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after World War Two was a turning point for Arab Nationalism",1,{"id":35,"data":36,"type":37,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"3e3461a5-6183-4062-baf8-a2364da1110a",{"type":37,"intro":38},10,[39,40],"What is Arab Nationalism?","What sparked Arab Nationalism's rise?",[42,68,85],{"id":43,"data":44,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":47},"ad3fa491-6af2-4bb4-872b-7aa7ba725e2b",{"type":33,"markdownContent":45,"audioMediaId":46},"In this pathway so far, we've talked a lot about Arab movements, like the Arab Revolt in 1916, and the various coalitions of Arab countries that have gone to war against Israel. Now, it's time to look at the ideology that powered these movements: something called Arab Nationalism.\n\nArab Nationalism advocates for the political unity of Arab people and countries. This ideology is rooted in the belief that all Arabs, regardless of their individual nationalities, share a common cultural and historical heritage.\n\nThe Arabic language, in particular, is an important unifying factor, serving as a symbol of shared identity and a tool for political mobilization. Sati’ al-Husri, one of the 20th Century’s foremost Arab Nationalist thinkers, wrote that 'People who spoke a unitary language, have one heart and a common soul.'","60d18c54-a2c4-4d48-a58c-68d093845084",[48],{"id":49,"data":50,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"49924330-308e-46b9-8555-b764605961b8",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":52,"multiChoiceQuestion":56,"multiChoiceCorrect":58,"multiChoiceIncorrect":60,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":64,"matchPairsPairs":66},11,[53,54,55],"1b15b1b7-08ba-4cd5-9c16-e1090902bb5f","e9371a89-8d85-4ea7-b955-912acadc691b","d7651f4e-76e5-4570-b397-afaf8eaa70a9",[57],"Which of these is an accurate description of Arab nationalism?",[59],"Seeks unity based on cultural similarities",[61,62,63],"Seeks unity based on religious similarities","More militant form of Arab Nationalism","Grants leadership of clergy over state",[65],"Match the pairs below:",[67],{"left":25,"right":59,"direction":19},{"id":69,"data":70,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":73},"738cde6a-5f34-44fa-ad2d-d4d8903cf6f3",{"type":33,"markdownContent":71,"audioMediaId":72},"The birth of Arab Nationalism is often associated with the Nahda, or Arab Renaissance, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.\n\nThis was a period of intellectual and cultural revival, during which Arab scholars and intellectuals began to articulate ideas of Arab unity and independence.\n\nThe early development of Arab Nationalism was influenced by the desire for independence from Ottoman rule. As the Ottoman Empire weakened, Arab intellectuals began to call for self-determination and political autonomy.\n\nThis desire for independence was a key driving force behind the emergence of Arab Nationalism.\n\n![Graph](image://8c7f97db-0546-4f2f-a7dc-2f9a6f42d43f \"Arab nationalists in 1918. Image: Library of congress, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","89d84360-eb8e-483f-9cdb-3eb1314580c9",[74],{"id":75,"data":76,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"be199a8c-effe-4bbe-898b-03bd6e1af29a",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":77,"multiChoiceCorrect":79,"multiChoiceIncorrect":81,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[78],"The birth of Arab Nationalism is often associated with the Arab Renaissance in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. What is the Arab Renaissance also known as?",[80],"Nahda",[82,83,84],"Nakba","Hijra","Tahrir",{"id":86,"data":87,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":90},"1eb132f2-e79c-4ae8-ae0f-76ce635cc761",{"type":33,"markdownContent":88,"audioMediaId":89},"Despite the fact that they managed to throw off their Ottoman rulers after World War One, the situation only got worse for Arab nationalists.\n\nThe Middle East was claimed by European powers, who proceeded to divide it into arbitrary territories, which went totally against the nationalist dream of a unified Arab nation.\n\n![Graph](image://f2969541-b224-4a2d-a08a-be2164b651a0 \"British control of Palestine. Image: AP, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThings improved after World War Two, though, when the European colonial powers withdrew from the Middle East. As we've already talked about, this was a major turning point for Israel-Palestine, but it was also an important turning point for Arab Nationalism.\n\nThe withdrawal of Europe saw countries like Egypt, Syria, and Iraq all regain their independence. This was exactly the kind of moment that Arabs had been waiting for.","9b1f654a-0176-4eda-8f41-fd8b353d20bf",[91,111,118,125],{"id":92,"data":93,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"b61c7e58-a9fe-4aac-9238-1e16b79456f7",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":94,"multiChoiceQuestion":98,"multiChoiceCorrect":100,"multiChoiceIncorrect":102,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":33,"orderQuestion":106,"orderItems":108},[95,96,97],"26c55d94-6980-4869-a55c-763da955baf0","88e61675-ba5f-434a-ad33-63bd132d1761","f878caac-620c-4ab3-9b51-609769f4991b",[99],"When was the outbreak of the Arab Revolt?",[101],"1916",[103,104,105],"1958","1968","1956",[107],"Put these events in order:",[109],{"label":110,"reveal":101,"sortOrder":4},"Outbreak of the Arab Revolt",{"id":112,"data":113,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"b651275b-c84e-4120-ae80-a34741632786",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":114,"activeRecallAnswers":116},[115],"After World War One, what changed for many Arab countries?",[117],"The Middle East was divided up by European powers",{"id":119,"data":120,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"7814b93b-fcd3-4127-ab26-40847ccb99b0",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":121,"activeRecallAnswers":123},[122],"After World War Two, what changed for many Arab countries?",[124],"European colonial powers withdrew from the Middle East",{"id":126,"data":127,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"f6adf5cd-5d9c-44de-b6f6-7af83c5a8c3e",{"type":51,"reviewType":128,"spacingBehaviour":33,"clozeQuestion":129,"clozeWords":131},4,[130],"Ati’ al-Husri, an Arab Nationalist thinker, wrote: 'People who spoke a unitary language, have one heart and a common soul.'",[132],"soul",{"id":134,"data":135,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":137,"introPage":145,"pages":151},"124aa338-6740-4d4e-a23a-9cd6e87a058e",{"type":24,"title":136},"President Nasser",{"id":138,"data":139,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"efadb9ad-edd9-42ff-bd12-9bedbe479034",{"type":19,"summary":140},[141,142,143,144],"President Nasser of Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956","The Suez Crisis involved a failed attempt by Britain, France, and Israel to reclaim the canal","Nasser formed the United Arab Republic with Syria in 1958","The United Arab Republic dissolved in 1961 due to Syrian dissatisfaction",{"id":146,"data":147,"type":37,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"983214de-3796-4640-baef-8c28aa079a88",{"type":37,"intro":148},[149,150],"What sparked the Suez Crisis?","What was the United Arab Republic?",[152,188,193,215,232],{"id":153,"data":154,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":157},"24fae153-464f-4c93-a186-d6c2b6a710dd",{"type":33,"markdownContent":155,"audioMediaId":156},"In the 1950s, a charismatic figure named Gamal Abdel Nasser became president of Egypt. He was a big proponent of Arab Nationalism, and dreamed of a powerful, unified Arab state.\n\n![Graph](image://eb86d560-42ce-4e22-b8b7-65917c425304 \"President Nasser. Image: Stevan Kragujevic, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nHe also wanted to push for greater Arab autonomy on the international stage. Yes, the European colonial nations had officially withdrawn from the Middle East, but their influence could still be felt.\n\nThe Suez Canal was an important example of lingering European influence. This important canal allowed ships to travel back-and-forth between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. And, while the canal officially ran through Egyptian territory, it was still owned by European shareholders.\n\n![Graph](image://27927ff5-c58d-4c3d-a45f-babb1c8a1025 \"Suez Canal. Image: 2130991likithgunadala, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","a07e7212-ae51-4b0e-a612-ecf5da552131",[158,177],{"id":159,"data":160,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"4ef8fd06-b069-4d7a-be9c-e75b9699a32c",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":161,"multiChoiceQuestion":165,"multiChoiceCorrect":167,"multiChoiceIncorrect":169,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":173,"matchPairsPairs":174},[162,163,164],"836e1b2c-d79c-4a05-9f58-c3e87018df6a","1549c208-b25a-41e1-8bd9-ce1f0dafd7d6","48c83a66-21cd-4879-91ca-e761fbbc1ea9",[166],"In the 1950s, what did Gamal Abdel Nasser become?",[168],"President of Egypt",[170,171,172],"Leader of the PLO","President of Libya","President of Iraq",[65],[175],{"left":176,"right":168,"direction":19},"Gamal Abdel Nasser",{"id":178,"data":179,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"5c0404c9-88c9-4161-a775-f4edf866a682",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":180,"multiChoiceCorrect":182,"multiChoiceIncorrect":184,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[181],"Who officially owned the Suez Canal at the start of the 1950s?",[183],"European stakeholders",[185,186,187],"The Egyptian government","The British government","Arab stakeholders",{"id":189,"data":190,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19},"57f49681-39a5-4bc4-9889-72ee2e67b3bd",{"type":33,"markdownContent":191,"audioMediaId":192},"In 1956, President Nasser made a bold move. He declared that the Suez Canal was no longer the property of European shareholders; instead, he was nationalizing this body of water, giving Egypt total control.\n\nEuropean nations, like Britain and France, were furious. But they didn't know how to retaliate. If they sent troops to Egypt, it would be frowned upon by the international community.\n\nIn the end, they drew up a secret plan with Israel. In this plan, Israel would launch an attack on Egypt. When Egypt tried to defend itself, and a military conflict officially broke out, Britain and France would send in some troops on an official peace-keeping mission.\n\nWhen they got there... these peace-keeping troops would also try to reclaim the Suez Canal.","91b91d15-65db-4390-b4d8-a816c6e62fe2",{"id":194,"data":195,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":198},"c55bb7b9-7727-481c-8dac-d0b5089f7a67",{"type":33,"markdownContent":196,"audioMediaId":197},"The Suez Crisis, as this event became known, was one of the most significant geopolitical events of the 20th century.\n\nThousands of people were killed in the clash between Egyptian forces, and the allied powers of Israel, Britain and France.\n\n![Graph](image://0a79350f-9b08-4ccc-84ff-5f56d67930a3 \"Tanks during the Suez Crisis. Image: United States Army Heritage and Education Center, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nBut the secret plan to reclaim the canal didn't even work. The international community saw right through it, and demanded that Britain, France and Israel immediately withdraw their troops.\n\nThese countries reluctantly agreed, leaving the Suez Canal in Egyptian hands. This was a significant milestone in Arab Nationalism's journey towards independence and sovereignty. It marked the end of foreign control over a crucial resource, and symbolized the rise of an Arab country as a significant player in the region.","25d2cbe9-9b87-4642-b42a-bd64d9477fdc",[199],{"id":200,"data":201,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"d31b3e92-3c66-4cbb-ad01-657182bfbf39",{"type":51,"reviewType":202,"spacingBehaviour":33,"orderAxisType":203,"orderQuestion":204,"orderItems":206},8,6,[205],"Put these stages of the Suez Crisis in order:",[207,209,211,213],{"label":208,"sortOrder":4},"Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal",{"label":210,"sortOrder":33},"Israel launches attack on Egypt",{"label":212,"sortOrder":24},"France and Britain launch 'peace-keeping' mission",{"label":214,"sortOrder":19},"International community tells invaders to withdraw",{"id":216,"data":217,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":220},"53bf8031-688b-442c-a316-ac80e7be23e1",{"type":33,"markdownContent":218,"audioMediaId":219},"Two years after the Suez Crisis, Nasser's next big step toward Arab Nationalism was the United Arab Republic.\n\nThis was a political union between Egypt and Syria, which was unveiled in 1958. The union was actually Syria's idea – delegations from the country proposed it to Nasser, who agreed on the condition that he would be the leader of this unified state.\n\n![Graph](image://cefcac9b-327c-4154-82e4-0afabca07dbd \"United Arab Republic flag. Image: Public domain\")\n\nThis union was the very first time that the ideals of Arab unity and independence had been turned into a political reality. According to historian Adeed Dawisha, the Arab world reacted in \"stunned amazement, which quickly turned into uncontrolled euphoria.\"","ac530330-2194-4573-a9ae-b77e6e958701",[221],{"id":97,"data":222,"type":51,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":223,"multiChoiceQuestion":224,"multiChoiceCorrect":226,"multiChoiceIncorrect":227,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":33,"orderQuestion":228,"orderItems":229},[92,95,96],[225],"When was the formation of the United Arab Republic?",[103],[101,104,105],[107],[230],{"label":231,"reveal":103,"sortOrder":24},"Formation of the United Arab Republic",{"id":233,"data":234,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":237},"9f05bda9-ba0c-44d8-9345-a19f0f147431",{"type":33,"markdownContent":235,"audioMediaId":236},"Unfortunately for proponents of Arab Nationalism, the United Arab Republic did not last for long.\n\nThe Syrians felt short changed by the union – Egypt was doing better than them economically, politically and militarily. Some of the Syrians blamed this on Nasser, who seemed to be prioritizing Egypt (his home country) over Syria.\n\nIn 1961, just three years after the United Arab Republic's formation, the Syrian military launched a coup d’état.\n\nNasser might have retaliated, but he did not want to encourage fighting between Arabs. Instead, he accepted the dissolution of the United Arab Republic. This was a major blow for Arab Nationalists, who never again got so close to their dream of a single, unified state.\n\n![Graph](image://8cebdd11-6891-45aa-b096-0d1f0f5075fa \"United Arab Republic. Image: Arab Hafez at English Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","a7095943-64b4-4f67-8588-c74f33ca6de3",[238,249,258,265],{"id":96,"data":239,"type":51,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":240,"multiChoiceQuestion":241,"multiChoiceCorrect":243,"multiChoiceIncorrect":244,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":33,"orderQuestion":245,"orderItems":246},[92,95,97],[242],"When was the outbreak of the Suez Crisis?",[105],[101,104,103],[107],[247],{"label":248,"reveal":105,"sortOrder":33},"Outbreak of the Suez Crisis",{"id":250,"data":251,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"599b8184-877e-436c-80df-866687e4a2c8",{"type":51,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":33,"binaryQuestion":252,"binaryCorrect":254,"binaryIncorrect":256},[253],"Who originally proposed the union of Syria and Egypt into the United Arab Republic?",[255],"Syria",[257],"Egypt",{"id":259,"data":260,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"2de5416f-8424-4f69-98d1-b4a0d8173b78",{"type":51,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":33,"binaryQuestion":261,"binaryCorrect":263,"binaryIncorrect":264},[262],"Which country disbanded the United Arab Republic, when its military decided to launch a coup d’état?",[255],[257],{"id":266,"data":267,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"6a0a79c3-9515-4027-861f-72b17d9f1547",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":268,"multiChoiceCorrect":270,"multiChoiceIncorrect":272,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[269],"The United Arab Republic was a failed experiment in Arab Nationalism. How long did the union last?",[271],"3 years",[273,274,275],"13 years","6 years","16 years",{"id":277,"data":278,"type":24,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":280,"introPage":287,"pages":293},"f45b678c-a56d-46e4-934e-4edd8ccba536",{"type":24,"title":279},"Pan-Islamism",{"id":281,"data":282,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"536fc869-c563-4ac8-9e2c-b07c5e306d05",{"type":19,"summary":283},[284,285,286],"Pan-Islamism emphasized unity based on religion, not culture","Al-Qaeda was founded in 1988 and carried out the 9/11 attacks","Extremist groups like al-Qaeda and ISIS are a minority within Pan-Islamism",{"id":288,"data":289,"type":37,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"0442e0e6-24c9-483c-8304-04e0df87d7f8",{"type":37,"intro":290},[291,292],"What is Pan-Islamism?","What sparked Pan-Islamism's rise?",[294,310,334],{"id":295,"data":296,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":299},"58f6f369-c098-47b0-ac82-e776b9350f3d",{"type":33,"markdownContent":297,"audioMediaId":298},"In the late 20th century, Arab Nationalism had to compete with the rise of another new movement: Pan-Islamism. While both of these movements wanted to define the identity of the Arab world, they did so from different perspectives.\n\nAs we've already talked about, Arab Nationalism emphasized unity on the basis of a shared culture. Pan-Islamism, on the other hand, emphasized unity on the basis of a shared religion. Its goal was also a unified state, but an Islamic state, not an Arab one.\n\nIts rise can be traced, in part, to the failure of the United Arab Republic. That project suggested that secular unity was doomed to fail, so some Arabs turned to religious unity instead.\n\n![Graph](image://a184159b-40b9-4d71-b88a-0a78973544a6 \"Mosque in Iran. Image: Hameddaeipic, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","38a122c5-ff61-4c49-8228-63d9a3d15d6f",[300],{"id":53,"data":301,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":302,"multiChoiceQuestion":303,"multiChoiceCorrect":305,"multiChoiceIncorrect":306,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"matchPairsQuestion":307,"matchPairsPairs":308},[49,54,55],[304],"Which of these is an accurate description of Pan-Islamism?",[61],[59,62,63],[65],[309],{"left":279,"right":61,"direction":19},{"id":311,"data":312,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":315},"f28607b8-f68a-4171-95da-cd71f08c511f",{"type":33,"markdownContent":313,"audioMediaId":314},"Pan-Islamism is often intertwined with a rejection of Western cultural ideals, which might be seen as a deviation from traditional Islamic principles. And in certain cases, anti-Western sentiment has been taken to extremes.\n\nIn 1988, an organization named al-Qaeda was founded in Afghanistan. This group launched a series of violent attacks against the United States, who were seen as the ultimate symbol of Western culture.\n\nThe most devastating of these was on September 11th 2001, when hijacked planes were flown into the World Trade Center in New York, and the Pentagon in Virginia. This single attack caused the death of almost 3000 American civilians.\n\n![Graph](image://d13afe9e-b0d5-4c8a-a0e8-1389f93f9252 \"The twin towers of the World Trade Center. Image: John VanderHaagen, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","fa56e393-9d7b-4f50-a777-0571929ea046",[316,323],{"id":317,"data":318,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"0e7960d1-547a-46a1-bb39-cb9986f731fb",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":319,"activeRecallAnswers":321},[320],"In 1988, which extreme anti-Western organization was founded in Afghanistan?",[322],"Al-Qaeda",{"id":324,"data":325,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"f5ebf72b-ac1f-4f9d-92c8-f3cb9885c31b",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":326,"multiChoiceCorrect":328,"multiChoiceIncorrect":330,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[327],"In what year did al-Qaeda fly hijacked planes into the World Trade Center and the Pentagon?",[329],"2001",[331,332,333],"2003","1999","2005",{"id":335,"data":336,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":339},"361c17f0-4614-45f7-8657-a6a39faec676",{"type":33,"markdownContent":337,"audioMediaId":338},"Extremist Islamic organizations do not represent the Pan-Islamist movement as a whole. Even less do they represent followers of Islam, the vast majority of whom are horrified by extremist attacks. This is an important distinction to make: Pan-Islamism and Islam are not the same.\n\nBut even though they're a minority, these groups have still become a fundamental part of the modern Middle Eastern landscape. Not just al-Qaeda, but also the Taliban in Afghanistan, and the Islamic State (often known as ISIS) which originally formed in Iraq.\n\nIn many ways, they are a product of decades of Western interference in the region. Arab Nationalism was one attempt to mend the damage this interference caused. Islamism is another attempt – with extremist groups using violent terrorism as a way to further their cause.","a20da626-fbfa-4bf4-b371-fbefce5fa86d",[340],{"id":341,"data":342,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"41f29349-a0a5-4116-b14e-9a34ca5587cd",{"type":51,"reviewType":24,"spacingBehaviour":33,"binaryQuestion":343,"binaryCorrect":345,"binaryIncorrect":347},[344],"In general, do followers of Islam approve of extremist groups like al-Qaeda?",[346],"No - in general, Muslims are horrified",[348],"Yes - in general, Muslims are impressed",{"id":350,"data":351,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":353,"introPage":360,"pages":366},"85ee1dc6-2a12-4ae6-9ec7-ef7facf25bab",{"type":24,"title":352},"The Oil Age",{"id":354,"data":355,"type":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"027835ad-d5ce-49e8-b281-05df88a8e971",{"type":19,"summary":356},[357,358,359],"Oil was discovered in the Middle East in the early 20th century, leading to global interest in the region","The Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) unified a number of Middle Eastern nations along economic lines","The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is an example of a petrostate that has used oil wealth for extravagant projects",{"id":361,"data":362,"type":37,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":33},"0d885997-5656-4f00-9119-44ae556183ee",{"type":37,"intro":363},[364,365],"What is a petrostate?","How how oil transformed the history of the Middle East?",[367,381,399,412,429],{"id":368,"data":369,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":372},"6c87889f-327a-412d-a41e-f8a80f7eaa3b",{"type":33,"markdownContent":370,"audioMediaId":371},"Arab Nationalism seeks to unify the people of the Middle East based on cultural similarities. Pan-Islamism has a similar objective, but takes a religious angle. And there's one more approach to Middle Eastern unity which we haven't talked about yet: economic.\n\nAt the beginning of the 20th century, oil was discovered in this region. First in Persia (now Iran) in 1908, then again in Saudi Arabia in 1938. In later years, more oil was discovered in other nearby countries, like Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, and the area now known as the United Arab Emirates.\n\n![Graph](image://528ff9bc-509e-4a8a-a4dc-7ace163a3ae5 \"Oil rig. Image: aka4ajax, CC BY 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis is part of the reason why foreign powers have shown so much interest in the Middle East. The region was thrust into the global spotlight – oil is one of the most sought after resources on Earth.","cd39e664-d337-4ae5-b516-223f307264f0",[373],{"id":374,"data":375,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"5bdcc821-3073-481b-aab2-dd5f55de28cc",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":376,"activeRecallAnswers":378},[377],"At the start of the 20th century, oil was discovered in the Middle East. Which two countries was it initially found in?",[379,380],"Iran (1908)","Saudi Arabia (1938)",{"id":382,"data":383,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":386},"adc56eb1-c309-44f7-ae61-ce893dbabcd9",{"type":33,"markdownContent":384,"audioMediaId":385},"The Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) was established in 1968 by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Libya.\n\nThis organization wasn't the grand, Arab super-state envisioned by Arab Nationalists. But it can be viewed as another approach to Arab unity and autonomy. OAPEC aimed to coordinate and control petroleum policies among its Member Countries. This was a significant departure from the previous system, where prices were largely determined by Western companies.\n\nAn important moment in the history of OAPEC was the 1973 oil embargo. This was a strategic decision to pause oil exports to Western countries, as a punishment for the fact that these countries had provided military aid to Israel during the Yom Kippur War. This embargo triggered an energy crisis in these Western nations, and emphasized the power of OAPEC on the global stage.\n\n![Graph](image://f73b0a40-b4f0-4215-bedc-f32eb6c4b95e \"American cars queuing for oil during embargo. Image: National Archives at College Park, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")","27fa8ccb-4763-4e71-b4e7-8ea3b8b96e42",[387],{"id":388,"data":389,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"70816338-68d9-4cc7-9e47-27b26d42d1ec",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":390,"multiChoiceCorrect":392,"multiChoiceIncorrect":396,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":398,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[391],"Which of these countries founded OAPEC?",[393,394,395],"Saudi Arabia","Kuwait","Libya",[397],"Iran",true,{"id":400,"data":401,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":404},"69f0f671-31c7-4481-8352-678bf4adf6fe",{"type":33,"markdownContent":402,"audioMediaId":403},"Another union of nations, in 1972, saw seven small Middle Eastern kingdoms (Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai, Umm al-Quwain and Ras al-Khaimah) officially come together as a single country: the United Arab Emirates (UAE).\n\n![Graph](image://d2b17e1a-bc9d-4a7d-8415-d91a60a71d4a \"United Arab Emirates. Image: ERCC - Emergency Response Coordination Centre, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe UAE is another example of a Middle Eastern country with oil reserves – and it has amassed a lot of wealth by trading these reserves with other parts of the world. The UAE, along with countries like Saudi Arabia, are sometimes referred to as 'petrostates', as a mark of the importance of oil and petroleum in their economies.\n\nIn recent years, these petrostates have used their oil wealth to fund some extravagant projects. The UAE, for example, built the Burj Khalifa – the tallest building on the planet. This extravagance marks a significant shift for a nation which was relatively poor and humble just a century ago.\n\n![Graph](image://02529f97-74b8-458b-893c-f0e844dad7fe \"Burj Khalifa. Image: Jpbowen, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")","ebb21386-deef-492d-97e4-2c0a661db06b",[405],{"id":406,"data":407,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"11c45728-f882-46e9-b5ce-273920c5ad80",{"type":51,"reviewType":128,"spacingBehaviour":33,"clozeQuestion":408,"clozeWords":410},[409],"In 1972, seven small Middle Eastern kingdoms become a single country: the United Arab Emirates.",[411],"United Arab Emirates",{"id":413,"data":414,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":417},"2f06a114-3d95-4468-9619-16cf63266c67",{"type":33,"markdownContent":415,"audioMediaId":416},"The Middle Eastern oil boom may have brought some examples of Arab unity, but it has also been a major cause of division.\n\nThe strategic importance of oil, coupled with the region's complex political and ethnic dynamics, has made it a flashpoint for conflicts. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) and the Gulf War (1990-1991) are notable examples of this. These wars were driven (in part) by territorial disputes, as neighboring nations fought for control over oil reserves and the massive revenues they generate.\n\n![Graph](image://f84dd86f-837c-4f2c-a979-f012bbbf37db \"The Gulf War. Image: / IDF Spokesperson's Unit, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ via Wikimedia\")\n\nThese conflicts caused immense human suffering to Arab nations. The Iran-Iraq war, for example, left more than a million people dead.","83110cbb-2f47-47ac-b435-ef470573da2e",[418],{"id":419,"data":420,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"7c5f5521-6f82-443a-a211-b42a04a2aab5",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":421,"multiChoiceCorrect":423,"multiChoiceIncorrect":426,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":398,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[422],"What are two notable examples of conflicts in the Middle East that were driven (in part) by disputes over oil resources?",[424,425],"The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)","The Gulf War (1990-1991)",[427,428],"The Six-Day War (1967)","The Arab Revolt (1916)",{"id":430,"data":431,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":434},"1f0d8999-f08d-468a-8e6b-2f3f1b170b82",{"type":33,"markdownContent":432,"audioMediaId":433},"Moving forward, the future of oil is uncertain, as the world increasingly focuses on renewable energy, and seeks to mitigate the impacts of climate change. This shift towards cleaner energy sources poses challenges for oil-producing countries, as it could lead to a decline in demand for oil and a fall in oil prices.\n\nHowever, these countries still have time to adapt. Saudi Arabia, for example, has made clean energy a central tenet of its Vision 2030: a plan to diversify the Saudi economy and prepare for a post-oil future.\n\n![Graph](image://58b15564-9216-47b4-93b1-f80b2ee59b5d \"Vision 2030. Image: saudivision2030, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nIt remains to be seen what will happen to unions like the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) in a post-oil world.","aa67db78-3882-4ea6-836d-5d0a4416a337",[435,446,457],{"id":95,"data":436,"type":51,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":19},{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"collapsingSiblings":437,"multiChoiceQuestion":438,"multiChoiceCorrect":440,"multiChoiceIncorrect":441,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6,"orderAxisType":33,"orderQuestion":442,"orderItems":443},[92,96,97],[439],"When was the formation of OAPEC?",[104],[101,103,105],[107],[444],{"label":445,"reveal":104,"sortOrder":19},"Formation of OAPEC",{"id":447,"data":448,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"cde0cb68-99be-4b8c-8747-fd30b9949076",{"type":51,"reviewType":19,"spacingBehaviour":33,"multiChoiceQuestion":449,"multiChoiceCorrect":451,"multiChoiceIncorrect":453,"multiChoiceMultiSelect":6,"multiChoiceRevealAnswerOption":6},[450],"What term is often used for countries like Saudi Arabia and the UAE?",[452],"Petrostate",[454,455,456],"Oilstate","Fuelstate","None of these",{"id":458,"data":459,"type":51,"version":33,"maxContentLevel":19},"0bfc6af0-1990-4a6d-9846-7ed5d4412a15",{"type":51,"reviewType":33,"spacingBehaviour":33,"activeRecallQuestion":460,"activeRecallAnswers":462},[461],"The future of oil is uncertain. What is the name of Saudi Arabia's plan to diversify their economy moving forwards?",[463],"Vision 2030",[465,566,733,817],{"id":22,"data":23,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":26,"introPage":34,"pages":466},[467,494,531],{"id":43,"data":44,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":47,"parsed":468},{"data":469,"body":472,"toc":492},{"title":470,"description":471},"","In this pathway so far, we've talked a lot about Arab movements, like the Arab Revolt in 1916, and the various coalitions of Arab countries that have gone to war against Israel. Now, it's time to look at the ideology that powered these movements: something called Arab Nationalism.",{"type":473,"children":474},"root",[475,482,487],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":478,"children":479},"element","p",{},[480],{"type":481,"value":471},"text",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":483,"children":484},{},[485],{"type":481,"value":486},"Arab Nationalism advocates for the political unity of Arab people and countries. This ideology is rooted in the belief that all Arabs, regardless of their individual nationalities, share a common cultural and historical heritage.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":488,"children":489},{},[490],{"type":481,"value":491},"The Arabic language, in particular, is an important unifying factor, serving as a symbol of shared identity and a tool for political mobilization. Sati’ al-Husri, one of the 20th Century’s foremost Arab Nationalist thinkers, wrote that 'People who spoke a unitary language, have one heart and a common soul.'",{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":493},[],{"id":69,"data":70,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":73,"parsed":495},{"data":496,"body":498,"toc":529},{"title":470,"description":497},"The birth of Arab Nationalism is often associated with the Nahda, or Arab Renaissance, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.",{"type":473,"children":499},[500,504,509,514,519],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":501,"children":502},{},[503],{"type":481,"value":497},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":505,"children":506},{},[507],{"type":481,"value":508},"This was a period of intellectual and cultural revival, during which Arab scholars and intellectuals began to articulate ideas of Arab unity and independence.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":510,"children":511},{},[512],{"type":481,"value":513},"The early development of Arab Nationalism was influenced by the desire for independence from Ottoman rule. As the Ottoman Empire weakened, Arab intellectuals began to call for self-determination and political autonomy.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":515,"children":516},{},[517],{"type":481,"value":518},"This desire for independence was a key driving force behind the emergence of Arab Nationalism.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":520,"children":521},{},[522],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":524,"children":528},"img",{"alt":525,"src":526,"title":527},"Graph","image://8c7f97db-0546-4f2f-a7dc-2f9a6f42d43f","Arab nationalists in 1918. Image: Library of congress, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":530},[],{"id":86,"data":87,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":90,"parsed":532},{"data":533,"body":535,"toc":564},{"title":470,"description":534},"Despite the fact that they managed to throw off their Ottoman rulers after World War One, the situation only got worse for Arab nationalists.",{"type":473,"children":536},[537,541,546,554,559],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":538,"children":539},{},[540],{"type":481,"value":534},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":542,"children":543},{},[544],{"type":481,"value":545},"The Middle East was claimed by European powers, who proceeded to divide it into arbitrary territories, which went totally against the nationalist dream of a unified Arab nation.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":547,"children":548},{},[549],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":550,"children":553},{"alt":525,"src":551,"title":552},"image://f2969541-b224-4a2d-a08a-be2164b651a0","British control of Palestine. Image: AP, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":555,"children":556},{},[557],{"type":481,"value":558},"Things improved after World War Two, though, when the European colonial powers withdrew from the Middle East. As we've already talked about, this was a major turning point for Israel-Palestine, but it was also an important turning point for Arab Nationalism.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":560,"children":561},{},[562],{"type":481,"value":563},"The withdrawal of Europe saw countries like Egypt, Syria, and Iraq all regain their independence. This was exactly the kind of moment that Arabs had been waiting for.",{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":565},[],{"id":134,"data":135,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":137,"introPage":145,"pages":567},[568,606,633,668,698],{"id":153,"data":154,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":157,"parsed":569},{"data":570,"body":572,"toc":604},{"title":470,"description":571},"In the 1950s, a charismatic figure named Gamal Abdel Nasser became president of Egypt. He was a big proponent of Arab Nationalism, and dreamed of a powerful, unified Arab state.",{"type":473,"children":573},[574,578,586,591,596],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":575,"children":576},{},[577],{"type":481,"value":571},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":579,"children":580},{},[581],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":582,"children":585},{"alt":525,"src":583,"title":584},"image://eb86d560-42ce-4e22-b8b7-65917c425304","President Nasser. Image: Stevan Kragujevic, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":587,"children":588},{},[589],{"type":481,"value":590},"He also wanted to push for greater Arab autonomy on the international stage. Yes, the European colonial nations had officially withdrawn from the Middle East, but their influence could still be felt.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":592,"children":593},{},[594],{"type":481,"value":595},"The Suez Canal was an important example of lingering European influence. This important canal allowed ships to travel back-and-forth between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. And, while the canal officially ran through Egyptian territory, it was still owned by European shareholders.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":597,"children":598},{},[599],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":600,"children":603},{"alt":525,"src":601,"title":602},"image://27927ff5-c58d-4c3d-a45f-babb1c8a1025","Suez Canal. Image: 2130991likithgunadala, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":605},[],{"id":189,"data":190,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"parsed":607},{"data":608,"body":610,"toc":631},{"title":470,"description":609},"In 1956, President Nasser made a bold move. He declared that the Suez Canal was no longer the property of European shareholders; instead, he was nationalizing this body of water, giving Egypt total control.",{"type":473,"children":611},[612,616,621,626],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":613,"children":614},{},[615],{"type":481,"value":609},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":617,"children":618},{},[619],{"type":481,"value":620},"European nations, like Britain and France, were furious. But they didn't know how to retaliate. If they sent troops to Egypt, it would be frowned upon by the international community.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":622,"children":623},{},[624],{"type":481,"value":625},"In the end, they drew up a secret plan with Israel. In this plan, Israel would launch an attack on Egypt. When Egypt tried to defend itself, and a military conflict officially broke out, Britain and France would send in some troops on an official peace-keeping mission.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":627,"children":628},{},[629],{"type":481,"value":630},"When they got there... these peace-keeping troops would also try to reclaim the Suez Canal.",{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":632},[],{"id":194,"data":195,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":198,"parsed":634},{"data":635,"body":637,"toc":666},{"title":470,"description":636},"The Suez Crisis, as this event became known, was one of the most significant geopolitical events of the 20th century.",{"type":473,"children":638},[639,643,648,656,661],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":640,"children":641},{},[642],{"type":481,"value":636},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":644,"children":645},{},[646],{"type":481,"value":647},"Thousands of people were killed in the clash between Egyptian forces, and the allied powers of Israel, Britain and France.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":649,"children":650},{},[651],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":652,"children":655},{"alt":525,"src":653,"title":654},"image://0a79350f-9b08-4ccc-84ff-5f56d67930a3","Tanks during the Suez Crisis. Image: United States Army Heritage and Education Center, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":657,"children":658},{},[659],{"type":481,"value":660},"But the secret plan to reclaim the canal didn't even work. The international community saw right through it, and demanded that Britain, France and Israel immediately withdraw their troops.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":662,"children":663},{},[664],{"type":481,"value":665},"These countries reluctantly agreed, leaving the Suez Canal in Egyptian hands. This was a significant milestone in Arab Nationalism's journey towards independence and sovereignty. It marked the end of foreign control over a crucial resource, and symbolized the rise of an Arab country as a significant player in the region.",{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":667},[],{"id":216,"data":217,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":220,"parsed":669},{"data":670,"body":672,"toc":696},{"title":470,"description":671},"Two years after the Suez Crisis, Nasser's next big step toward Arab Nationalism was the United Arab Republic.",{"type":473,"children":673},[674,678,683,691],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":675,"children":676},{},[677],{"type":481,"value":671},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":679,"children":680},{},[681],{"type":481,"value":682},"This was a political union between Egypt and Syria, which was unveiled in 1958. The union was actually Syria's idea – delegations from the country proposed it to Nasser, who agreed on the condition that he would be the leader of this unified state.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":684,"children":685},{},[686],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":687,"children":690},{"alt":525,"src":688,"title":689},"image://cefcac9b-327c-4154-82e4-0afabca07dbd","United Arab Republic flag. Image: Public domain",[],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":692,"children":693},{},[694],{"type":481,"value":695},"This union was the very first time that the ideals of Arab unity and independence had been turned into a political reality. According to historian Adeed Dawisha, the Arab world reacted in \"stunned amazement, which quickly turned into uncontrolled euphoria.\"",{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":697},[],{"id":233,"data":234,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":237,"parsed":699},{"data":700,"body":702,"toc":731},{"title":470,"description":701},"Unfortunately for proponents of Arab Nationalism, the United Arab Republic did not last for long.",{"type":473,"children":703},[704,708,713,718,723],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":705,"children":706},{},[707],{"type":481,"value":701},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":709,"children":710},{},[711],{"type":481,"value":712},"The Syrians felt short changed by the union – Egypt was doing better than them economically, politically and militarily. Some of the Syrians blamed this on Nasser, who seemed to be prioritizing Egypt (his home country) over Syria.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":714,"children":715},{},[716],{"type":481,"value":717},"In 1961, just three years after the United Arab Republic's formation, the Syrian military launched a coup d’état.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":719,"children":720},{},[721],{"type":481,"value":722},"Nasser might have retaliated, but he did not want to encourage fighting between Arabs. Instead, he accepted the dissolution of the United Arab Republic. This was a major blow for Arab Nationalists, who never again got so close to their dream of a single, unified state.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":724,"children":725},{},[726],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":727,"children":730},{"alt":525,"src":728,"title":729},"image://8cebdd11-6891-45aa-b096-0d1f0f5075fa","United Arab Republic. Image: Arab Hafez at English Wikipedia, CC BY-SA 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":732},[],{"id":277,"data":278,"type":24,"version":24,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":280,"introPage":287,"pages":734},[735,765,795],{"id":295,"data":296,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":299,"parsed":736},{"data":737,"body":739,"toc":763},{"title":470,"description":738},"In the late 20th century, Arab Nationalism had to compete with the rise of another new movement: Pan-Islamism. While both of these movements wanted to define the identity of the Arab world, they did so from different perspectives.",{"type":473,"children":740},[741,745,750,755],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":742,"children":743},{},[744],{"type":481,"value":738},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":746,"children":747},{},[748],{"type":481,"value":749},"As we've already talked about, Arab Nationalism emphasized unity on the basis of a shared culture. Pan-Islamism, on the other hand, emphasized unity on the basis of a shared religion. Its goal was also a unified state, but an Islamic state, not an Arab one.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":751,"children":752},{},[753],{"type":481,"value":754},"Its rise can be traced, in part, to the failure of the United Arab Republic. That project suggested that secular unity was doomed to fail, so some Arabs turned to religious unity instead.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":756,"children":757},{},[758],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":759,"children":762},{"alt":525,"src":760,"title":761},"image://a184159b-40b9-4d71-b88a-0a78973544a6","Mosque in Iran. Image: Hameddaeipic, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":764},[],{"id":311,"data":312,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":315,"parsed":766},{"data":767,"body":769,"toc":793},{"title":470,"description":768},"Pan-Islamism is often intertwined with a rejection of Western cultural ideals, which might be seen as a deviation from traditional Islamic principles. And in certain cases, anti-Western sentiment has been taken to extremes.",{"type":473,"children":770},[771,775,780,785],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":772,"children":773},{},[774],{"type":481,"value":768},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":776,"children":777},{},[778],{"type":481,"value":779},"In 1988, an organization named al-Qaeda was founded in Afghanistan. This group launched a series of violent attacks against the United States, who were seen as the ultimate symbol of Western culture.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":781,"children":782},{},[783],{"type":481,"value":784},"The most devastating of these was on September 11th 2001, when hijacked planes were flown into the World Trade Center in New York, and the Pentagon in Virginia. This single attack caused the death of almost 3000 American civilians.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":786,"children":787},{},[788],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":789,"children":792},{"alt":525,"src":790,"title":791},"image://d13afe9e-b0d5-4c8a-a0e8-1389f93f9252","The twin towers of the World Trade Center. Image: John VanderHaagen, CC BY 2.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":794},[],{"id":335,"data":336,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":339,"parsed":796},{"data":797,"body":799,"toc":815},{"title":470,"description":798},"Extremist Islamic organizations do not represent the Pan-Islamist movement as a whole. Even less do they represent followers of Islam, the vast majority of whom are horrified by extremist attacks. This is an important distinction to make: Pan-Islamism and Islam are not the same.",{"type":473,"children":800},[801,805,810],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":802,"children":803},{},[804],{"type":481,"value":798},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":806,"children":807},{},[808],{"type":481,"value":809},"But even though they're a minority, these groups have still become a fundamental part of the modern Middle Eastern landscape. Not just al-Qaeda, but also the Taliban in Afghanistan, and the Islamic State (often known as ISIS) which originally formed in Iraq.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":811,"children":812},{},[813],{"type":481,"value":814},"In many ways, they are a product of decades of Western interference in the region. Arab Nationalism was one attempt to mend the damage this interference caused. Islamism is another attempt – with extremist groups using violent terrorism as a way to further their cause.",{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":816},[],{"id":350,"data":351,"type":24,"version":19,"maxContentLevel":19,"summaryPage":353,"introPage":360,"pages":818},[819,849,879,917,947],{"id":368,"data":369,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":372,"parsed":820},{"data":821,"body":823,"toc":847},{"title":470,"description":822},"Arab Nationalism seeks to unify the people of the Middle East based on cultural similarities. Pan-Islamism has a similar objective, but takes a religious angle. And there's one more approach to Middle Eastern unity which we haven't talked about yet: economic.",{"type":473,"children":824},[825,829,834,842],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":826,"children":827},{},[828],{"type":481,"value":822},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":830,"children":831},{},[832],{"type":481,"value":833},"At the beginning of the 20th century, oil was discovered in this region. First in Persia (now Iran) in 1908, then again in Saudi Arabia in 1938. In later years, more oil was discovered in other nearby countries, like Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, and the area now known as the United Arab Emirates.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":835,"children":836},{},[837],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":838,"children":841},{"alt":525,"src":839,"title":840},"image://528ff9bc-509e-4a8a-a4dc-7ace163a3ae5","Oil rig. Image: aka4ajax, CC BY 3.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":843,"children":844},{},[845],{"type":481,"value":846},"This is part of the reason why foreign powers have shown so much interest in the Middle East. The region was thrust into the global spotlight – oil is one of the most sought after resources on Earth.",{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":848},[],{"id":382,"data":383,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":386,"parsed":850},{"data":851,"body":853,"toc":877},{"title":470,"description":852},"The Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) was established in 1968 by Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Libya.",{"type":473,"children":854},[855,859,864,869],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":856,"children":857},{},[858],{"type":481,"value":852},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":860,"children":861},{},[862],{"type":481,"value":863},"This organization wasn't the grand, Arab super-state envisioned by Arab Nationalists. But it can be viewed as another approach to Arab unity and autonomy. OAPEC aimed to coordinate and control petroleum policies among its Member Countries. This was a significant departure from the previous system, where prices were largely determined by Western companies.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":865,"children":866},{},[867],{"type":481,"value":868},"An important moment in the history of OAPEC was the 1973 oil embargo. This was a strategic decision to pause oil exports to Western countries, as a punishment for the fact that these countries had provided military aid to Israel during the Yom Kippur War. This embargo triggered an energy crisis in these Western nations, and emphasized the power of OAPEC on the global stage.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":870,"children":871},{},[872],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":873,"children":876},{"alt":525,"src":874,"title":875},"image://f73b0a40-b4f0-4215-bedc-f32eb6c4b95e","American cars queuing for oil during embargo. Image: National Archives at College Park, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":878},[],{"id":400,"data":401,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":404,"parsed":880},{"data":881,"body":883,"toc":915},{"title":470,"description":882},"Another union of nations, in 1972, saw seven small Middle Eastern kingdoms (Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Fujairah, Sharjah, Dubai, Umm al-Quwain and Ras al-Khaimah) officially come together as a single country: the United Arab Emirates (UAE).",{"type":473,"children":884},[885,889,897,902,907],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":886,"children":887},{},[888],{"type":481,"value":882},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":890,"children":891},{},[892],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":893,"children":896},{"alt":525,"src":894,"title":895},"image://d2b17e1a-bc9d-4a7d-8415-d91a60a71d4a","United Arab Emirates. Image: ERCC - Emergency Response Coordination Centre, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":898,"children":899},{},[900],{"type":481,"value":901},"The UAE is another example of a Middle Eastern country with oil reserves – and it has amassed a lot of wealth by trading these reserves with other parts of the world. The UAE, along with countries like Saudi Arabia, are sometimes referred to as 'petrostates', as a mark of the importance of oil and petroleum in their economies.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":903,"children":904},{},[905],{"type":481,"value":906},"In recent years, these petrostates have used their oil wealth to fund some extravagant projects. The UAE, for example, built the Burj Khalifa – the tallest building on the planet. This extravagance marks a significant shift for a nation which was relatively poor and humble just a century ago.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":908,"children":909},{},[910],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":911,"children":914},{"alt":525,"src":912,"title":913},"image://02529f97-74b8-458b-893c-f0e844dad7fe","Burj Khalifa. Image: Jpbowen, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":916},[],{"id":413,"data":414,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":24,"reviews":417,"parsed":918},{"data":919,"body":921,"toc":945},{"title":470,"description":920},"The Middle Eastern oil boom may have brought some examples of Arab unity, but it has also been a major cause of division.",{"type":473,"children":922},[923,927,932,940],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":924,"children":925},{},[926],{"type":481,"value":920},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":928,"children":929},{},[930],{"type":481,"value":931},"The strategic importance of oil, coupled with the region's complex political and ethnic dynamics, has made it a flashpoint for conflicts. The Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988) and the Gulf War (1990-1991) are notable examples of this. These wars were driven (in part) by territorial disputes, as neighboring nations fought for control over oil reserves and the massive revenues they generate.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":933,"children":934},{},[935],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":936,"children":939},{"alt":525,"src":937,"title":938},"image://f84dd86f-837c-4f2c-a979-f012bbbf37db","The Gulf War. Image: / IDF Spokesperson's Unit, CC BY-SA 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ via Wikimedia",[],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":941,"children":942},{},[943],{"type":481,"value":944},"These conflicts caused immense human suffering to Arab nations. The Iran-Iraq war, for example, left more than a million people dead.",{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":946},[],{"id":430,"data":431,"type":33,"maxContentLevel":19,"version":19,"reviews":434,"parsed":948},{"data":949,"body":951,"toc":975},{"title":470,"description":950},"Moving forward, the future of oil is uncertain, as the world increasingly focuses on renewable energy, and seeks to mitigate the impacts of climate change. This shift towards cleaner energy sources poses challenges for oil-producing countries, as it could lead to a decline in demand for oil and a fall in oil prices.",{"type":473,"children":952},[953,957,962,970],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":954,"children":955},{},[956],{"type":481,"value":950},{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":958,"children":959},{},[960],{"type":481,"value":961},"However, these countries still have time to adapt. Saudi Arabia, for example, has made clean energy a central tenet of its Vision 2030: a plan to diversify the Saudi economy and prepare for a post-oil future.",{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":963,"children":964},{},[965],{"type":476,"tag":523,"props":966,"children":969},{"alt":525,"src":967,"title":968},"image://58b15564-9216-47b4-93b1-f80b2ee59b5d","Vision 2030. Image: saudivision2030, CC BY-SA 4.0 \u003Chttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons",[],{"type":476,"tag":477,"props":971,"children":972},{},[973],{"type":481,"value":974},"It remains to be seen what will happen to unions like the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) in a post-oil world.",{"title":470,"searchDepth":24,"depth":24,"links":976},[],{"left":4,"top":4,"width":978,"height":978,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":979},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":978,"height":978,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":981},"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"M4 5h16M4 12h16M4 19h16\"/>",1778228196307]