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://8a1fa6b9-c7e3-47fe-a076-38e8861e6fd5 \"Slaughterhouse-Five\")\n\nAll in all, his publications include 14 novels, 3 short-story collections, and 5 plays. Vonnegut was born into wealth, but his family experienced financial ruin when he was a young man, and his mother took her own life. He served in the army as an intelligence scout during WWII, fought in the Battle of the Bulge, and was taken prisoner. He was then sent to Dresden, where he narrowly survived the Allied bombing of the city.\n\nThese devastating experiences left a mark on Vonnegut and deeply impacted his work. In his novel *Slaughterhouse-Five, or, The Children’s Crusade: A Duty-Dance with Death* Vonnegut describes many of his experiences in Dresden. Vonnegut is known for his fragmentary narrative form, his direct and natural writing style, and his often bizarre plot devices – like when his main character ends up in an alien zoo. ","72cd25ad-fe4f-45b3-89a9-d368dcfd1c22",[1648],{"id":1649,"data":1650,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"a407d80f-8639-4b05-9a94-715e5c5b9cb6",{"type":52,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":25,"activeRecallQuestion":1651,"activeRecallAnswers":1653},[1652],"What is the title of Kurt Vonnegut's novel about his experiences in Dresden?",[1654],"Slaughterhouse-Five, or, The Children’s Crusade: A Duty-Dance with Death",{"id":1656,"data":1657,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1661},"e4e665c8-5625-4241-9572-7a18cdbaecb9",{"type":25,"title":1658,"markdownContent":1659,"audioMediaId":1660},"Key Figure: Don DeLillo","Don DeLillo is an American novelist, short-story writer, and screenwriter who currently resides in New York City. The literary critic Harold Bloom called DeLillo one of the four major American novelists of the Postmodern age, along with Thomas Pynchon, Philip Roth, and Cormac McCarthy.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://cae926b0-3d90-47ff-b26c-388d4a206bfd \"Don DeLillo\")\n\nAlthough he was already popular in some circles before its publication, his novel *White Noise* brought him national recognition and acclaim as one of the greatest contemporary American novelists (adapted into a film in 2022). \n\nDeLillo’s works have covered a wide array of contemporary subjects and his works bridge the divide between Modernism and Postmodernism – though DeLillo himself sees his work as the spiritual successor to William Faulkner and James Joyce. Despite this, his works also display particularly Postmodern ideas about consumerism, a cynicism for academia and pseudo-intellectualism, and an embrace of abstract expressionism. \n\n","0e1bb871-95c4-4199-ab55-ddf35574ce4b",[1662],{"id":1663,"data":1664,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"b9e435fb-fdc8-4f4e-8175-6c7837d719e9",{"type":52,"reviewType":35,"spacingBehaviour":25,"multiChoiceQuestion":1665,"multiChoiceCorrect":1667,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1669},[1666],"Who called Don DeLillo one of the four major American novelists of the Postmodern age?",[1668],"Harold Bloom",[1670,1671,1672],"Thomas Pynchon","Philip Roth","Cormac McCarthy",{"id":1674,"data":1675,"type":25,"maxContentLevel":35,"version":25,"reviews":1679},"36c373b6-1a5f-4e57-a751-888335607169",{"type":25,"title":1676,"markdownContent":1677,"audioMediaId":1678},"Expanding the Canon: Audre Lorde","Audre Lorde was a self-described ‘black, lesbian, mother, warrior, poet,’ who dedicated her life to addressing the injustices of racism, sexism, classism, and homophobia. She is known both for her poetry and her nonfiction essays. Lorde was born in New York City in 1934 and died of breast cancer in 1992 at age 58. \n\nLorde’s theoretical work shaped postcolonialism, third-wave feminism, and womanism. She worked to confront racism within mainstream feminism, and her 1984 essay “The Master’s Tools Will Never Dismantle the Master’s House” unabashedly critiqued white feminism.\n\nLorde’s nonfiction writings are known for their craft and direct observations, particularly on social inequalities; she could reach the heart of an issue in a single sentence. As a poet, she is highly regarded for her technical skill and mastery over emotional expression. Her poems are an outpouring of anger and outrage at the social injustices she observed in contemporary life. \n","614df404-4979-40f4-b58b-890e04564827",[1680],{"id":1681,"data":1682,"type":52,"version":25,"maxContentLevel":35},"0b3c5a0e-29b7-466d-a82a-0438363b7439",{"type":52,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":25,"binaryQuestion":1683,"binaryCorrect":1685,"binaryIncorrect":1687},[1684],"Who described herself as a ‘black, lesbian, mother, warrior, poet’?",[1686],"Audre Lorde",[1688],"Toni Morrison",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1690,"height":1690,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1691},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1690,"height":1690,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1693},"\u003Cg fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\">\u003Cpath d=\"M12.586 2.586A2 2 0 0 0 11.172 2H4a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v7.172a2 2 0 0 0 .586 1.414l8.704 8.704a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 3.42 0l6.58-6.58a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 0-3.42z\"/>\u003Ccircle cx=\"7.5\" cy=\"7.5\" r=\".5\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",1778228382973]