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0.253475 253.041 0.15797C253.519 0.0529708 253.958 1.99446e-05 254.359 0Z\"\n fill=\"currentColor\" />\u003C/g>",{"id":13,"data":14,"type":15,"maxContentLevel":26,"version":27,"tiles":28},"354d0e77-7e01-41aa-9fbd-183f7711bb6a",{"type":15,"title":16,"tagline":17,"description":17,"featureImageSquare":18,"baseColor":19,"emoji":20,"shapePreference":21,"allowContentSuspension":22,"allowContentEdits":22,"editorsChoice":6,"accreditations":23,"certificatePriceLevel":25,"certificationTitle":16},8,"Linguistics","Have you ever wondered how language actually functions?","b6fb2045-736d-4d67-9f80-43240c9d40ad","#A79273","💬",1,true,[24],{"authority":21},2,9,5,[29,229,449,627,831,1030,1221,1351,1468],{"id":30,"data":31,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":35},"ad75a390-09c4-40e0-96aa-78d5eab1d770",{"type":26,"title":32,"tagline":33},"The Definition and History of Linguistics","The story of the study of linguistics from its earliest roots to today.",3,[36,90,162],{"id":37,"data":38,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":40},"22f3cb15-3386-4453-9f89-8b8dedc7c3cc",{"type":25,"title":39},"Foundations of Linguistics",[41,58,74],{"id":42,"data":43,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":47},"eeb057ab-f624-4e68-82e9-e7c95b55e696",{"type":21,"title":44,"markdownContent":45,"audioMediaId":46},"What is linguistics?","Linguistics is the scientific study of language. That doesn’t mean learning specific languages – it means studying language itself. Linguistics is the field that seeks to make sense of the structures, rules, and nuances of how we communicate with words.\n\n\nThe sounds we make, the patterns we follow, the way we use words to convey emotions, and our surroundings all have an impact on the way we communicate. All of these aspects are a part of linguistics, which is broken down into sub-fields like comparative linguistics, historical linguistics, sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics.\n\n ![Graph](image://4bd3017c-a694-4ad3-8dc6-72cef9483a57 \"The IBM 704 - the first computer to synthesize speech\")\n\nLinguistics has real-world applications that can make a difference in people's lives. Take speech recognition technology, for example. By leveraging the knowledge of linguistics, engineers are able to create systems that can transcribe spoken language into written text, opening up a world of possibilities for individuals with disabilities.\n\nThe study of language has also revealed incredible things about how we communicate, and the differences and similarities between cultures around the world.\n","4b23421c-efe8-4062-80ff-ddc10bef8021",[48],{"id":49,"data":50,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"7842e9a7-b35d-46fc-bfc7-5a133875778e",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":52,"binaryCorrect":54,"binaryIncorrect":56},11,[53],"Which of these is an accurate description of linguistics?",[55],"The scientific study of language",[57],"The learning of new languages",{"id":59,"data":60,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":64},"47668db5-9cf7-4018-8b92-8956572682f9",{"type":21,"title":61,"markdownContent":62,"audioMediaId":63},"Early roots: Language study in ancient civilizations","\nLinguistics has a long and rich history that dates back to ancient civilizations. Understanding that history is one of the best ways to introduce the core concepts that are important to the field. \n\nOne of the earliest known forms of language study can be traced back to ancient Sumer, where language was studied for its use in religious texts and hymns. \n\nThe Sumerians had a complex system of writing known as cuneiform, which was used to record their language and literature. In ancient Egypt, language was also studied for religious and literary purposes. \n\n ![Graph](image://fb474616-79f9-4ded-879f-6eaab23dc244 \"A tablet with inscriptions in cuneiform\")\n\nIn ancient India, the grammar of the Sanskrit language was codified by the grammarian Pāṇini in the 4th century BCE. His work, \"Aṣṭādhyāyī,\" is considered one of the most important works in the history of linguistics and the first formal grammar in the world. It is a detailed analysis of the phonetics, morphology, and syntax of the Sanskrit language, and it remains an important reference for linguists today.\n\n\n","43ee77e8-449a-4e54-8a49-5608e9cbd43b",[65],{"id":66,"data":67,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"bd1ab9ea-d6c7-41e0-b707-4824ede05b65",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":68,"binaryCorrect":70,"binaryIncorrect":72},[69],"Who is credited with developing the first formal study of grammar?",[71],"Pāṇini",[73],"Plato",{"id":75,"data":76,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":80},"4d27bcd3-a951-445a-a617-a981b1a53a75",{"type":21,"title":77,"markdownContent":78,"audioMediaId":79},"Medieval manuscripts: Linguistics in the Middle Ages","During the Middle Ages, the study of language and linguistics was closely tied to the study of manuscripts. These manuscripts were written by hand and were often used to preserve religious texts, classical literature, and works of history and science. \n\nThey were also used to transmit knowledge and preserve cultural heritage. One of the most important figures in the study of linguistics during the Middle Ages was the grammarian Donatus, author of the \"Ars Grammatica,\" a Latin grammar textbook that became the standard textbook for teaching Latin grammar in the Middle Ages. \n\n ![Graph](image://290618c0-b2b6-4605-b409-ad9d7cb54180 \"Pages from the Ars Grammatica\")\n\nHis work had a significant influence on the development of linguistic thought during the Middle Ages. Another important figure in the study of linguistics during the Middle Ages was Priscian, a 6th-century grammarian who wrote \"Institutiones Grammaticae,\" an extensive work on Latin grammar.\n\nHis work focused on the structure of the Latin language, and it provided a systematic and detailed analysis of the phonetics, morphology, and syntax of Latin.\n\nIn the Islamic world, Arabic became the dominant language for scholarly works during this period. Sibawayh, a Persian grammarian who lived in the 8th century, wrote \"Kitab al-Nahw,\" a comprehensive grammar of the Arabic language that was widely read and influential for centuries. \n","d9abb701-2811-40c4-8bb8-36e38dc2010c",[81],{"id":82,"data":83,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"75fa2e0d-326a-412e-8856-6e67e99a4f1e",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":84,"binaryCorrect":86,"binaryIncorrect":88},[85],"Who wrote the first systematic grammar of the Arabic language?",[87],"Sibawayh",[89],"Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi",{"id":91,"data":92,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":94},"979a9317-ea7f-4341-ab4a-4219f188216c",{"type":25,"title":93},"Historical Linguistics",[95,113,146],{"id":96,"data":97,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":101},"88cc79e6-9ef5-48f5-84b7-63e78ca00d19",{"type":21,"title":98,"markdownContent":99,"audioMediaId":100},"The development of the comparative method","Historical linguistics, also known as diachronic linguistics, is the study of how languages change over time. The comparative method is a key tool in the field and it has played a central role in the reconstruction of the history and relationships of languages. \n\nThe basic principle of the comparative method is that by comparing the words and grammar of related languages, we can reconstruct their common ancestor and infer how they have changed over time. \n\n ![Graph](image://68c4268b-bf4b-4158-b2f8-b6d35e89faa4 \"William Jones\")\n\nThe origins of the comparative method can be traced back to the 18th century, with the work of scholars such as William Jones. Jones observed similarities in vocabulary and grammar between a wide variety of languages, including Latin, Greek and Sanskrit, and argued that they were related in a genealogical way.\n\nThe comparative method was further developed in the 19th century. Linguists in this period systematically compared the words and grammar of related languages, such as the Germanic and Romance languages, to reconstruct their common ancestor and infer how they had changed over time. \n\nThis led to the discovery of the laws of sound change, such as Grimm's Law, which describes the regular correspondences between certain consonants in Germanic languages and other Indo-European languages. The comparative method has allowed linguists to almost entirely reconstruct the Proto-Indo European language.\n\n","58995af0-7082-45d2-b9dd-eb340ab74367",[102],{"id":103,"data":104,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"49a566d4-145b-4ec4-a816-9c8032deb033",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":105,"multiChoiceCorrect":107,"multiChoiceIncorrect":109},[106],"What discovery was made by 18th century scholar William Jones?",[108]," Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit were all descended from a common source",[110,111,112],"Finnish, Hebrew, and Latin were all descended from a common source","Phonetics is a science","The indigenous languages of North America shared similarities with Eastern Russian languages",{"id":114,"data":115,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":119},"1cf806e4-8bab-4d8b-b604-f4cefdd5578b",{"type":21,"title":116,"markdownContent":117,"audioMediaId":118},"Structural linguistics: Language as a system","Structuralism is a theoretical framework and method in the study of language that emerged in the early 20th century. It argued that meaning is created in language through the arbitrary interrelation of words, rather than stemming from any underlying universal sense of meaning. Put simply, it's the argument that words, and other symbols used by humans, only hold meaning due to their context. \n\n ![Graph](image://519480f0-c0d4-4e07-92c7-7e263aac6884 \"Ferdinand de Saussure\")\n\n\nOne of the key figures in the development of structuralism is Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist, and semiotician. Saussure's ideas, laid out in his posthumously published work \"Cours de Linguistique Générale\" (Course in General Linguistics), provided the foundation for structural linguistics. \n\nHe argued that language is a system of signs, where the sign is made up of two parts: the signifier, which is the sound or written form of the word, and the signified, which is the concept or meaning it represents. He also emphasized the importance of studying language as a system, rather than focusing on individual words or sentences. \n\nIn the 1960s, the development of structuralism in linguistics was challenged by the emergence of other approaches such as transformational-generative grammar and sociolinguistics. However, structuralist ideas continue to be influential in literary and cultural studies.\n\n","8a398198-c602-4fde-8586-847c300d91b5",[120,129,137],{"id":121,"data":122,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"6a8ca9cc-330e-4cac-8475-d8f8176b1208",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":123,"binaryCorrect":125,"binaryIncorrect":127},[124],"Which theory of linguistics emphasizes the difference between the signifier and the signified?",[126],"Structural linguistics",[128],"Universal grammar",{"id":130,"data":131,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"a0c4aa12-866b-4b09-9a60-d33953f04df4",{"type":51,"reviewType":132,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":133,"clozeWords":135},4,[134],"Ferdinand de Saussure is a key figure in the development of Structural linguistics.",[136],"Structural",{"id":138,"data":139,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"c09f7619-6ef6-493b-a5e8-7e9d15606ec1",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":140,"binaryCorrect":142,"binaryIncorrect":144},[141],"Which of these is an accurate description of structuralism?",[143],"The idea that meaning is created from an interdependent network of words",[145],"The idea that meaning is rooted in a universal language",{"id":147,"data":148,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":152},"e4324901-bd78-4f6b-864b-9662129f7e26",{"type":21,"title":149,"markdownContent":150,"audioMediaId":151},"The Prague school","The Prague School of linguistics was a group of linguists active in the early 20th century who expanded on the ideas of structuralism, particularly in the study of phonology and morphology. The group was led by scholars such as Roman Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy, and their work had a significant impact on the development of structuralism in linguistics. \n\nOne of the key contributions of the Prague School was the development of the theory of phoneme, which is the smallest unit of sound that can change the meaning of a word. Trubetzkoy proposed that phonemes can be analyzed in terms of their distinctive features, such as voicing or nasality, which are the properties that distinguish one phoneme from another. \n\n ![Graph](image://9cdbfae3-527b-41bf-a4c3-9b42489a4ee2 \"Roman Jakobson. Image: By Raulelgreco - Own work, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThis idea was further developed by Jakobson, who proposed that phonemes can be organized into a system of oppositions, where each phoneme is defined in relation to other phonemes in the system. \n","319cd64c-4e06-4bad-a432-206dd971c583",[153],{"id":154,"data":155,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"966f49b1-5900-424c-b17a-53abece97625",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":156,"binaryCorrect":158,"binaryIncorrect":160},[157],"What is the smallest unit of sound that can change the meaning of a word, according to the Prague School of Linguistics?",[159],"Phoneme",[161],"Syllable",{"id":163,"data":164,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":166},"b12bbc2d-cd40-421f-adf0-b054ed11c581",{"type":25,"title":165},"Modern Linguistic Theories",[167,180,198,215],{"id":168,"data":169,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":173},"de274e9c-fa2d-4b67-a345-c0746cdd8f4b",{"type":21,"title":170,"markdownContent":171,"audioMediaId":172},"Descriptive linguistics","Descriptive linguistics is a branch of linguistics that focuses on describing and analyzing the structure of language. This is as opposed to the more theoretical approaches of comparative and historical linguistics.\n\nOne of the key figures in the development of descriptive linguistics was Leonard Bloomfield, an American linguist who is considered one of the founders of structural linguistics. In his 1933 book \"Language\", Bloomfield argued that the study of language should be based on observable data, rather than on historical or comparative methods. \n\nThe study of Indigenous American languages played an important role in the development of descriptive linguistics, particularly in the United States. In the early 20th century, many linguists became interested in describing and analyzing the structures of Indigenous American languages, which were often understudied and endangered.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://9ce6311d-aaf2-4055-afb6-74bb64ed7c8e \"Benjamin Lee Whorf\")\n\nOne notable example of descriptive linguistics is the work of Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf, both of whom studied and described the structures of several Indigenous American languages. Their work was particularly influential in the development of the theory of linguistic relativity, which proposes that the structure of a language influences the way its speakers think and perceive the world.\n\n\n","dc4b9222-2a3b-4cb5-9c01-6edf5cabffd8",[174],{"id":175,"data":176,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"1d4f373a-d39f-4bf5-9d3e-6ee8bfa80c2e",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":177,"activeRecallAnswers":179},[178],"What branch of linguistics focuses on describing and analyzing the structure of language?",[170],{"id":181,"data":182,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":186},"a32cbc00-afe8-4571-ada3-d659fd071fa2",{"type":21,"title":183,"markdownContent":184,"audioMediaId":185},"Chomsky's revolution","The Chomskyan revolution in linguistics was a major shift in the study of language that took place in the mid-20th century. It was led by Noam Chomsky, an American linguist who is widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in the field. \n\n ![Graph](image://f8947cd1-c4aa-4e1e-ab70-49ab3e91ea01 \"Noam Chomsky\")\n\nAt the core of his revolution was the concept of generative grammar, which proposes that the ability to produce and understand language is innate and that it is based on a set of rules and principles that are hard-wired into the human mind. \n\nAccording to this view, children are not simply learning the words and structures of their native language through exposure and repetition, but are instead using their innate knowledge of language to actively construct and analyze the language they hear. \n\nThe central idea of generative grammar is that language is generated by a set of rules that are represented in the mind as a mental grammar. This mental grammar is responsible for producing and understanding linguistic expressions, and is seen as a product of human biology and evolution. \n","57d91d07-0c0c-402d-85fb-327223d52e93",[187],{"id":188,"data":189,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"c2f2f185-0042-44f9-9fe1-e561ea4344d4",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":190,"multiChoiceCorrect":192,"multiChoiceIncorrect":194},[191],"What concept proposed by Noam Chomsky states that language is innate and based on a set of rules hard-wired into the human mind?",[193],"Generative grammar",[195,196,197],"Innateness hypothesis","Language acquisition device","Cognitive science",{"id":199,"data":200,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":204},"9377f955-e2b1-4764-851b-7b886f748cd3",{"type":21,"title":201,"markdownContent":202,"audioMediaId":203},"The Linguistic Wars","The Linguistic Wars were a series of debates and controversies that took place in the field of linguistics during the 1960s and 1970s. At the center of these debates was a fundamental disagreement about the nature of language and the proper methodology for studying it. \n\nOn one hand, Noam Chomsky advocated for a generative approach to linguistics. Chomsky believed that language is innate to the human mind, and that the rules of grammar are hardwired into our brains. \n\n ![Graph](image://6f86af92-feb3-4581-a2e3-058f378908ea \"Haj Ross\")\n\nHe proposed the idea of a \"universal grammar\" that all languages share, and argued that the goal of linguistics should be to uncover the underlying rules of this universal grammar.\n\nOn the other hand, a group of linguists took a more empiricist approach to the study of language. This group included Paul Postal, Haj Ross, George Lakoff, and James McCawley. Their approach came to be known as \"generative semantics.\" They argued that Chomsky's approach was too abstract and failed to take into account the actual usage of language in real-world contexts. They emphasized the importance of studying the actual data of language.\n\nChomsky argued that semantics was secondary to syntax, and that the meaning of a sentence can be derived from its deep structure. His critics, on the other hand, argued that semantics was primary and that the syntax of a sentence was derived from its meaning. This debate continues to dominate linguistics in the 21st century.\n\n","7697b756-2898-4bbd-a811-14cf2b6075ac",[205],{"id":206,"data":207,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"49e33dbc-dcd7-4f48-a40d-10512c15a3af",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":208,"multiChoiceCorrect":210,"multiChoiceIncorrect":212},[209],"What is the name of the approach to linguistics that emphasizes the importance of studying the actual data of language?",[211],"Generative semantics",[213,128,214],"Generative approach","Empiricist approach",{"id":216,"data":217,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":221},"6f86883a-b1cd-4568-934e-6729d31ca5e8",{"type":21,"title":218,"markdownContent":219,"audioMediaId":220},"Linguistics in the 21st century","\nLinguistics has come a long way since its inception as a discipline, and new directions and cutting-edge research continue to push the boundaries of our understanding of language. \n\nOne of the most exciting research areas today is the study of linguistic diversity and endangered languages. With the rise of globalization and the spread of dominant languages, many smaller and less widely spoken languages are at risk of extinction. Linguists are working to document and preserve these endangered languages.\n\nAnother area of research that is of great interest is the relationship between language and the brain. Advances in neuroimaging techniques have allowed researchers to study the brain's response to language in real-time, and to understand the neural mechanisms that underlie language processing.","54e5f70e-af58-4eda-964a-2d0db81c7a77",[222],{"id":223,"data":224,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"675550b0-7531-48dd-b616-48a5c4dcc582",{"type":51,"reviewType":132,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":225,"clozeWords":227},[226],"Advances in neuroimaging have allowed researchers to study the brain's responses to language in real time.",[228],"neuroimaging",{"id":230,"data":231,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":234},"c44eb4f6-b2f3-4ce9-8032-f7464c081f7a",{"type":26,"title":232,"tagline":233},"Phonetics and Phonology","The key principles that underly the study of linguistics.",[235,309,400],{"id":236,"data":237,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":239},"adc18673-626b-4c6d-ba9a-5e20e2deb139",{"type":25,"title":238},"Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology",[240,263,277,295],{"id":241,"data":242,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":246},"65d3a986-7a86-4978-9267-56531fef921a",{"type":21,"title":243,"markdownContent":244,"audioMediaId":245},"Defining phonetics","Phonetics and phonology are two subfields of linguistics that study the sounds of language. While both fields are concerned with the sounds of language, they differ in their scope and focus. Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. \n\n ![Graph](image://b57b962b-024e-4ee0-b528-0e58b3ace81e \"A spectrogram of the sounds produced by a violin\")\n\nIt is concerned with how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived by the human auditory system. Phonetics is an experimental science that uses a range of tools and techniques to measure and analyze the physical properties of speech sounds, including spectrograms, speech synthesizers, and articulatory models.\n\nPhonology, on the other hand, is the study of the abstract, mental representations of speech sounds that are used by speakers of a language. It is concerned with the ways in which speech sounds are organized and patterned in a language, and the rules that govern their use. \n\nPhonology deals with the sound patterns of a language at the level of mental representations, rather than the physical properties of speech sounds. \n\nWhile phonetics deals with the physical properties of speech sounds, phonology is concerned with the mental categorization and patterning of those sounds.\n\n","dbf082c3-82d2-4e90-87d6-23864fb1eaba",[247,256],{"id":248,"data":249,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"54617256-87d0-4a9b-aba8-0d46e2d05cad",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":250,"binaryCorrect":252,"binaryIncorrect":254},[251],"What is the study of the abstract, mental representations of speech sounds called?",[253],"Phonology",[255],"Phonetics",{"id":257,"data":258,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"89693b93-66c4-4a5a-9b1d-92ebfc192723",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":259,"binaryCorrect":261,"binaryIncorrect":262},[260],"What is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds called?",[255],[253],{"id":264,"data":265,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":269},"ba0e7f8b-99c3-4dcd-8a2f-9334f96057ae",{"type":21,"title":266,"markdownContent":267,"audioMediaId":268},"Articulatory, acoustic, and auditory phonetics","Phonetics is traditionally divided into three subfields: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. \n\nArticulatory phonetics is concerned with the way speech sounds are produced in the human vocal tract, including the movements and positioning of the articulators, such as the lips, tongue, and jaw, that are used to produce speech sounds. \n\n ![Graph](image://d86c5261-4cec-4d9c-8b6b-1933cb06e6c4 \"An x-ray image of speech articulation\")\n\nArticulatory phonetics uses techniques such as x-ray recordings and electromagnetic articulography to study the movements of the articulators and to understand how speech sounds are produced.\n\nAcoustic phonetics is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds as they are transmitted through the air. It is concerned with the way that speech sounds are represented in the acoustic signal, including their frequency and amplitude, and the way that they change over time. Acoustic phonetics uses techniques such as spectrograms and acoustic analysis software to study the acoustic properties of speech sounds.\n\nAuditory phonetics is concerned with the way that speech sounds are perceived by the human auditory system. It is concerned with the way that speech sounds are transformed from the acoustic signal into a representation in the auditory system, and the way that this representation is processed by the brain to form the perception of speech sounds. \n\nAuditory phonetics uses techniques such as psychoacoustic experiments and brain imaging to study the way that speech sounds are perceived by the human auditory system.\n\n\n","09b6670a-602b-4494-9472-c9b9a1d0731c",[270],{"id":271,"data":272,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"63a4ed07-2144-4a49-94e2-bc020b3677c5",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":273,"activeRecallAnswers":275},[274],"What subfield of phonetics is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds as they are transmitted through the air?",[276],"Acoustic phonetics",{"id":278,"data":279,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":283},"ed70d6ae-befd-446e-977a-f2d1def744d0",{"type":21,"title":280,"markdownContent":281,"audioMediaId":282},"Phonetic transcription","Phonetic transcription is the representation of speech sounds in written form, using symbols to represent specific sounds. The goal of phonetic transcription is to accurately capture the pronunciation of a word or speech sound, so that it can be easily recognized and understood by someone who is familiar with the transcription system being used. \n\nThere are several different systems of phonetic transcription, each with its own set of symbols and conventions. The most widely used system is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which is used by linguists and speech-language pathologists to describe the sounds of the world's languages. In IPA transcription, each symbol represents a specific speech sound, or phoneme. \n\n ![Graph](image://fb502525-3d98-429c-9f2b-6d5e318b3664 \"The international phonetic alphabet. Image: International Phonetic Association, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nFor example, the symbol \"p\" represents the voiceless bilabial plosive sound, which is produced by pressing the lips together and quickly releasing the air pressure to create a burst of sound.\n\nIn English, \"a\" in \"about\", \"e\" in \"taken\", \"i\" in \"pencil\", \"o\" in \"memory\", and \"u\" in \"supply\" all represent the same sound: the unstressed central vowel known as schwa. In Albanian, the same sound is represented with \"ë\". \n\nThus, one sound can be represented in drastically different ways across different languages and even in the same language. In the IPA, the schwa is represented with \"ə\". By using one standardized transcription, linguists working on different languages can communicate easily without having to rely on the vagaries and idiosyncrasies of the individual languages' spelling conventions.\n\n","c6c6f52f-1888-4b26-ac83-7bc7303ae333",[284],{"id":285,"data":286,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"f2247b80-b178-483c-9ff8-8ce1e57c9cd5",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":287,"multiChoiceCorrect":289,"multiChoiceIncorrect":291},[288],"What is the most widely used system of phonetic transcription?",[290],"International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)",[292,293,294],"American Phonetic Alphabet (APA)","British Phonetic Alphabet (BPA)","Canadian Phonetic Alphabet (CPA)",{"id":296,"data":297,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":301},"0fc0d92f-2f43-42f5-8046-63f1cb14f5bc",{"type":21,"title":298,"markdownContent":299,"audioMediaId":300},"Phonetic features of speech sounds","\n ![Graph](image://53c32f0c-6c3e-44c1-a560-da0b178efa5d \"The anatomy of the vocal tract\")\n\nPhonetic features of speech sounds are the basic properties of speech sounds that are relevant for capturing the distinctive sounds of a language. Phonetic features are classified into three main categories: the place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing.\n\nPlace of articulation refers to the location in the vocal tract where two articulators come into contact or proximity to produce a speech sound. For example, sounds produced with the tongue touching the alveolar ridge (the area just behind the upper teeth), such as \"t\", \"d\", and \"n\", are said to have an alveolar place of articulation. \n\nSome other places of articulation include bilabial (lips, e.g. \"p\", \"b\", \"m\"), labiodental (lips and upper teeth, e.g. \"f\", \"v\"), dental (tongue and upper teeth, e.g. \"th\"), velar (tongue and soft palate, e.g. \"k\", \"g\"), and glottal (vocal cords).\n\nManner of articulation refers to the way in which two articulators interact to produce a speech sound. For example, sounds produced by a complete closure of the vocal tract, such as \"p\", \"d\", or \"k\", are said to have a plosive (or stop) manner of articulation.\n\nVoicing refers to the vibration of the vocal cords during the production of a speech sound. Sounds produced with the vocal cords vibrating are said to be voiced, while sounds produced without vocal cord vibration are said to be unvoiced.\n\n\n\n","6af6e484-7507-4bae-8f5c-01f611aae604",[302],{"id":303,"data":304,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"e2139b5e-5f0f-482f-b2f1-374e957d672f",{"type":51,"reviewType":132,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":305,"clozeWords":307},[306],"The three main features that distinguish different speech sounds are place of articulation, manner of articulation, and voicing",[308],"manner of articulation",{"id":310,"data":311,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":313},"04d5bba5-1903-4886-80e4-bf73a3641562",{"type":25,"title":312},"Phonological Concepts and Rules",[314,329,345,382],{"id":315,"data":316,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":320},"9fa603d7-4d6e-4545-8fab-67d01855fbe2",{"type":21,"title":317,"markdownContent":318,"audioMediaId":319},"Phonemes, allophones, and phonological rules","Phonology is the study of the abstract, mental representations of speech sounds in a language. It deals with the systematic organization of speech sounds. There are several basic concepts in phonology that are essential for understanding the field. \n\nA phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that can change the meaning of a word. Phonemes are abstract entities, or mental representations of speech sounds that allow us to distinguish between different words. For example, the difference between the words \"pat\" and \"bat\" is a single phoneme, represented as \"p\" and \"b\".\n\nAn allophone is a particular realization of a phoneme in speech. Allophones are the physical speech sounds that we actually hear, and they vary depending on context. \n\nFor instance, the voiceless stops \"p\", \"t\", and \"k\" have different allophonic realizations in English depending on their position in a word. The sound \"t\" is aspirated, or pronounced more strongly, at the beginning of a word, as in \"top\", than after an \"s\", as in \"stop\". Try putting your palm in front of your mouth to feel the difference in the strength of the burst. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://87dff39f-c52f-4bb5-b22f-5d2eea596daa \"The parts of your vocal palate\")\n\nPhonologists use the symbol \"tʰ\" to represent the stronger (aspirated) sound (i.e. \"tʰop\" vs. \"stop\"). Thus, in English, \"tʰ\" is an allophone, or a contextual variation, of \"t\".\n\nA phonological rule is a general principle that governs the behavior of phonemes in a language. Phonological rules describe how phonemes combine and change in different contexts. For example, the rule which captures the English stop allophony discussed previously could be stated as \"at the beginning of a stressed syllable, voiceless stops become aspirated.\"\n\n\n","69ebd46f-1214-46ac-b8b9-44b1f39a0505",[321],{"id":322,"data":323,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"012059f3-fe6c-4729-96a0-da297206b670",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":324,"binaryCorrect":326,"binaryIncorrect":327},[325],"What is the smallest unit of sound that can change the meaning of a word?",[159],[328],"Allophone",{"id":330,"data":331,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":335},"4835ac59-63a8-41d3-9603-6edf32fd888d",{"type":21,"title":332,"markdownContent":333,"audioMediaId":334},"Phonological processes","Phonology is the study of the patterns of speech sounds in a language, and one of the key areas of investigation in phonology is the study of phonological processes. \n\nPhonological processes are the ways in which speech sounds are modified or altered to fit the patterns and rules of a particular language. Cross-linguistically common processes include assimilation, lenition, and epenthesis.\n\nAssimilation is a process by which a speech sound changes its place, manner, or quality to become more similar to a neighboring sound. For example, in English, the word \"input\" is usually pronounced as \"imput\", as the nasal \"n\" assimilates in place to following stop \"p\" and becomes \"m\".\n\nLenition is a process by which a speech sound becomes less strong or less pronounced. This often occurs in unstressed syllables, and involves the weakening of consonants. \n\nFor example, observe that the \"t\" in \"better\" is hardly ever realized as \"t\". Rather, it is typically a softer \"d\" sound (\"bedder\", common e.g. in the US) or a short pause (\"be-er\", common e.g. in the UK).\n\nEpenthesis is the process of inserting a sound into a word to make its pronunciation easier. For example, in English, the consonant \"p\" can be added in the word \"hamster\" between \"m\" and \"s\", making it sound like \"hampster\".\n\n","698f3ef1-b2ba-4885-8905-191a21a97b96",[336],{"id":337,"data":338,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"c46d6106-e585-4615-a484-8f14882484a9",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":339,"binaryCorrect":341,"binaryIncorrect":343},[340],"What is the process of a speech sound changing its place, manner, or quality to become more similar to a neighboring sound?",[342],"Assimilation",[344],"Lenition",{"id":346,"data":347,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":351},"a53d5136-b902-4590-8bfa-22ad6593e0d1",{"type":21,"title":348,"markdownContent":349,"audioMediaId":350},"Phonotactics and syllable structure","Phonotactics is the study of how sounds are put together to form syllables and words. It looks at the rules that govern which combinations of sounds can occur in a language, such as whether certain consonants or vowels can be followed by another sound. \n\nFor example, in English, a word can begin with the \"sp\" sequence, as in \"spy\". In Spanish, on the other hand, the \"sp\" sequence cannot occur at the beginning of a word. Hence, the English word \"spy\" is borrowed as \"espiar\", with the addition of the epenthetic \"e\" at the beginning of the word.\n\n ![Graph](image://100ec69c-0ac1-431b-9242-93d70b1fa585 \"Different syllable structures\")\n\nSyllable structure refers to the way in which syllables are formed within a language. A syllable is composed of three basic parts: the onset, the nucleus, and the coda. \n\nThe onset is all the consonants that precede the vowel in a syllable. The nucleus is the vowel. The coda comprises all the consonants that follow the nucleus. For example, in the word \"sixths\", \"s\" is the onset, \"i\" is the nucleus, and \"xths\" is the coda. \n\nNote that languages can place different restrictions on the different components of the syllable: While \"s\" can appear in the coda (e.g. \"less\"), there are no syllables in English that start with \"xths\".\n","af7bf374-a7be-40b9-b243-337da57945d7",[352,363,374],{"id":353,"data":354,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"56a5c2a3-6413-4dd1-ac81-adb4bb730998",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":355,"multiChoiceCorrect":357,"multiChoiceIncorrect":359},[356],"What are the three parts of a syllable?",[358],"Onset, nucleus, and coda",[360,361,362],"Vowel, consonant, and syllable","Prefix, root, and suffix","Initial, medial, and final",{"id":364,"data":365,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"57a25614-bf4e-4558-9268-6c0c218bd21f",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":366,"multiChoiceCorrect":368,"multiChoiceIncorrect":370},[367],"Which of these is a definition of phonotactics?",[369],"The study of how sounds are put together",[371,372,373],"The study of the history of language","The comparative study of phonetics","The study of how the tongue forms syllables",{"id":375,"data":376,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"626abb63-9a93-452b-b4d7-228b23580c75",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":377,"binaryCorrect":379,"binaryIncorrect":381},[378],"What is the study of how sounds are put together to form syllables and words called?",[380],"Phonotactics",[255],{"id":383,"data":384,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":388},"296d0d4b-dbb0-47f9-a954-e558b7f0b336",{"type":21,"title":385,"markdownContent":386,"audioMediaId":387},"Phonological diversity around the world","A wide variety of sound systems are found across different languages. Some of them are unique or uncommon, and provide valuable insights into the diversity of human language. \n\nFor instance, many African and Asian languages are tonal. In tonal languages, the meaning of a word can change depending on the tone used to pronounce it, with different tones indicating different grammatical or lexical meanings.\n\n\nIn Mandarin Chinese, the word \"ma\" can have four different meanings depending on the tone used to pronounce it: \"mā\" with a high flat tone means \"mother\", \"má\" with a rising tone means \"hemp\", \"mǎ\" with a dipping (falling and rising) tone means \"horse\", \"mà\" with a sharp falling tone means \"to scold\".\n\n\n","d3947cc9-4d4c-43b5-b574-61b46106f3e4",[389],{"id":390,"data":391,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"6284446b-000d-4c66-b8d2-ed282bd77a8a",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":392,"multiChoiceCorrect":394,"multiChoiceIncorrect":396},[393],"In which languages can the meaning of a word change depending on the tone used to pronounce it?",[395],"Tonal languages",[397,398,399],"Pulmonic languages","Ejective languages","Implosive languages",{"id":401,"data":402,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":404},"46f2c599-ab65-4971-ac66-2feb536156c4",{"type":25,"title":403},"Phonological Diversity and Suprasegmentals",[405,418,433],{"id":406,"data":407,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":410},"9dcb9429-4068-467e-8ec9-7b072073084e",{"type":21,"title":397,"markdownContent":408,"audioMediaId":409},"In European languages, consonants are almost exclusively pulmonic; this is to say, the airstream used for making those sounds is produced by air pressure from the lungs. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://2a9d2acc-8fa8-4135-bc95-0f05c1d634f4 \"An illustration of the glotis\")\n\nHowever, many of the world's languages also have ejective, implosive, and click consonants articulated by creating pressure in the oral cavity. Ejective consonants (found e.g. among the Afroasiatic and Mayan languages) are produced by constricting and raising the glottis, which creates pressure in the mouth and leads to a dramatic burst of air. \n\nImplosive consonants, widespread among the languages of Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia, are articulated by moving the glottis downward. Finally, some African languages, such as Xhosa and Zulu, are known for their unique use of click consonants, which are articulated with two closures in the mouth. \n\nClicks that English speakers may be familiar with include \"tsk-tsk!\" used to express disapproval or pity and the \"clip-clop\" sound made by children to imitate a horse's trotting.","7827f653-706b-4495-8ef3-14d6488dcdd1",[411],{"id":412,"data":413,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"c641fe6f-054f-41cd-83ff-e6485fa12398",{"type":51,"reviewType":132,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":414,"clozeWords":416},[415],"In European languages, consonants are almost exclusively pulmonic, meaning they are produced with air from the lungs.",[417],"pulmonic",{"id":419,"data":420,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":424},"e96f4936-6ed3-4ada-9b94-b477a74a746b",{"type":21,"title":421,"markdownContent":422,"audioMediaId":423},"Suprasegmental phonology: Stress and prosody","Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of linguistic units that extend beyond individual speech sounds, such as stress and prosody. Stress refers to the relative emphasis placed on certain syllables within a word. \n\nStress can be contrastive, which means that changing which syllable is emphasized can change the meaning of the word. For example, \"insight\" is stressed on the first syllable, and \"incite\" is stressed on the second syllable. The words have two different meanings despite having the exact same segmental features (i.e. same vowels and consonants).\n\nProsody refers to the melody, rhythm, and intonation of speech. It encompasses a range of linguistic features, including pitch, stress, and duration, and is used to convey meaning in ways that go beyond the words themselves. Prosody is important for conveying emotions, but also for signaling emphasis and making distinctions between different sentence types. For example, in English, declarative statements tend to have falling intonation at the ends of the sentence. \n\nYes/no questions tend to have rising intonation at the end of the sentence. Despite seeming very natural to English speakers, these intonational patterns are not universal. In some languages, for example, subordinate clauses have rising intonation, and yes/no questions are not distinguished from declarative sentences. Thus, prosody is a language-specific system for communicating meaning, just like vowels, consonants, and stress.\n\n\n\n","be63d19a-f9f7-4dbd-bb3b-d14f7c244def",[425],{"id":426,"data":427,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"b13b63a5-873c-4916-a7ea-5a36df7dba86",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":428,"binaryCorrect":430,"binaryIncorrect":432},[429],"What is the term used to describe the melody, rhythm, and intonation of speech?",[431],"Prosody",[255],{"id":434,"data":435,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":439},"a58319ca-2fdf-4241-8d6f-8d8bb1d7c044",{"type":21,"title":436,"markdownContent":437,"audioMediaId":438},"The phonology of sign languages","The phonology of sign languages refers to the study of the organization of the system of signs in sign languages, which are used by deaf communities as a means of communication. \n\nSign languages are complex and dynamic systems that share many similarities with spoken languages, including syntax, morphology, and phonology. In contrast to spoken languages, sign languages do not have a sound-based phonology, but rather a visual-spatial phonology. \n\n ![Graph](image://52ec537e-c17f-4aae-a436-f7b16b028292 \"A man speaks sign language\")\n\nThe basic unit of this phonology is the sign, which can be thought of as equivalent to a word in a spoken language. Signs are made up of a combination of handshapes, movements, and facial expressions, each of which contributes to the meaning of the sign.\n\nSign languages have a phonological structure that is similar to that of spoken languages. Just as spoken languages have phonemes (the smallest units of sound that convey a difference in meaning), sign languages have phonological units that are used to create meaning. \n\nFor example, changes in hand shape, movement, facial expression, or the location of the sign can change the meaning of a sign, just as changing or modifying a sound can change the meaning of a word in a spoken language. ","c4ff86c4-381c-4ccf-b762-9fc552354ca7",[440],{"id":441,"data":442,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"f6c17f42-4cf2-46ff-a3ab-8bf96d981bf5",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":443,"binaryCorrect":445,"binaryIncorrect":447},[444],"Sign languages have a phonological structure that is similar to that of spoken languages.",[446],"True",[448],"False",{"id":450,"data":451,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":454},"dfb5dc6a-ed60-4123-906d-4e268e744bea",{"type":26,"title":452,"tagline":453},"Morphology and Syntax","The study of the internal structure of words, and how they relate to one another in a sentence.",[455,538,591],{"id":456,"data":457,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":459},"aebc439a-1516-402a-a81a-d3697b5990f6",{"type":25,"title":458},"Understanding Morphology and Syntax",[460,476,494,510,525],{"id":461,"data":462,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":466},"ef93d89a-71bf-4b09-b11b-b4550f3d1a06",{"type":21,"title":463,"markdownContent":464,"audioMediaId":465},"Defining morphology and syntax","Morphology and syntax are two branches of linguistic study that focus on the structure of words and sentences, respectively. Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Words in a language can be composed of smaller units called morphemes, which are the smallest units of meaning in a language. For example, the word \"unhappiest\" is composed of three morphemes: \"un-\", \"happy-\", and \"-est\".\n\nSyntax, on the other hand, is the study of the rules that govern the way words are put together to form sentences. Syntax is concerned with how words are combined to form phrases and clauses, and how these phrases and clauses are combined to form complete sentences. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://65f760d7-1c40-4f8a-bf05-ca67587d282f \"A syntactical structure. Image: Ssavallia, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\n\nOne of the key concepts in syntax is the idea of a sentence being composed of a set of constituents, or building blocks, that are combined according to a set of rules. These rules specify the order in which the constituents appear in a sentence, as well as the relationships between them. For example, in English, the subject typically appears before the verb in a sentence, and the object typically appears after the verb.\n\nThe distinction between morphology and syntax can be seen in the way different languages express complex meanings. For example, Spanish uses suffixes such as \"-é\", \"-ás\", or \"-á\" to indicate future tense; \"comer\" means \"to eat\"; \"comeré\" means \"I will eat.\" This is an example of using a morphological process to convey a complex meaning. On the other hand, English uses a separate word \"will\" for the same purpose. \n\nThus, English expresses the future tense using syntactic means. Both morphology and syntax involve rules for combining elements within a language, but different languages use different means of expressing the same function (e.g. future tense).\n\n","23f605cc-20c1-484e-a9b7-f14fe35d57c8",[467],{"id":468,"data":469,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"e914bf46-2710-404e-aee6-824c8f70aa12",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":470,"binaryCorrect":472,"binaryIncorrect":474},[471],"What is the study of the rules that govern how words are put together to form sentences called?",[473],"Syntax",[475],"Morphology",{"id":477,"data":478,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":482},"88ca2187-e863-4c7c-8d67-513015aca96f",{"type":21,"title":479,"markdownContent":480,"audioMediaId":481},"Morphemes: The building blocks of words","Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language and are the building blocks of words. A single word can be composed of one or more morphemes. Morphemes can be divided into two categories: free morphemes and bound morphemes. Free morphemes are morphemes that can stand alone as words, such as \"dog\", \"run\", or \"tree\". Bound morphemes, on the other hand, cannot stand alone as words, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words, such as \"un-\" in \"unhappy\", \"-s\" in \"dogs\", or \"-ness\" in \"happiness\". \n\n ![Graph](image://038c72a4-89ca-4250-952b-8d5949514350 \"The adverb 'independently', broken down into its morphemes\")\n\nPrefixes are bound morphemes that are added to the beginning of a word, while suffixes are bound morphemes that are added to the end of a word. Morphemes carry meaning, and the meaning of a word is determined by the combination of its morphemes. For example, the prefix \"un-\" in \"unhappy\" negates the meaning of the word \"happy\", while the suffix \"-ness\" in \"happiness\" changes the word from an adjective to a noun.\n\nThe combination of morphemes into larger structures creates complex words. For example, the English word \"reapproval\" consists of three morphemes: \"re-\", \"approve\", and \"-al\". First, the prefix \"re-\", which means \"back\" or \"again\", combines with the verb \"approve\", yielding \"reapprove\", which means \"to approve again\". Then, the nominalizing suffix \"-al\" combines with the verb \"reapprove\", turning it into the noun \"reapproval\", which means \"the act of approving again\". This exemplifies how different combinations of morphemes can produce new words.\n\n","9593cf12-8cee-415f-8b90-e39d1e327fb8",[483],{"id":484,"data":485,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"cf633cc6-f683-45f1-8be1-3c8594a00d7f",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":486,"multiChoiceCorrect":488,"multiChoiceIncorrect":490},[487],"What are the two categories of morphemes?",[489],"Free and bound",[491,492,493],"Prefixes and suffixes","Words and phrases","Nouns and verbs",{"id":495,"data":496,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":500},"77b7f12c-5d8e-44b3-ba75-d9c651888e72",{"type":21,"title":497,"markdownContent":498,"audioMediaId":499},"Morphological processes","Morphological processes refer to the ways in which words are created, changed, or combined in a language. Prefixation involves adding a prefix to the beginning of a word in order to create a new word or change the meaning of an existing word. For example, the prefix \"un-\" can be added to the word \"happy\" to form the word \"unhappy\", which conveys a negative meaning. Suffixation involves adding a suffix to the end of a word in order to create a new word or change the meaning of an existing word. \n\nFor example, the suffix \"-ness\" can be added to the word \"happy\" to form the word \"happiness\", which conveys a noun form of the adjective \"happy\". Infixation involves adding a morpheme to the middle of a word in order to create a new word or change the meaning of an existing word. Infixation is relatively rare compared to prefixation and suffixation, but it is found in some languages, such as Tagalog and Malay, or Khmer. For example, in Khmer, the agentive infix \"-m-\" turns \"cam\" (\"to watch\") into \"cmam\" (\"watchman\").\n\nOther morphological processes include zero-derivation, compounding, and reduplication. Zero-derivation is a process whereby a word changes its part of speech without any change in form, as in the derivation of the verb \"to google\" from the noun \"Google\". Compounding involves combining two or more existing words into a single unit; for example, \"sunshine\" is composed of \"sun\" and \"shine\". Reduplication is another process that creates new forms by repeating a word or a part of an existing word. For instance, in Motu, \"mahuta\" means \"to sleep\" and \"mahutamahuta\" means \"to sleep constantly\". ","4e8d62a0-00bc-4be5-b677-7783008bc658",[501],{"id":502,"data":503,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"bb42085e-2ec1-4be5-9c65-95b3a89f92de",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":504,"binaryCorrect":506,"binaryIncorrect":508},[505],"What is the process of adding a morpheme to the middle of a word in order to create a new word or change the meaning of an existing word?",[507],"Infixation",[509],"Prefixation",{"id":511,"data":512,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":516},"dcb7fc35-a6b3-4ccc-9f9c-794035a4dc85",{"type":21,"title":513,"markdownContent":514,"audioMediaId":515},"Allomorphy and allomorph selection","Allomorphy is a term used in morphology to describe the phenomenon where a single morpheme can have multiple forms, each with a different phonological shape. Allomorphs are different forms of the same morpheme that occur in different contexts.\n\n ![Graph](image://1c66df6a-7377-4931-a907-5920df260e13 \"Oxen - an example of the rare English allomorph 'en'\")\n\nFor example, the allomorphs of the English plural suffix include \"-s\" (as in \"cats\"), \"-es\" (as in \"masses\"), \"-ren\" (as in \"children\"), and \"-en\" (as in \"oxen\"). Allomorph selection might be conditioned by various aspects of the language's grammar, including phonological or lexical factors. \n\nThe choice between \"-s\" and \"-es\" is phonological in nature. The allomorph \"-es\" is used when the word ends in a sibilant (\"hissy\") sound, including \"s\", \"z\", \"ch\", \"j\", \"sh\", and \"zh\", e.g. \"kisses\", \"churches\", or \"lashes\". The allomorph \"-s\" is used after all other sounds. The choice of \"-ren\" and \"-en\" is lexical. \n\nThis is to say, only specific exceptional words take those plural endings (e.g. \"children\", \"oxen\"). Unlike with \"-es\" and \"-s\", the choice of \"-ren\" or \"-en\" is not related to phonology, but determined by the particular word.\n\n\n\n","d2368d95-9adc-4a97-9d07-c35e2f2a6eb5",[517],{"id":518,"data":519,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"6f5e414e-3f9f-4c81-ad25-846b64397e84",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":520,"binaryCorrect":522,"binaryIncorrect":524},[521],"What term is used to describe the phenomenon where a single morpheme can have multiple forms?",[523],"Allomorphy",[475],{"id":526,"data":527,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":531},"a5be1f2a-b0b9-405a-9f22-866e9716cc6e",{"type":21,"title":528,"markdownContent":529,"audioMediaId":530},"Morphological typology","Morphological typology is the study of the way different languages form words. There are several different morphological types that have been identified in the study of language, including isolating, fusional, and agglutinative languages.\n\nIsolating languages are languages that express grammatical relationships through separate words, rather than through inflections. In an isolating language, words are not inflected for tense, number, gender, or other grammatical categories. For example, in Chinese and English, each word typically represents a single morpheme, and grammatical relationships are expressed through word order.\n\n ![Graph](image://262d4515-a2c7-404c-bbae-a6f492c6cc51 \"Cats - or 'kotom'\")\n\nFusional languages are languages that express multiple grammatical categories through a single inflection. For example, in Polish, \"kot\" means \"cat\" and \"kotom\" means \"to (the) cats\". Thus, the suffix \"-om\" indicates both that the noun is plural and that it is a recipient of an action. In a fusional language, a single form may contain information about multiple grammatical categories.\n\nAgglutinative languages are languages in which each morpheme represents a single grammatical category, and these morphemes are combined to form long words. For example, in Hungarian, the word for \"person\" is \"ember,\" plurality is expressed with the suffix \"-ek\", and recipients are marked with \"-nek\". The word \"embereknek\" contains all these parts and means \"to (the) people\".\n\n","74b877d1-ae2c-4f3f-aec8-09b87d57ab87",[532],{"id":533,"data":534,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"a041c9d2-3d6b-41ed-b50f-bafdc116a2ae",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":535,"activeRecallAnswers":537},[536],"What is the study of the way different languages form words called?",[528],{"id":539,"data":540,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":542},"5126474b-f8a6-433f-85c5-21242b3e6ea2",{"type":25,"title":541},"Exploring Sentence Structure",[543,559,575],{"id":544,"data":545,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":549},"604d2817-11e1-43b4-b941-74c51b8041d2",{"type":21,"title":546,"markdownContent":547,"audioMediaId":548},"Sentence structure: Phrases, clauses, arguments, and modifiers","Sentence structure refers to the arrangement of words and phrases that form a complete sentence in a language. Phrases are the building blocks of sentences. A phrase is a group of words that work together to convey a single idea, but do not form a complete sentence on their own. \n\nThere are several types of phrases, including noun phrases (e.g. \"the morning\"), prepositional phrases (e.g. \"in the morning\"), and verb phrases (e.g. \"ate breakfast in the morning\"). Noun phrases, for example, are made up of a noun and any of the adjectives and determiners associated with it.\n\nClauses are a step up in complexity from phrases. A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. There are two types of clauses: independent clauses and dependent clauses. Independent clauses, such as \"I ran\", can stand alone as a complete sentence, while dependent clauses, such as \"if I ran\", cannot.\n\nArguments and modifiers are important concepts in the analysis of phrasal structure. Arguments are phrases required by other words to form a grammatical sentence. For example, \"the\" never appears by itself; it needs to combine with a noun to form a noun phrase, e.g. \"the morning\". \n\n ![Graph](image://484adfcf-aafd-41cf-a3f1-a85006cf0da5 \"The morning\")\n\nThus, \"morning\" is an argument of \"the\". A modifier is a word or phrase that adds information to another word or phrase in a sentence, clarifying or refining its meaning. Modifiers can be adjectives (e.g. \"tall\"), adverbs (e.g. \"quickly\"), prepositional phrases (e.g. \"in the garden\"), and relative clauses (e.g. \"which I bought yesterday\").\n\n\n","4e92245b-fe29-4fc5-a7af-0eea4bf452a2",[550],{"id":551,"data":552,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"269b96f8-2dfb-452b-8c67-938b96383b20",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":553,"binaryCorrect":555,"binaryIncorrect":557},[554],"What are phrases that depend upon other words to form a grammatical sentence called?",[556],"Arguments",[558],"Modifiers",{"id":560,"data":561,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":565},"f83a8b08-3ecd-4ddb-ace5-c8b684db8c71",{"type":21,"title":562,"markdownContent":563,"audioMediaId":564},"Word order typology","Word order typology is the study of the ways in which different languages arrange the elements of a sentence, such as subjects, verbs, and objects. Some languages have a fixed word order, such as English or Chinese, where the subject-verb-object (SVO) order is the norm. \n\nOther languages, such as Japanese, Polish, or Latin, have a more flexible word order, with the subject, verb, and object able to appear in different positions within the sentence.\n\nThere are interesting asymmetries between different languages when it comes to word order. Around 40% of the world's languages use subject-verb-object (or SVO) as their basic word order. English belongs in this group, as this is the word order in basic sentences such as \"dogs chase cats\". \n\n ![Graph](image://8b3d47b4-2f9d-4181-b08d-7ec10487c0c9 \"Dogs chase cats - Subject verb object\")\n\nAnother 40% of the world's languages use the subject-object-verb (or SOV) order, i.e. \"dogs cats chase.\" Other words orders (VSO, VOS, OVS, and OSV) are much less frequent. These asymmetries reveal a cross-linguistic preference for subject-initial sentences and for the verb and the object to be close together.\n\nSome languages, such as Hungarian and Russian, have rich case systems, with nouns and pronouns taking different forms depending on their grammatical function within the sentence. In these languages, word order is often more flexible, as the case markers provide cues as to the grammatical function of each word. \n\nWord order typology also reveals patterns in language change over time; for example, many Indo-European languages have shifted from an SOV word order to an SVO one due to contact with other languages. \n\n","40f4d5c5-8fd7-425b-86c6-6f6f35d9d1d7",[566],{"id":567,"data":568,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"82a9a763-7df3-49ed-a6bb-46c2fbaa04f9",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":569,"binaryCorrect":571,"binaryIncorrect":573},[570],"What percentage of the world's languages use the subject-verb-object (SVO) word order?",[572],"40%",[574],"20%",{"id":576,"data":577,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":581},"7c1a8ced-c806-47b3-92de-4f12794e46bd",{"type":21,"title":578,"markdownContent":579,"audioMediaId":580},"Key theories and models of syntax","Several theories and models of syntax have been developed over the years. One of the earliest and most influential was Transformational Grammar, developed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s and 1960s. \n\n ![Graph](image://28e27165-8aaf-43d2-87d8-d5f44cca0c28 \"Noam Chomsky. Image: jeanbaptisteparis, CC BY-SA 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nAccording to this theory, syntax operates by means of transformations that take an underlying deep structure and produce a surface structure. The deep structure corresponds to the semantic content of a sentence, while the surface structure corresponds to its syntactic form. \n\nIn other words, Chomsky argued that the syntax we use is rooted deeply in the meaning of what we are trying to say. Syntax, argues Chomsky, is a universal phenomenon, and all languages share common elements of syntax. This means that syntax and grammar are a part of our biology. This is as opposed to the idea that syntax, and language generally, is purely rooted in culture and convention. \n\nIn recent years, there has been a move towards more usage-based models of syntax, such as Construction Grammar and Cognitive Grammar. These theories view syntax as a set of learned patterns that are used to construct sentences.\n\n","19a32298-6042-4949-9771-437766d3ef3f",[582],{"id":583,"data":584,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"31c5c8c2-208d-463d-aa86-2c276b216619",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":585,"binaryCorrect":587,"binaryIncorrect":589},[586],"Which of these is a more accurate representation of Noam Chomsky's views on syntax?",[588],"Syntax is innate and universal",[590],"Syntax is purely culturally constructed",{"id":592,"data":593,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":595},"4a14e4ee-b1c6-4adb-a766-0765917ded5d",{"type":25,"title":594},"Theories of Syntax",[596,613],{"id":597,"data":598,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":602},"b5c790fa-295c-4047-8c69-77851b18101e",{"type":21,"title":599,"markdownContent":600,"audioMediaId":601},"The Minimalist Program","The Minimalist Program (MP) is a framework within generative linguistics, developed by Noam Chomsky, that aims to explain the structure of natural language syntax in the simplest possible terms. \n\nIt builds on the foundations of Chomsky's earlier theories, such as Transformational Grammar, but takes a more minimalist approach by reducing the number of rules and principles involved in language syntax.\n\nThe central idea of the MP is that the ability to acquire and use language is based on a biologically determined capacity, referred to as the Universal Grammar (UG), which is common to all humans. One of the key features of the MP is its focus on economy principles, which seek to minimize the complexity of linguistic structures and to explain why certain structures are preferred over others.\n\nOverall, Chomsky's Minimalist Program provides a powerful framework for understanding the nature of human language and the mechanisms that govern it.\n\nWhile the MP has been subject to much critique and revision over the years, it continues to play a major role in shaping the direction of linguistic research and in shaping our understanding of the human capacity for language.","8ff4447c-10fc-4d42-bc4b-6ec64a081c98",[603],{"id":604,"data":605,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"935bb55b-812c-4e1b-81d0-882e27deb4e9",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":606,"multiChoiceCorrect":608,"multiChoiceIncorrect":609},[607],"What is the name of the framework within generative linguistics developed by Noam Chomsky?",[599],[610,611,612],"The Generative Program","The Transformational Program","The Universal Program",{"id":614,"data":615,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":619},"0d2f7212-e011-4052-af02-2fcf62f6df5b",{"type":21,"title":616,"markdownContent":617,"audioMediaId":618},"Construction Grammar and Cognitive Grammar","While Chomsky's Minimalist Program has been a dominant theory in the field of syntax for several decades, there are several alternative theories that have emerged in recent years that offer different perspectives on how syntax relates to other aspects of language. \n\nConstruction Grammar is one such alternative that has gained a significant following in recent years. Unlike Chomsky's Minimalist Program, which focuses on abstract rules and principles, Construction Grammar posits that syntax is rooted in specific examples of language use. \n\nIn other words, Construction Grammar claims that syntax is learned through exposure to a large number of concrete examples of language use, and that these examples can be represented as \"constructions\" that embody specific patterns of meaning and form.\n\nConstructions can be seen as the basic units of language, and all aspects of language, including syntax, semantics, and pragmatics as interconnected.\n\nCognitive Grammar is another theoretical alternative to the Chomskyan view of syntax. This theory views language as a cognitive process that reflects the underlying structure of thought. \n\nAccording to Cognitive Grammar, linguistic units such as words and phrases are not isolated entities, but are integrated into complex structures that reflect the way the speaker thinks about a particular situation.","ef873088-deed-4e4c-a8e4-913a96e02b30",[620],{"id":621,"data":622,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"f941cf0e-d385-4e3e-8177-7242702cc0b3",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":623,"activeRecallAnswers":625},[624],"What is an alternative to Chomsky's Minimalist Program that views language as a cognitive process that reflects the underlying structure of thought?",[626],"Cognitive Grammar",{"id":628,"data":629,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":632},"f7e85f3a-9006-45b6-8ab0-8c0f1ad189a0",{"type":26,"title":630,"tagline":631},"Historical and Areal Linguistics","How studying the history of language can shape our understanding of it.",[633,694,757],{"id":634,"data":635,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":637},"eaeb7dc7-0d1a-446e-a94f-db76afb6fccc",{"type":25,"title":636},"Foundations of Historical Linguistics",[638,656,672],{"id":639,"data":640,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":644},"b87851ce-dba1-40f7-977a-81227c5281dc",{"type":21,"title":641,"markdownContent":642,"audioMediaId":643},"The origins and development of historical linguistics","Historical linguistics deals with the study of language change and the development of languages over time. The origins of historical linguistics can be traced back to the 18th and 19th centuries, when European scholars began to systematically compare different languages and explore their relationships. \n\n ![Graph](image://6ba77c17-379d-4938-8428-c2ca777f693e \"Franz Bopp\")\n\nThese early linguists were motivated by the desire to understand the history of language and the relationships between different languages, as well as to establish linguistic methods for comparing languages and reconstructing their earlier forms.\n\nOne of the key figures in the development of historical linguistics was the German scholar Franz Bopp, who is often credited with founding the comparative method. The comparative method is a way of comparing the vocabulary, grammar, and sound systems of related languages in order to reconstruct the proto-language from which they evolved. \n\n\n","a73967bb-54a6-4df5-9724-06600a0c5c1d",[645],{"id":646,"data":647,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"c03a7bdf-e0a2-4121-b317-4896858f793f",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":648,"multiChoiceCorrect":650,"multiChoiceIncorrect":652},[649],"What is the name of the method developed by Franz Bopp to compare the vocabulary, grammar, and sound systems of related languages?",[651],"The comparative method",[653,654,655],"The historical method","The philological method","The reconstructive method",{"id":657,"data":658,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":662},"f95d372a-0281-497e-bafa-65fc2a09ab86",{"type":21,"title":659,"markdownContent":660,"audioMediaId":661},"The Neogrammarian approach","The Neogrammarians were a group of 19th-century linguists who advocated for a new approach to historical linguistics, emphasizing the importance of a scientific approach to the study of language change. \n\nThey rejected the idea that language change was driven by arbitrary or mystical forces, and instead argued that language change was subject to regular, predictable laws. The Neogrammarians sought to establish a set of objective criteria for reconstructing proto-languages and for tracing the development of individual languages over time.","ae7ee65f-d092-4995-8202-5e5205369f73",[663],{"id":664,"data":665,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"333ad6e0-e395-4231-bc54-35b0f7b2b7ff",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":666,"binaryCorrect":668,"binaryIncorrect":670},[667],"How did the Neogrammarians view linguistic change over time?",[669],"As subject to objective rules",[671],"As arbitrary",{"id":673,"data":674,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":677},"1d933645-66a5-4527-8fdf-0bb84c8b19c9",{"type":21,"title":651,"markdownContent":675,"audioMediaId":676},"The comparative method is a critical tool for reconstructing the histories of related languages and determining their genealogical relationships. In its simplest form, the comparative method involves comparing cognates, or words that have a common origin, across related languages. \n\n ![Graph](image://66eb32a6-3d7b-43f4-86aa-63d3afbb0902 \"Indo-European cognates of 'mother'\")\n\nFor example, English \"mother\" and German \"Mutter\" are cognates, and by comparing these words across the two languages, we can deduce that English and German are related and descended from a common ancestor language, Proto-Germanic.\n\nIn practice, the comparative method can be much more complex, as it requires scholars to make detailed comparisons across many words and sound changes, and to reconstruct the ancestral forms of words and sounds. It also requires the reconstruction of sound changes that have taken place over time, such as the Great Vowel Shift in English. \n\nThe comparative method has proven to be one of the most successful methods for reconstructing the histories of related languages, and it remains an essential tool for historical linguists. However, it does have its limitations, such as the requirement for large amounts of data and the challenge of accurately reconstructing the ancestral forms of words and sounds.\n\n","90810d9a-9510-4d3f-ae91-6f5cddaddb94",[678,687],{"id":679,"data":680,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"4a9f4e2f-371a-45eb-89bb-fb44a9d709eb",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":681,"binaryCorrect":683,"binaryIncorrect":685},[682],"'Mother' in English and 'Mutter' in German are examples of what kind of words?",[684],"Cognate",[686],"Synonym",{"id":688,"data":689,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"6029ee56-1859-42bc-82d7-0dee74b7d21f",{"type":51,"reviewType":132,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":690,"clozeWords":692},[691],"The comparative method is used to compare cognates across related languages.",[693],"cognates",{"id":695,"data":696,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":698},"7966668d-d281-43c2-8b80-885eeddc7749",{"type":25,"title":697},"Language Families and Evolution",[699,713,731],{"id":700,"data":701,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":705},"6a11ec52-f06a-49b5-8777-27f3fc3f98ec",{"type":21,"title":702,"markdownContent":703,"audioMediaId":704},"Language families and subfamilies","Language families are groups of languages that share a common ancestry and have developed from a common ancestral language. The study of language families and subfamilies helps linguists to understand the relationships between different languages, how they evolved over time, and how they have spread and changed in different parts of the world. \n\nLanguage families can be divided into subfamilies, which are groups of languages that share a more recent common ancestry. For example, the Indo-European language family is divided into several subfamilies, including Romance, Germanic, and Slavic.\n\nTo determine the relationships between languages, linguists use several methods, including comparative linguistics and the reconstruction of proto-languages. Comparative linguistics involves comparing the vocabulary and grammar of related languages to identify similarities and differences. The reconstruction of proto-languages involves the creation of a hypothetical ancestor language based on the similarities and differences between its descendants. ","d8ef3782-a5b3-4687-bb2e-5df7cd179401",[706],{"id":707,"data":708,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"4a68e2b0-6cb8-41ed-b57e-c5ec1a2c2184",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":709,"activeRecallAnswers":711},[710],"What is the study of language families and subfamilies called?",[712],"Comparative linguistics",{"id":714,"data":715,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":719},"ba3d03a2-6adb-4c5c-8723-c6d3dfc1b38b",{"type":21,"title":716,"markdownContent":717,"audioMediaId":718},"The rise and fall of glottochronology","Glottochronology was a method for estimating the time of divergence between languages based on the assumption that linguistic change occurs at a constant rate. \n\nIt was first introduced in the 1950s by Morris Swadesh, who proposed that certain basic vocabulary items (such as words for body parts, numbers, and relatives) are more resistant to change and that their lexical differences between languages can be used to measure time. \n\nGlottochronology uses a formula to calculate a rate of linguistic change, usually referred to as the \"Swadesh rate,\" based on the number of changes that have occurred between the languages being compared. The formula assumes that the number of changes in the vocabulary items over time is proportional to the elapsed time since the two languages diverged. This calculation was then used to estimate the amount of time that has passed since the two languages separated.\n\nHowever, glottochronology has faced significant criticism over the years. One of the main criticisms is that the method assumes a constant rate of linguistic change, which is not supported by empirical evidence. Overall, glottochronology is now largely considered to be very unreliable and is not widely used in the field of historical linguistics.","e9fedf1e-0504-4893-b0dd-ec7f4a3cbba0",[720],{"id":721,"data":722,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"1818621b-8672-426b-b8bb-57fd04cc97f1",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":723,"multiChoiceCorrect":725,"multiChoiceIncorrect":727},[724],"What is the name of the formula used to calculate a rate of linguistic change?",[726],"The Swadesh rate",[728,729,730],"The Glottochronology rate","The Lexical rate","The Vocabulary rate",{"id":732,"data":733,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":737},"2fd68870-8590-4047-9c15-5fbc79733abe",{"type":21,"title":734,"markdownContent":735,"audioMediaId":736},"Semantic drift","Semantic drift is a process of semantic change in which the meaning of a word shifts over time. Semantic drift can involve several different types of changes. Metaphor is a form of semantic drift in which a word is used to refer to something that it does not literally refer to, but that is similar in some way. \n\nFor example, the word “foot” was originally used to refer to the body part that allows us to stand and walk, but over time it came to be used metaphorically to refer to the bottom of a page or the base of a mountain as well. \n\n ![Graph](image://73625b20-feb4-4ba3-a302-a28357a0ae70 \"A European deer\")\n\nWidening involves a change whereby a word becomes more inclusive in its meaning. For example, the word \"deer\" originally referred only to the small, European species of deer, but over time it came to include all species of deer. \n\nNarrowing is a change in which a word's meaning becomes more specific or exclusive. For example, the word \"beast\" originally referred to any animal, but now it often refers to only wild or dangerous animals. \n\nIf a word undergoes amelioration, its meaning becomes more positive. For example, the word \"nice\" originally meant \"stupid\" or \"foolish\", but now it refers to someone or something that is pleasant, agreeable, or kind. In the course of pejoration, a word's meaning becomes more negative.\n\n","ec1c552f-ae6e-4b93-89ce-c55cdf6b5da8",[738,748],{"id":739,"data":740,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"2edeba66-731c-4647-97af-9223dd084492",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":741,"multiChoiceCorrect":743,"multiChoiceIncorrect":744},[742],"What is the process of semantic change in which the meaning of a word shifts over time called?",[734],[745,746,747],"Semantic change","Semantic shift","Semantic alteration",{"id":749,"data":750,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"3e9234a0-bcec-4562-93e7-8230b0719b36",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":751,"binaryCorrect":753,"binaryIncorrect":755},[752],"What type of semantic change involves a word becoming more inclusive in its meaning?",[754],"Widening",[756],"Metaphor",{"id":758,"data":759,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":761},"00288734-4366-4c22-9a78-aa40d2d024ce",{"type":25,"title":760},"Models of Language Change",[762,780,798,815],{"id":763,"data":764,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":768},"8fc391cf-f62a-4624-a248-e78c867d5f8a",{"type":21,"title":765,"markdownContent":766,"audioMediaId":767},"The tree model vs. the wave model","Two main models have been proposed to explain the evolution of languages: the tree model and the wave model. The tree model of the evolution of languages is based on the idea that languages develop in a branching pattern, much like a tree. \n\nIn this model, each branch represents a new language that has diverged from a common ancestor. This model assumes that the process of language divergence is gradual and that there is a clear line of descent from an ancestral language to its descendants. \n\nThe tree model also assumes that once a language has diverged from its ancestor, the two languages can no longer influence each other and evolve independently. This model is often used to reconstruct the relationships between different language families and subfamilies.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://7a845c0d-64c8-4705-b770-44f298c8c26c \"A depiction of the wave model. Image: Fred the Oyster, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nThe wave model of the evolution of languages is based on the idea that languages are not only influenced by the languages they have directly evolved from, but also by the languages they have come into contact with. \n\nIn this model, language change is seen as a wave of influence that spreads from one language to another. Unlike the tree model, the wave model does not assume a clear line of descent, but rather a more complex pattern of relationships between languages.\n\n\n","8f80478f-a737-440f-a52f-94437dedecce",[769],{"id":770,"data":771,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"c5930b57-1584-4cce-a850-6dae12792388",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":772,"multiChoiceCorrect":774,"multiChoiceIncorrect":776},[773],"What is the name of the model of language evolution that assumes languages develop in a branching pattern?",[775],"The tree model",[777,778,779],"The wave model","The branch model","The root model",{"id":781,"data":782,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":786},"f001eaea-2f67-4c7e-9a18-6dec18564a2e",{"type":21,"title":783,"markdownContent":784,"audioMediaId":785},"The impact of migration and trade on language evolution","Language contact occurs when speakers of different languages come into contact with each other, often as a result of migration, trade, colonialism, or other forms of intercultural exchange. \n\nThis contact can have a profound impact on the linguistic landscape, shaping the way that languages evolve and change over time. There are several different ways in which language contact can influence language change. \n\nFirst, speakers may borrow words, phrases, and even grammar patterns from the other language. This can result in the development of new linguistic features, or the introduction of new words into a language. \n\nSecond, when speakers of multiple languages interact, they may switch back and forth between languages, either within the same conversation or even within the same sentence. This can result in the creation of new linguistic forms, or the modification of existing linguistic forms, as speakers mix and match elements from different languages. \n\nThird, when speakers of multiple languages come into contact and are forced to communicate, they may create a new language, known as a creole or \"pidgin\". Creoles often emerge in situations of slavery, where speakers from different linguistic backgrounds are forced to communicate with each other. These languages typically blend elements from several different languages, and may also introduce new linguistic features.","a9264ef1-aa93-402e-906c-0dfc3815623b",[787],{"id":788,"data":789,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"92a9c893-3005-4989-bf08-9af7543e98e6",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":790,"multiChoiceCorrect":792,"multiChoiceIncorrect":794},[791],"What is the term used for when speakers of different languages come into contact with each other?",[793],"Language contact",[795,796,797],"Language exchange","Language shift","Language blending",{"id":799,"data":800,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":804},"2ed4eb3e-b769-491b-b839-2e0824cb583d",{"type":21,"title":801,"markdownContent":802,"audioMediaId":803},"Understanding linguistic divergence and convergence","Linguistic divergence refers to the process by which languages gradually become more different from one another over time, while linguistic convergence refers to the process by which languages become more similar to one another. \n\nLinguistic divergence is a natural and inevitable process that occurs as languages are passed down from generation to generation and as they are used in different social and cultural contexts. \n\nOver time, changes in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and other linguistic features can lead to the development of distinct dialects and eventually, separate languages. \n\nOn the other hand, linguistic convergence is a process by which languages become more similar to one another. This can occur as a result of language contact, which occurs when speakers of different languages interact with one another and their languages begin to influence one another. \n\nFor example, if two languages are spoken in close proximity to one another, the speakers of the two languages may begin to adopt vocabulary or grammar from one another, leading to the development of a pidgin language. This process of linguistic convergence can also occur through language transfer, which is the process by which a speaker of one language acquires and uses elements of another language. \n\n\n","aa661ae7-3f9f-40c5-bfda-21b4629b4ab1",[805],{"id":806,"data":807,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"0822a27c-980a-40f5-a0c7-7efd699348b7",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":808,"multiChoiceCorrect":810,"multiChoiceIncorrect":812},[809],"What is the process by which languages become more similar to one another called?",[811],"Linguistic convergence",[813,793,814],"Language transfer","Language standardization",{"id":816,"data":817,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":821},"d0105408-16d3-4fc5-b84c-9a9bb1ad6f86",{"type":21,"title":818,"markdownContent":819,"audioMediaId":820},"Phylogenetic methods in historical linguistics","Phylogenetic methodology in historical linguistics is an approach that uses evolutionary biology and computational tools to reconstruct the genealogy of languages. \n\nThis method is based on the assumption that languages change over time, just like biological organisms, and that these changes can be used to infer evolutionary relationships between languages. \n\nThese methods use a set of language data, such as vocabulary lists, and phonological and grammatical features, and compare them to reconstruct the evolutionary tree of languages. \n\nThe aim is to find the most likely evolutionary history of the languages being studied based on the similarities and differences among them.\n\nIn order to reconstruct the evolutionary tree, researchers first need to create a set of language data, usually a vocabulary list, and then compare this data across languages to find similarities and differences. The next step is to apply computational methods to this data to construct the evolutionary tree, which is a graphical representation of the relationships between languages over time.","9eb822c2-973b-44f7-98e2-b3d89d4cd9d7",[822],{"id":823,"data":824,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"e2930342-0567-4e60-9913-9af49a599420",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":825,"binaryCorrect":827,"binaryIncorrect":829},[826],"What is one of the key strengths of phylogenetic methods in historical linguistics?",[828],"Testing hypotheses about language relationships",[830],"Establishing phonologies",{"id":832,"data":833,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":836},"1d4e360a-f0df-4dbd-b46c-e4823e14f4ab",{"type":26,"title":834,"tagline":835},"Psycholinguistics and Language Acquisition","The role of psychology in language formation. ",[837,892,949],{"id":838,"data":839,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":841},"c1b71136-cd86-492f-9fa7-1be525b2aa99",{"type":25,"title":840},"Foundations of Psycholinguistics",[842,858,876],{"id":843,"data":844,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":848},"dd883d83-7d4e-476a-a929-52b2fc9f5661",{"type":21,"title":845,"markdownContent":846,"audioMediaId":847},"Defining psycholinguistics","Psycholinguistics is the study of how language is acquired, processed, and used by humans. It combines elements from linguistics, psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science to understand how people learn languages and use them in communication. \n\nPsycholinguists investigate topics such as language development in children, bilingualism, speech perception and production processes, reading comprehension strategies, memory for words and sentences, sentence processing mechanisms in adults with normal language abilities or those with aphasia or other disorders. They also explore the relationship between language acquisition and other cognitive functions such as problem solving skills or executive functioning.\n\nThe field of psycholinguistics has grown significantly over the past few decades due to advances in technology that allow researchers to measure brain activity while participants are engaged in various linguistic tasks. This has enabled scientists to gain insight into how different areas of the brain interact during language processing activities like listening comprehension or speaking aloud. ","99940129-67f2-4116-95ce-32f2a0ec70e0",[849],{"id":850,"data":851,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"02ef8d04-3bb6-49bd-92eb-4a63fc0e410d",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":852,"binaryCorrect":854,"binaryIncorrect":856},[853],"What research has revealed universal principles underlying all human languages which can be applied to foreign language instruction?",[855],"Psycholinguistics",[857],"Neurolinguistics",{"id":859,"data":860,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":864},"dadba73b-58cb-4b2a-90dd-27684a6e4e79",{"type":21,"title":861,"markdownContent":862,"audioMediaId":863},"Child language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis","Language development in early childhood is a fascinating area of study for psycholinguists. Children are able to acquire language at an astonishing rate, and the process by which they do so has been studied extensively.\n\n ![Graph](image://46fe02fb-96d0-4d80-bc75-ff020be1475a \"Children in the 'critical period' of language development\")\n\n\nStudying child language acquisition can help design more effective language teaching methods and to identify and address language-related difficulties in children. It can also help us understand how language shapes our thought process, and how thought shapes the way we use and learn language.\n\nThe critical period hypothesis in language acquisition suggests that there is a limited time frame during which an individual can acquire a first language with relative ease and without an accent. It states that there is a \"critical period\" during which language can be acquired with little effort and that after this period it becomes increasingly difficult and more effortful to acquire a new language. The critical period is generally considered to end around puberty, after which it becomes more difficult to acquire a native-like proficiency in a second language. \n","7d27a1d6-f6fe-4b5c-9ace-7582d72ccd31",[865],{"id":866,"data":867,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"aa600e2c-83a7-4ce3-b219-b04e2d5f35ea",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":868,"multiChoiceCorrect":870,"multiChoiceIncorrect":872},[869],"What is the time frame during which an individual can acquire a first language with relative ease and without an accent, according to the critical period hypothesis?",[871],"Before puberty",[873,874,875],"After puberty","Before adulthood","After adulthood",{"id":877,"data":878,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":882},"53c73eba-f685-4248-a3eb-5cfb0dff9d02",{"type":21,"title":879,"markdownContent":880,"audioMediaId":881},"The Wug Test","One important tool used to measure children's language acquisition is the Wug Test, developed by Jean Berko Gleason in the late 1950s. The test is designed to investigate the process of how children learn to form the plural forms of nouns. \n\n ![Graph](image://c8c30887-2d4c-46d0-a3c0-8cf7df4b3aca \"Jean Berko Gleason. Image: Jean Berko Gleason, CC BY-SA 3.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nIn the test, children are presented with pictures of a made-up creature called a \"wug\" and are asked to create a plural form of the word. \n\nThe results of the test showed that children, even as young as 2 years old, were able to form \"wugs\" as the plural form of the made-up word \"wug\" correctly. This shows that even very young children are capable of forming new words based on existing ones, demonstrating their ability to use abstract rules when constructing sentences and phrases.\n\nThe results of the Wug Test were used to support the \"nativist\" theory of language acquisition, according to which children actively construct the grammar of their language, rather than simply memorizing words and phrases they heard. \n\n","4f8f6ed4-2859-4476-abb4-55c311c88742",[883],{"id":884,"data":885,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"6cc321b8-8a80-4f5b-81c0-6e95c1e571db",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":886,"binaryCorrect":888,"binaryIncorrect":890},[887],"What did the Wug Test contribute to the field of language acquisition?",[889],"Evidence for the \"nativist\" theory of language acquisition",[891],"Evidence for the \"behaviorist\" theory of language acquisition",{"id":893,"data":894,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":896},"32709d2f-0d15-494f-9251-fd91a20e9253",{"type":25,"title":895},"Nature vs. Nurture in Language Acquisition",[897,915,931],{"id":898,"data":899,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":903},"36596b29-0b09-417e-a6af-a4fc88c29217",{"type":21,"title":900,"markdownContent":901,"audioMediaId":902},"Nature vs. nurture: Nativism and the poverty of the stimulus argument","The nature vs. nurture debate in language acquisition concerns whether language is primarily acquired through innate abilities or through environmental factors such as exposure and experience. \n\nChomsky's \"nativist\" theory of language, also known as the \"innateness hypothesis,\" argues that the ability to acquire language is innate, or hardwired into the human brain. \n\nAccording to this theory, children are born with a \"language acquisition device\" (LAD), which allows them to quickly and easily learn the rules of grammar for their native language(s). Chomsky posits that the LAD is a biologically determined mechanism that allows children to infer the rules of grammar from the limited input they receive, such as speech from their caregivers.\n\nOne key aspect of Chomsky's nativist theory is the idea that children are not only able to learn the rules of grammar but also to generate new sentences that they have never heard before. This supports the idea that children have an innate capacity for language, which allows them to go beyond the examples they receive in the input, and to form new grammatical structures.","40c84009-62d3-481e-abf3-d71f47c3a1d1",[904],{"id":905,"data":906,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"2f7d9549-657a-4e55-8b42-29b426b0ab8c",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":907,"multiChoiceCorrect":909,"multiChoiceIncorrect":911},[908],"According to Chomsky's nativist theory, what allows children to go beyond the examples they receive in the input and form new grammatical structures?",[910],"An innate capacity for language",[912,913,914],"A capacity for memorization","A capacity for imitation","A capacity for repetition",{"id":916,"data":917,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":921},"772beae0-89c3-4b56-b66d-a6484b42b9b8",{"type":21,"title":918,"markdownContent":919,"audioMediaId":920},"Nature vs. nurture: Empiricism and the role of social interaction","The \"empiricist\" theory of language acquisition argues that language is learned through exposure and experience, and that children's brains are not pre-wired for language. \n\nEmpiricists propose that children learn language through a process of imitation, reinforcement, and generalization. They also point to the fact that the environment and cultural experiences play a crucial role in shaping the way children learn and use language.\n\nEmpiricists argue that children learn language by listening to and imitating the speech of others. They learn the sounds, words, and phrases of their language and gradually build up their vocabulary and grammatical knowledge.\n\nEmpiricists also point out that children's language development is influenced by their environment and cultural experiences. For example, children who grow up in bilingual or multilingual environments will learn to speak different languages and will be exposed to different ways of using language. ","7003837c-8abe-4ffd-a41f-f35637ee4e8a",[922],{"id":923,"data":924,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"1479cfd5-7157-42c1-a737-b18f60fad89b",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":925,"binaryCorrect":927,"binaryIncorrect":929},[926],"What is the main argument of the empiricist theory of language acquisition?",[928],"Language is learned through exposure and experience",[930],"Language is innate and children's brains are pre-wired for language.",{"id":932,"data":933,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":937},"c1f9faa5-d30d-4edc-bcb0-2d000fe0810b",{"type":21,"title":934,"markdownContent":935,"audioMediaId":936},"Neurolinguistics: The intersection of language and neurology","Neurolinguistics is the study of the neural mechanisms in the brain that underlie the acquisition, representation, and processing of language. It combines linguistics, cognitive psychology, and neuroscience to understand how the brain processes language and how language is related to brain function. \n\nNeuroimaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have been used to map out areas of the brain associated with different aspects of language processing.","00b87d5e-b82a-4c76-b6ad-fb798a5ee3ff",[938],{"id":939,"data":940,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"bc2eda92-7128-41b9-ac25-abc9f43397bd",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":941,"multiChoiceCorrect":943,"multiChoiceIncorrect":945},[942],"What techniques are used to map out areas of the brain related to language processing?",[944],"Neuroimaging techniques such as fMRI",[946,947,948],"EEG","CAT scans","X-rays",{"id":950,"data":951,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":953},"7aa4e52d-6bc4-497d-8234-efddbcc0d263",{"type":25,"title":952},"Language Acquisition and Neurolinguistics",[954,970,996,1012],{"id":955,"data":956,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":960},"a9f533f9-b978-4944-8a86-46abb650bf32",{"type":21,"title":957,"markdownContent":958,"audioMediaId":959},"Second language acquisition: Key factors and challenges","Second language acquisition is a complex process that can be challenging for a number of reasons. \n\nFirst, acquiring a second language requires a significant amount of cognitive effort, as the learner must navigate new sounds, vocabulary, grammar, and social and cultural conventions. \n\nSecond, the first language can interfere with the acquisition of the second language, making it difficult for learners to distinguish between the two languages and to avoid transfer of the first language's structures. \n\nThird, children may have an advantage over adults in learning a second language as their brain is more plastic and more receptive to new languages. \n\nFourth, the motivation and attitude of the learner towards the target language, culture, and the learning process can have a big impact on the success of second language acquisition.","543a2c57-dc22-4af3-bcb2-85d8363d820c",[961],{"id":962,"data":963,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"1b84ced4-7d92-4c2a-a8fc-fef62f60da83",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":964,"binaryCorrect":966,"binaryIncorrect":968},[965],"What is the main focus of Input-based methods for second language learning?",[967],"Providing learners with a large amount of authentic input in the target language",[969],"Developing communicative competence",{"id":971,"data":972,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":976},"193e26e8-802a-4bed-9543-e3d492af0512",{"type":21,"title":973,"markdownContent":974,"audioMediaId":975},"Multilingualism and the brain","Research has shown that multilingualism can have a number of key impacts on the brain. Being able to speak multiple languages may lead to increased cognitive flexibility, which is the ability to switch between different mental tasks and adapt to different situations. \n\nThis can improve problem-solving and decision-making abilities. Executive functions are a set of cognitive processes that help us to plan, focus attention, remember instructions, and multitask. Studies have shown that multilingual individuals tend to have better executive functions than monolinguals. \n\nMultilingual individuals may have a delayed onset of age-related cognitive decline, such as dementia, which could be due to the cognitive benefits of multilingualism. Multilingualism may lead to increased neural plasticity, which is the ability of the brain to change and adapt in response to new experiences. \n\nThis increased plasticity may lead to enhanced language proficiency, as well as other cognitive benefits. Finally, multilinguals have to switch between different languages and inhibit the dominant one, in the appropriate context. This could help them develop better control over language, which improves their language proficiency.","e599bd6c-3ae9-4809-8db2-60396fc7e08d",[977,985],{"id":978,"data":979,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"2214b443-9445-4676-b4fa-72c7930242d6",{"type":51,"reviewType":132,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":980,"clozeWords":982},[981],"Research has shown that multilingualism can lead to increased cognitive flexibility, better executive functions, delayed onset of age-related cognitive decline, and improved language proficiency.",[983,984],"cognitive flexibility","executive",{"id":986,"data":987,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"888ae73f-1bcf-4e4f-84dc-7cc76413b415",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":988,"multiChoiceCorrect":990,"multiChoiceIncorrect":992},[989],"What is the ability to switch between different mental tasks and adapt to different situations called?",[991],"Cognitive flexibility",[993,994,995],"Neural plasticity","Executive functions","Age-related cognitive decline",{"id":997,"data":998,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1002},"b7446983-ccb9-40ff-91e7-18a9c9841155",{"type":21,"title":999,"markdownContent":1000,"audioMediaId":1001},"Disorders and impairments affecting language acquisition","Language disorders and impairments can have a significant impact on language acquisition. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is characterized by difficulties in social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors. \n\nChildren with ASD may have difficulty with pragmatic aspects of language and with understanding and producing language in a social context. Developmental Dyslexia involves difficulty in reading, despite normal intelligence and adequate educational opportunities. \n\nChildren with dyslexia may have difficulty with phonological processing, which can affect their ability to acquire and use language. Specific Language Impairment (SLI) is characterized by difficulties in acquiring, understanding, and using language that cannot be explained by general cognitive or developmental delays. Children with SLI may have difficulty with phonology, syntax, and semantics.\n\nFortunately, there are various strategies available that can help those with disabilities acquire language more effectively. Speech and Language Therapy involves working with a speech-language pathologist to improve language skills through activities such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing. \n\nAssistive Technology can include devices such as communication boards, apps, or text-to-speech software that can help individuals with language-related disabilities to communicate more effectively. Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) can include sign language, picture symbols, or written words to help individuals with language-related disabilities to express themselves. Adaptive teaching strategies can include using visual aids, manipulatives, and other materials. Social skills training includes teaching children with language-related disabilities how to initiate and maintain social interactions, as well as understanding and using nonverbal communication.","69710550-efb9-4ae5-8cfc-66a50d9b29cf",[1003],{"id":1004,"data":1005,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"9c9f7955-651f-4fb9-9284-9101eabda1f8",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1006,"binaryCorrect":1008,"binaryIncorrect":1010},[1007],"What is the acronym for a disorder characterized by difficulties in social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors?",[1009],"ASD",[1011],"SLI",{"id":1013,"data":1014,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1018},"dc6afb0b-576c-4dc6-9da5-5fdc35806033",{"type":21,"title":1015,"markdownContent":1016,"audioMediaId":1017},"Implications of psycholinguistics for education and language teaching","Psycholinguistic findings have a number of implications for education and language teaching. Research has shown that input-based methods, which focus on providing learners with a large amount of authentic input in the target language, are effective for language acquisition. This suggests that educators should provide learners with a wide range of authentic materials and opportunities to use the language in meaningful and functional ways.\n\nExplicit instruction, particularly in the areas of phonetics, phonology, vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, can be beneficial for language acquisition. This suggests that educators should provide learners with clear explanations and examples of language structures and conventions, as well as opportunities to practice and apply what they have learned.\n\nInteraction-based methods, which emphasize the importance of interaction between learners and native speakers or other fluent speakers of the target language, can be beneficial for language acquisition. This suggests that educators should provide learners with opportunities to communicate in the target language and receive immediate feedback on their performance.\n\nFinally, the learners' motivation, attitude, and self-directedness have a big impact on the success of language acquisition. This suggests that educators should provide learners with opportunities to set goals, take responsibility for their own learning, and find materials and activities that are meaningful and relevant to them.","4eb30869-4bba-4206-a277-31355261f995",[1019],{"id":1020,"data":1021,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"d5fc5906-e628-412d-a20b-329236b024dc",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1022,"multiChoiceCorrect":1024,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1026},[1023],"What type of instruction can be beneficial for language acquisition?",[1025],"Explicit instruction",[1027,1028,1029],"Implicit instruction","Structured instruction","Intuitive instruction",{"id":1031,"data":1032,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":1035},"4ef1cd6a-c68b-4d6f-ab77-16b7fe8328ad",{"type":26,"title":1033,"tagline":1034},"Sociolinguistics and Linguistic Anthropology","The relationship between linguistics and social studies, and the role of culture in shaping language.",[1036,1113,1168],{"id":1037,"data":1038,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1040},"94d84a4d-486a-4f83-a231-0e9a904597f8",{"type":25,"title":1039},"Language and Society",[1041,1059,1081,1098],{"id":1042,"data":1043,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1047},"a92d54ff-73ff-4175-a684-30f79f6b0380",{"type":21,"title":1044,"markdownContent":1045,"audioMediaId":1046},"The intersection of language, culture, and society","Sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology are two fields of study that explore the intersection between language, culture, and society. \n\nSociolinguistics studies have shown that there is considerable variation in the way that people use language, depending on factors such as geography, social class, and ethnicity.\n\n ![Graph](image://d2b2eb48-907b-495e-9bd3-bffbbb09e149 \"An upper class man tries to control the language of a working-class woman in the play 'My Fair Lady'\")\n\nThis variation can include differences in accent, vocabulary, and grammar. People's use of language is closely tied to their sense of self and their identity. For example, people may choose to use certain words or forms of speech to signal their membership in a particular group or to convey a certain image of themselves. \n\nLanguage can be used as a tool of social control and can reflect and reinforce power imbalances in society. For example, certain forms of speech may be stigmatized or marginalized, while others may be privileged. Language is deeply rooted in culture and it can be used to transmit cultural knowledge and values. Understanding the cultural context of a language can provide insights into the beliefs and practices of the people who speak it. \n\n","3344c7a4-57dc-46d1-81f5-b3bbdc3553ce",[1048],{"id":1049,"data":1050,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"59b11081-45e6-4217-a78f-4b0264dfa490",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1051,"multiChoiceCorrect":1053,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1055},[1052],"What can be the result of multilingualism and language contact?",[1054],"The emergence of new languages",[1056,1057,1058],"The disappearance of languages","The standardization of languages","The simplification of languages",{"id":1060,"data":1061,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1065},"5153c72a-11dd-4ff4-800f-6b4a26695f72",{"type":21,"title":1062,"markdownContent":1063,"audioMediaId":1064},"Linguistic anthropology: A historical overview","The field of linguistic anthropology has its roots in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when anthropologists first began to systematically study the relationship between language and culture. \n\n ![Graph](image://0d4f6665-6cd6-4148-9325-b2ec017b97ce \"Franz Boas\")\n\nEarly anthropologists such as Franz Boas and Edward Sapir recognized the importance of language in understanding culture, and they developed methods for studying the structure and function of language in different societies.\n\nIn the 1930s and 1940s, a group of linguistically-trained anthropologists, including Benjamin Lee Whorf, continued this work and developed the idea of linguistic relativism, which holds that the structure of a language shapes and is shaped by the culture and worldview of the people who speak it. \n\nThis idea had a significant influence on the field of linguistic anthropology and helped to establish it as a distinct discipline. In the 1950s and 1960s, the field expanded to include the study of language in relation to social and political systems, including issues of language and power, language and identity, and language and inequality. \n\nIn the 21st century, one of the main areas of focus has been the study of language and globalization, including the spread of English as a global language and the impact of globalization on language and culture. The field has had a growing focus on issues such as multilingualism, language endangerment, and language revitalization.\n\n\n","72476982-11f4-4d12-8180-bfbe104890b8",[1066,1073],{"id":1067,"data":1068,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"37980912-ad3a-4f44-acf5-7e130cfed619",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1069,"activeRecallAnswers":1071},[1070],"What is the main idea of linguistic relativism?",[1072],"The structure of a language shapes and is shaped by the culture and worldview of the people who speak it.",{"id":1074,"data":1075,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"89891c64-26a4-432f-b60e-ffa677fd438a",{"type":51,"reviewType":132,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1076,"clozeWords":1078},[1077],"Linguistic anthropology began to develop in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.",[1079,1080],"late 19th","early 20th",{"id":1082,"data":1083,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1087},"25193039-3ba9-4b97-ada2-39b52047873c",{"type":21,"title":1084,"markdownContent":1085,"audioMediaId":1086},"The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis","The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, also known as linguistic determinism or the linguistic relativity principle, suggests that the structure of a person's language determines how they perceive and think about the world. \n\nThe hypothesis was first proposed by Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf in the early 20th century and has been a topic of much debate and discussion in the field of linguistic anthropology.\n\nThere is some evidence in favor of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. Researchers have found that speakers of different languages may have different abilities to perceive and discriminate between different colors. \n\n\n\n ![Graph](image://020ffd77-9a1e-4add-9b57-9038d439f4e4 \"Color perception may be shaped by language\")\n\nFor example, speakers of languages that have a small number of color words may have more difficulty distinguishing between similar shades of color than speakers of languages with a larger number of color words. \n\nNeurolinguistic studies have shown that speakers of languages with grammatical gender show different patterns of neural activity when processing gender-related words compared to speakers of languages without grammatical gender.\n\nCritics of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis observe that speakers of different languages can understand and think about the same concepts and ideas, even if their languages have different ways of categorizing and describing them. This suggests that the structure of a language may not be as determinative of thought as the hypothesis suggests.\n\n","768c2736-a13b-48ad-83be-5065cb0a3ec9",[1088],{"id":1089,"data":1090,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"1aa8ab7e-4b98-46f6-b6b0-99f89ae59906",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1091,"multiChoiceCorrect":1093,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1094},[1092],"What is the name of the hypothesis that suggests that the structure of a person's language determines how they perceive and think about the world?",[1084],[1095,1096,1097],"Neuroplasticity","Rhetoric","Thematic concept",{"id":1099,"data":1100,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1104},"6ebcaa18-132b-4f96-846b-0af037a397f4",{"type":21,"title":1101,"markdownContent":1102,"audioMediaId":1103},"Language variation and change","Language variation and change play a central role in sociolinguistics, which is the study of the relationship between language and society. Sociolinguists study how language varies across different social groups and how language use is affected by social factors such as age, gender, and social class.\n\n\n ![Graph](image://53aa4c3e-2778-4a7f-b9ce-1c32f836506d \"Chechen Arabic - one of many Arabic dialects\")\n\nLanguage variation refers to the different forms of a language that are used by different groups of speakers. For example, different dialects of a language may have different pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary. Sociolinguists study how these variations are related to social factors, such as the speaker's region, occupation, or education level.\n\nLanguage change, on the other hand, refers to how a language evolves over time. Sociolinguists study how changes in society, such as technological advancements or changes in social norms, can influence the way a language is used. They also study how different social groups adopt or resist language change.\n\nSociolinguists also study language attitudes, which refers to people's attitudes and beliefs about language and its social value. \n\n\n","fce297ea-4fbb-4e8e-94fe-920d2c219a9f",[1105],{"id":1106,"data":1107,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"2e7cf329-dcad-4cc5-a2d8-6e7ee5da88b9",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1108,"binaryCorrect":1110,"binaryIncorrect":1112},[1109],"What is the study of the relationship between language and society called?",[1111],"Sociolinguistics",[712],{"id":1114,"data":1115,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1117},"4538caa5-8f4c-4b4c-944b-4eab9aade504",{"type":25,"title":1116},"Foundations of Linguistic Anthropology",[1118,1136,1153],{"id":1119,"data":1120,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1124},"e8e9303f-b4b3-4b90-9abe-79168e642e61",{"type":21,"title":1121,"markdownContent":1122,"audioMediaId":1123},"Speech communities","In sociolinguistics, a speech community refers to a group of people who share a common language or dialect and who use it in similar ways. The defining boundaries of a speech community are determined by the shared use of language, but may also be influenced by other factors such as geographic location, social class, or occupation. A speech community typically shares certain characteristics, such as common linguistic norms, shared social practices, mutual intelligibility, and social identity.\n\nThe study of speech communities helps us understand how language evolves over time and how it is used differently across different contexts. It also provides insight into how languages interact with each other when two cultures come into contact with one another, such as when immigrants bring their native language to a new country or when two languages merge together to form a hybrid tongue.\n\nIt's important to note that speech communities can be nested within one another, and that individuals may belong to multiple speech communities simultaneously. \n\nThe concept of speech community is widely used by sociolinguists to study how language and social factors interact, and how language use varies within and across different communities.","52a83f97-cb6e-47a9-a3ab-8c0fc542ef43",[1125],{"id":1126,"data":1127,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"da5d4b10-f01a-464d-a896-ff48536ec2cf",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1128,"multiChoiceCorrect":1130,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1132},[1129],"What are the defining boundaries of a speech community determined by?",[1131],"The shared use of language",[1133,1134,1135],"Geographic location","Social class","Occupation",{"id":1137,"data":1138,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1142},"6e570c0c-bfe9-4695-a1a3-dc231172be67",{"type":21,"title":1139,"markdownContent":1140,"audioMediaId":1141},"William Labov and Martha's Vineyard: A case study","William Labov is a prominent sociolinguist, known for his pioneering work in the field of variationist sociolinguistics. He is considered one of the founders of the field of sociolinguistics and his work has had a significant impact on the study of language and society. One of Labov's most famous studies was conducted in the 1960s on Martha's Vineyard, an island off the coast of Massachusetts. \n\n\n ![Graph](image://db868e59-ab7e-4651-b0da-6d6e22cac0b2 \"Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts\")\n\nThe study focused on the changes in the pronunciation of the vowel sounds in words like \"bite\" and \"mouse\" among different generations of islanders. Labov's study on Martha's Vineyard showed that the pronunciation of this vowel sound was changing over time, with younger islanders pronouncing it differently than older islanders. He also found that this change was associated with social factors such as age, sex, and education level.\n\nThe importance of Labov's study for sociolinguistics lies in his approach, which is known as variationist sociolinguistics. This approach emphasizes the systematic study of linguistic variation in a community, rather than focusing on the \"correct\" or \"standard\" forms of a language. By studying how language varies across different social groups and how it changes over time, sociolinguists can gain insight into the relationship between language and society. \n\n\n","8044813c-e9a0-44e2-8a31-ea39dd3524d3",[1143],{"id":1144,"data":1145,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"a21d29af-c8bf-4cee-8b4d-0ca83a53e2d9",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1146,"multiChoiceCorrect":1148,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1150},[1147],"What approach to the study of language and society did William Labov's study on Martha's Vineyard help to establish?",[1149],"Variationist sociolinguistics",[126,1151,1152],"Cognitive linguistics","Generative linguistics",{"id":1154,"data":1155,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1159},"f4b42e3c-b0ce-4da4-bdb7-61b8d4d51fff",{"type":21,"title":1156,"markdownContent":1157,"audioMediaId":1158},"How language reflects and reinforces social hierarchies","Sociolinguistics has shown that language reflects and reinforces social hierarchies in a number of ways. For example, certain varieties of a language are often considered to be the \"standard\" or \"correct\" form, while others are stigmatized as \"non-standard\" or \"incorrect.\" \n\nThis can create a hierarchy in which people who speak the standard language are viewed as more educated, intelligent, or competent than those who speak non-standard varieties. People from different social classes tend to use language in different ways. \n\nFor example, working-class speakers may use more non-standard forms of a language, while middle-class speakers may use more standard forms. This can reinforce social hierarchies by associating certain forms of language with higher or lower social status. \n\nSpeakers of different races or ethnicities may be judged differently based on the way they use language. For example, African-American English (AAE) is often stigmatized and viewed as less \"correct\" than Standard American English, even though AAE is a legitimate variety of English with its own grammatical and phonetic rules. \n\nThis can reinforce racial and ethnic hierarchies by associating certain forms of language with higher or lower social status. Finally, studies have shown that men and women may use language differently, and that these differences can reflect and reinforce gender hierarchies.","e62edf71-a03f-4b46-8604-870b2beb25ca",[1160],{"id":1161,"data":1162,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"4d39f75b-61b3-4c61-b69b-ec4cb038646c",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1163,"binaryCorrect":1165,"binaryIncorrect":1166},[1164],"What is the study of how language reflects and reinforces social hierarchies?",[1111],[1167],"Linguistic Anthropology",{"id":1169,"data":1170,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1172},"3a70eafb-9c8b-402c-a35e-42198f7e8f2e",{"type":25,"title":1171},"Language Contact and Change",[1173,1187,1203],{"id":1174,"data":1175,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1179},"2dc5a950-d170-494c-a59b-a96c80ed49d6",{"type":21,"title":1176,"markdownContent":1177,"audioMediaId":1178},"Language contact, creoles, and pidgins","Language contact refers to the situation where speakers of different languages come into contact with one another and their languages interact. This can happen in various ways, such as through trade, migration, colonialism, or globalization. Language contact is an important topic in sociolinguistics, as it can lead to the creation of new languages or language varieties, such as pidgins, creoles, and other mixed languages.\n\nA pidgin is a simplified, informal language that arises as a means of communication between speakers of different languages. Pidgins typically have a simplified grammar and vocabulary, and they are not a speaker's first language. Pidgin languages can develop in situations such as trade, where speakers of different languages need to communicate with one another but do not share a common language. \n\nA creole is a stable, fully-developed language that arises from the mixing of two or more languages. Creoles typically develop in situations where speakers of different languages are in close contact but have limited means of communication. For example, when enslaved people from different African countries were brought to the Caribbean, they developed creole languages, such as Haitian Creole, which combined elements of African languages with elements of European languages.","e8293df5-37b5-4aa3-b8b1-275ead90cc59",[1180],{"id":1181,"data":1182,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"e572ece6-cadc-437d-acd0-6f43909b5726",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1183,"activeRecallAnswers":1185},[1184],"What type of languages are created when speakers of different languages come into contact and their languages interact?",[1186],"Pidgins and Creoles",{"id":1188,"data":1189,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1193},"fd2bd07b-7fb2-4380-919d-4abb76089a2b",{"type":21,"title":1190,"markdownContent":1191,"audioMediaId":1192},"Registers and code-switching","The concept of \"register\" refers to a variety of a language that is used in a specific social context or for a specific purpose. Registers can differ in terms of vocabulary, grammar, and style, and they can reflect differences in formality, politeness, and social status. \n\nFor example, a register used in a business meeting would be more formal than a register used with friends and family. Registers can be distinguished based on a number of factors such as level of formality, topic of discussion, the relationship between speakers, and the social setting. \n\nThe concept of \"code-switching\" refers to the practice of alternating between two or more languages or language varieties within a single conversation or discourse. Code-switching can occur at the lexical, phonological, grammatical, or discourse level. It can happen within a sentence, between sentences, or even within a single word, and it can be triggered by a variety of factors such as topic, audience, or emotional state. \n\nCode-switching can be a conscious or unconscious process, and it can serve a variety of functions. It can be used to convey social or ethnic identity, or a sense of familiarity, intimacy, power, or prestige. Code-switching is a common phenomenon in multilingual communities and it's especially prevalent in situations where people come into contact with speakers of other languages.","a20ade77-e121-4455-a596-b682759309b2",[1194],{"id":1195,"data":1196,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"a69672ee-2259-4b4a-829f-cde469b13aad",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1197,"binaryCorrect":1199,"binaryIncorrect":1201},[1198],"What is the term used to describe the variety of a language used in a specific social context or for a specific purpose?",[1200],"Register",[1202],"Dialect",{"id":1204,"data":1205,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1209},"0cf22dce-5b17-427b-b46a-0fc9d9a6bb27",{"type":21,"title":1206,"markdownContent":1207,"audioMediaId":1208},"Sociolinguistic perspectives on language acquisition","Sociolinguistics offers a number of insights into language acquisition, which is the process by which children learn to speak and understand a language. Sociolinguistics emphasizes the importance of social context in shaping language acquisition. \n\nChildren learn to speak and understand a language by interacting with their parents, caregivers, and other people in their environment. They learn the sounds, grammar, and vocabulary of a language by hearing it spoken in different contexts and by trying out different forms themselves.\n\nSociolinguistics also emphasizes the role of the speech community in shaping language acquisition. Children learn the norms and conventions of a language by observing the ways in which other members of their speech community use it. \n\nThey learn to use language in appropriate ways by observing the ways in which their parents, caregivers, and other people in their environment use it. Moreover, children learn to use language in ways that reflect their social identities, such as their gender, age, race, ethnicity, and social class. \n\nChildren learn to use language in ways that reflect the cultural norms and values of their community, such as the ways in which people in their community use language to express politeness, respect, and deference.","929ee8b5-05c5-44cf-8169-fe276e55f8ba",[1210],{"id":1211,"data":1212,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"08280278-a304-4cba-a12e-b38487faf7b8",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1213,"multiChoiceCorrect":1215,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1217},[1214],"What is the process by which children learn to speak and understand a second language?",[1216],"Language acquisition",[1218,1219,1220],"Language development","Language learning","Language teaching",{"id":1222,"data":1223,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":1226},"1a966f4f-7454-4df0-b2de-eb7a1b369080",{"type":26,"title":1224,"tagline":1225},"Language Documentation and Revitalization","The study of language preservation and policies for shaping language.",[1227,1289],{"id":1228,"data":1229,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1231},"c70a5786-d708-423e-963b-bd96f7cecd9c",{"type":25,"title":1230},"Language Decline and Documentation",[1232,1246,1260],{"id":1233,"data":1234,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1238},"974bf603-7b83-4149-9791-aac17991c679",{"type":21,"title":1235,"markdownContent":1236,"audioMediaId":1237},"Languages of the world and language decline","There are an estimated 7,000 languages spoken in the world today, but this number is rapidly decreasing. According to UNESCO, there are around 2,500 languages that are considered endangered, and it is estimated that one language becomes extinct every 14 days.\n\n ![Graph](image://99189133-420d-40a8-a54a-359cddfa83e6 \"Maxine Wildcat Barnett, the last speaker of the Native American Yuchi language\")\n\nThere are several factors that contribute to language decline, which can lead to the eventual extinction of a language. Economic and social changes, such as urbanization and globalization, can lead to a shift towards dominant languages and cultures, causing a decline in the use of minority languages. \n\nEducational systems that do not support or actively discourage the use of minority languages can contribute to language decline. For example, in the 19th century, children in Welsh schools would be subject to corporal punishment for speaking in Welsh. This led to the language almost dying out, until it was revitalized in the late 20th century.","a597a372-3d97-4c38-b222-d1ea16f2098f",[1239],{"id":1240,"data":1241,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"c00e38e9-d347-479f-bc05-f9d2803fb6a3",{"type":51,"reviewType":132,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1242,"clozeWords":1244},[1243],"One language is estimated to go extinct every 14 days.",[1245],"14",{"id":1247,"data":1248,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1252},"b976b8ab-e83a-4ba3-b803-e19a34ff1e63",{"type":21,"title":1249,"markdownContent":1250,"audioMediaId":1251},"Language documentation and its contributions to linguistic diversity","Language documentation is the process of collecting, describing, and preserving linguistic data and information about a language or languages, particularly endangered or under-documented ones. \n\n ![Graph](image://99ccee6e-89b8-4fe5-893a-7c4b53137626 \"An early text in Scots Gaelic\")\n\nThis can include collecting recordings of speech and text, compiling dictionaries and grammars, and documenting cultural practices and knowledge associated with the language. Language revitalization, on the other hand, refers to efforts to maintain or revive the use of endangered languages.\n\nLanguage documentation plays a crucial role in preserving linguistic diversity by providing a record of endangered languages and their associated cultures. This documentation can be used for language revitalization efforts, as well as for linguistic research and education. \n\nAdditionally, documentation can provide a way for speakers of endangered languages to reclaim and preserve their linguistic heritage, and can serve as a tool for cultural preservation. \n\n\n","ad1b3044-6564-4ed4-9140-7dcf04b69515",[1253],{"id":1254,"data":1255,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"2b91ba2c-143d-4261-b30e-56cea012a8ed",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1256,"activeRecallAnswers":1258},[1257],"What is the process of collecting, describing, and preserving linguistic data called?",[1259],"Language documentation",{"id":1261,"data":1262,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1266},"d0c03b78-9080-417a-9828-89866b0a82ac",{"type":21,"title":1263,"markdownContent":1264,"audioMediaId":1265},"Methods, tools and resources in language documentation and revitalization","There are various methods, tools, and resources that are used in language documentation and revitalization. Fieldwork is the process of collecting linguistic data in the field, such as by conducting interviews, making recordings, and collecting written texts. \n\n ![Graph](image://d3a77e6f-ed8e-4d4f-9af4-429372dfbd21 \"A Lakhani tribeswoman, India\")\n\nFieldwork is a key aspect of language documentation, and is often carried out by linguists, anthropologists, and other researchers. Corpus building is the process of creating a collection of texts, audio recordings, and other linguistic data, which can be used for research and documentation. \n\nLanguage description involves describing the linguistic features of a language, such as phonology, grammar, and vocabulary. Language learning materials can be designed to help speakers of endangered languages learn and use their language, such as language learning apps, books, and flashcards. \n\nLanguage technology can be used to assist with language documentation and revitalization, such as speech recognition and machine translation. Archiving and preservation involve preserving and making accessible the linguistic data that has been collected, such as through archives and online databases. \n\n","47970186-8bb6-415e-9df7-5c5b493058c1",[1267,1278],{"id":1268,"data":1269,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"11bd5783-9a71-4c89-b0f1-51f31f7c943d",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1270,"multiChoiceCorrect":1272,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1274},[1271],"What is the purpose of language learning materials?",[1273],"To help speakers learn and use their language",[1275,1276,1277],"To collect linguistic data","To create a collection of texts and recordings","To describe linguistic features",{"id":1279,"data":1280,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"7300667b-9999-4408-8d48-9387062d8a0e",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1281,"multiChoiceCorrect":1283,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1285},[1282],"What term is used for the gathering of texts and other data with the aim of preserving language?",[1284],"Corpus building",[1286,1287,1288],"Fieldwork","Language description","Language learning materials",{"id":1290,"data":1291,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1293},"89278150-6779-4cf7-928d-f61fc52e67d8",{"type":25,"title":1292},"Language Revitalization Strategies",[1294,1311,1327,1333],{"id":1295,"data":1296,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1300},"e9ab7392-10f4-4696-96e6-ed5905c1cd0a",{"type":21,"title":1297,"markdownContent":1298,"audioMediaId":1299},"Language revitalization","Language revitalization is the process of reversing or halting the decline of a language that is at risk of becoming endangered or extinct. It aims to increase the number of speakers, as well as the domains in which the language is used, such as in education, media, government, and cultural events.\n\n ![Graph](image://680824b3-50a7-4428-be40-b214338ede55 \"A road marking in Welsh and English\")\n\nLanguage revitalization efforts can take many forms, including \n\n(i) providing language education to children and adults, particularly through immersion programs\n\n(ii) developing orthography and standardizing the language\n\n(iii) encouraging the use of the language in media, government, and cultural events, \n\n(iv) promoting the language and its culture to raise awareness and interest in it, and \n\n(v) creating opportunities for intergenerational transmission of the language.","6fce093b-247a-4e12-a56b-2bf8b4b4cad5",[1301],{"id":1302,"data":1303,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"c4fb89f5-689c-4088-b929-03f1d9c02370",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1304,"multiChoiceCorrect":1306,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1307},[1305],"Which of these is NOT a form of language revitalization?",[1286],[1308,1309,1310],"Language education","Language promotion","Developing orthography",{"id":1312,"data":1313,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1317},"17b78c41-70aa-4b23-9e51-c9c26faa686b",{"type":21,"title":1314,"markdownContent":1315,"audioMediaId":1316},"Case studies of successful language revitalization","There are several examples of successful language revitalization efforts around the world. The Maori language, an indigenous language of New Zealand, was on the brink of extinction in the 20th century, but revitalization efforts have been successful in reversing this trend. \n\n ![Graph](image://a5cd9c16-42df-4b70-a7d9-ee7ad4d5ea77 \"Maori people\")\n\nThe government has implemented language immersion programs in schools, and the language is now taught in universities and used in the media. Welsh, a Celtic language spoken in Wales, has been revitalized through government efforts to promote its use in education and the media. \n\nThe Hawaiian language was nearly lost after the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893, but it has been successfully revitalized through language immersion programs in schools and the use of Hawaiian language in media, government, and cultural events. \n\nHebrew was a dormant language, spoken mostly by religious Jews, at the turn of the 20th century, but it was revitalized by the Zionist movement and became the official language of Israel. Hebrew language education and promotion in media, government, and cultural events has led to near-universal fluency in Israel. \n\n","8288c460-2948-4c68-bffc-cc39b6791758",[1318],{"id":1319,"data":1320,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"c8cb91bb-f253-4a7a-a17c-697a647314f2",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1321,"binaryCorrect":1323,"binaryIncorrect":1325},[1322],"What language was nearly lost after the overthrow of the island's monarchy in 1893, but has been successfully revitalized?",[1324],"Hawaiian",[1326],"Maori",{"id":1328,"data":1329,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21},"f33648e8-c41a-4012-9492-eb9a5a430abf",{"type":21,"title":1330,"markdownContent":1331,"audioMediaId":1332},"Understanding the cultural significance of language revitalization","Language revitalization is not only important for the preservation of linguistic heritage but also plays a significant role in preserving and promoting cultural heritage. Language is closely tied to culture and identity, and the loss of a language can also mean the loss of a unique way of understanding and interacting with the world.\n\n ![Graph](image://3362ee32-05f7-42ef-a099-1b5ec53854dc \"Hawaiian people celebrating their heritage\")\n\nMany languages are closely tied to traditional knowledge, such as ecological knowledge, medicinal practices, and spiritual beliefs. Revitalizing a language can help ensure that this knowledge is passed on to future generations. \n\nLanguage is an integral part of cultural identity, and the loss of a language can mean the loss of an important aspect of a community's identity. Revitalizing a language can help preserve and promote cultural identity. \n\n","4e43f1dd-0304-493d-9e1f-a8fd4055c189",{"id":1334,"data":1335,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1339},"f72e27d2-5434-4248-8b66-3d59f7989802",{"type":21,"title":1336,"markdownContent":1337,"audioMediaId":1338},"Planning and implementing revitalization strategies","There are a number of effective ways for planning and implementing language revitalization strategies.\n\n1. Involve the community: Language revitalization efforts should be community-led and involve the participation of language speakers and community members. This will ensure that the strategies are tailored to the needs and priorities of the community.\n\n2. Develop a comprehensive language plan: Develop a comprehensive plan that outlines the goals, strategies, and resources needed for language revitalization. This plan should be based on research and data, and should involve input from community members and experts.\n\n3. Prioritize language education: Language education is a key component of language revitalization. Strategies should be developed to provide language education to children and adults, including immersion programs, language classes, and materials.\n\n4. Encourage the use of the language in everyday life: Create opportunities for the community to use the language in their daily lives. This can include promoting the use of the language in media, government, and cultural events.\n\n5. Create resources and materials: Develop resources and materials such as dictionaries, grammars, and textbooks to support language education and use.\n\n6. Foster intergenerational language transmission: Encourage and support the transmission of the language from one generation to the next. This can include family-based language programs, language nests, and mentoring programs.\n\n7. Monitor and evaluate progress: Regularly monitor and evaluate progress to ensure that the strategies are having the desired impact and make adjustments as needed.\n\n8. Maintain a long-term perspective: Language revitalization is a long-term process, and it is important to maintain a long-term perspective and not expect immediate results.\n\nRemember that language revitalization strategies should be implemented with an understanding of the political, social, and economic context of the community. Collaboration and cooperation between the community, government, and academic institutions is also crucial for successful revitalization.","ff71215d-49b6-4eab-ad17-757b93589637",[1340],{"id":1341,"data":1342,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"caa2436c-45e9-41b0-a8a7-d54676b46d51",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1343,"multiChoiceCorrect":1345,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1347},[1344],"What is the first step for planning and implementing language revitalization strategies?",[1346],"Involve the community",[1348,1349,1350],"Create a dictionary","Prioritize language education","Encourage the use of the language in everyday life",{"id":1352,"data":1353,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":1356},"8ebd9a3b-edbc-4bea-a01e-e7b8f2a499bd",{"type":26,"title":1354,"tagline":1355},"Applied Linguistics","How linguistics can be applied to real-world problems.",[1357,1423],{"id":1358,"data":1359,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1361},"ebac9e7c-03d6-4396-9276-682968d4275e",{"type":25,"title":1360},"Foundations of Applied Linguistics",[1362,1389,1407],{"id":1363,"data":1364,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1368},"09a98263-274d-42c2-9907-7cdd8cd0aab6",{"type":21,"title":1365,"markdownContent":1366,"audioMediaId":1367},"Defining applied linguistics","Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field that combines knowledge and methods from linguistics, psychology, sociology, education, and other fields to understand and solve real-world problems related to language. \n\nThe field can be broken down into several categories. \n\nSecond language acquisition studies how people learn a second or foreign language and how to make the learning process more effective. \n\nLanguage assessment focuses on developing methods for assessing language proficiency and language ability, such as tests and evaluations for academic or professional purposes. \n\nDiscourse analysis studies the use of language in different contexts, such as in conversation, in the media, or in the workplace, to understand how people use language to communicate and interact. \n\nForensic linguists apply linguistic theories, methods, and findings to legal and forensic issues. \n\nFinally, language planning and policy focuses on the social and political factors that affect language use and develops policies and plans to promote language maintenance and revitalization. ","bcee2fec-c0bd-4ffc-a0b1-c0047eb868e3",[1369,1378],{"id":1370,"data":1371,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"524d6c6b-ab7a-4c8a-86b3-cce2138f821c",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1372,"binaryCorrect":1374,"binaryIncorrect":1376},[1373],"What is the focus of Language assessment?",[1375],"Developing tests and evaluations of language ability",[1377],"Studying language in different contexts",{"id":1379,"data":1380,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"d31b13fc-fcf8-42b8-9b0c-6e14e5acb2c9",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1381,"multiChoiceCorrect":1383,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1385},[1382],"Which subfield of applied linguistics studies the use of language in different contexts, to understand how people interact?",[1384],"Discourse analysis",[1386,1387,1388],"Second language acquisition","Language assessment","Forensic linguistics",{"id":1390,"data":1391,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1395},"95c0721b-c5c2-45a0-b7dc-0a8efb48ca7e",{"type":21,"title":1392,"markdownContent":1393,"audioMediaId":1394},"Exploring forensic linguistics: The analysis of language for legal purposes","Forensic linguistics is a subfield of applied linguistics that applies linguistic knowledge and methods to legal issues and the administration of justice. Forensic linguists use their expertise in language and communication to assist with tasks such as authorship attribution, speaker identification, and the interpretation of legal texts.\n\n ![Graph](image://b0f06f84-65af-4e42-9239-ab823a6ac0fd \"A car with a voice recognition feature\")\n\nForensic linguists often analyze written and spoken language in order to identify the author or speaker. This can include analyzing linguistic features such as grammar, vocabulary, and writing style, as well as non-linguistic factors such as handwriting and voice patterns.\n\nForensic linguists may use computational methods, such as text-comparison software, to analyze large amounts of language data. They also analyze legal texts, such as contracts, statutes, and court transcripts. This involves interpreting the meaning and intent of the language used in these texts, and identifying any ambiguities or inconsistencies that may be relevant to a legal case.\n\n\n","b14e33c7-2858-4479-a5ff-b9560564a7f7",[1396],{"id":1397,"data":1398,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"7ee97240-433b-436b-9306-2b92d8ffe15f",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1399,"multiChoiceCorrect":1401,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1403},[1400],"What is the main purpose of forensic linguistics?",[1402],"To analyze language-related issues in legal cases",[1404,1405,1406],"To analyze language-related issues in everyday life","To analyze language-related issues in literature","To analyze language-related issues in media",{"id":1408,"data":1409,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1413},"524e0fd1-432f-42c4-8195-89ef277677f3",{"type":21,"title":1410,"markdownContent":1411,"audioMediaId":1412},"Language teaching and learning: Pedagogical approaches","Pedagogical approaches are the ways in which language is taught in formal educational settings. One of the most well-known and widely-used approaches is the communicative approach, which emphasizes the use of authentic language in real-life situations. \n\nThis approach aims to develop students' communicative competence, or the ability to use language effectively in a variety of contexts. \n\nTo achieve this, teachers may use techniques such as task-based language teaching, where students are given tasks to complete using the language they are learning, and problem-based learning, where students work together to solve real-life problems using the language.\n\nThe cognitive approach emphasizes the role of the learner's cognitive processes in the language learning process. This approach is based on the idea that language learning is an active process, where learners construct their own understanding of the language. \n","3375382c-dee2-4109-95d4-8e57e2a259e1",[1414],{"id":1415,"data":1416,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"3f9e3e31-86e5-46d9-a9c5-579f5aeb93a3",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1417,"binaryCorrect":1419,"binaryIncorrect":1421},[1418],"Which of these is a description of the cognitive approach to language learning?",[1420],"Encouraging children to construct their own understanding of the language",[1422],"Emphasizing the use of language in real-world circumstances",{"id":1424,"data":1425,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1427},"7238fce5-6056-4c72-8c96-31f800e96c3a",{"type":25,"title":1426},"Applications of Applied Linguistics",[1428,1444,1450],{"id":1429,"data":1430,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1434},"97aa5075-0dbc-4857-ad31-877988fb95d2",{"type":21,"title":1431,"markdownContent":1432,"audioMediaId":1433},"Discourse analysis: The study of language in context","Discourse analysis is a method of studying language in use, in order to understand the ways in which language functions in communication and how it reflects and shapes social relations, identities and power. \n\nThere are several key concepts in discourse analysis that are central to understanding how language is used in communication. \"Discourse\" refers to a stretch of language that is organized and meaningful, such as a conversation, a written text, or a speech. \"Discursive practices\" are the ways in which people use language to accomplish social actions, such as persuading, informing, or entertaining. \n\n\"Discursive events\" refer to specific instances of discourse, such as a trial, a news broadcast, or a political debate. \"Discursive formations\" refer to the ways in which discourse is organized across different contexts, such as across different media or different historical periods. \n\nDiscourse analysts pay attention to the ways in which power is embedded in discourse, how discourse is used to reproduce and challenge relations of power, and how it helps to establish, maintain or challenge social hierarchies.","449477aa-6d01-453a-b26d-187f85b832ce",[1435],{"id":1436,"data":1437,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"38073264-5b34-4fe5-98e9-9b44561904bc",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1438,"multiChoiceCorrect":1440,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1441},[1439],"What field studies language in its use in different contexts?",[1384],[1442,1111,1443],"Contextual Linguistics","Forensic Linguistics",{"id":1445,"data":1446,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21},"46457eaa-b0c8-45e9-9012-3a394dceb9f9",{"type":21,"title":1447,"markdownContent":1448,"audioMediaId":1449},"How applied linguistics is used to study language disorders","Applied linguists use their expertise in language and communication to understand the nature and causes of language disorders, as well as to develop effective methods for diagnosis and treatment. \n\nThey may analyze spoken or written language samples from individuals with language disorders in order to identify specific language impairments and to understand how these impairments affect the individual's ability to use and understand language.\n\nApplied linguists may work with speech-language pathologists and other specialists to develop standardized tests and procedures for the diagnosis of language disorders, such as language assessment batteries, which are used to assess various aspects of language abilities. \n\nThey may conduct research on the effectiveness of different therapies and interventions, such as speech therapy, cognitive therapy, or computer-based interventions, and provide recommendations on the most effective approaches. ","047c7f7e-a505-4b29-a79f-882e3a1c97e6",{"id":1451,"data":1452,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1456},"6632af53-9b27-4e47-b27b-e9144e1a1e44",{"type":21,"title":1453,"markdownContent":1454,"audioMediaId":1455},"Technology and applied linguistics: Computational tools in language research","Computational tools can be used to analyze language data and understand language use in real-world contexts. Corpus tools are software programs that are used to create, annotate, and analyze large text collections, known as corpora.\n\nThese tools allow researchers to quickly search for specific patterns or words in a corpus, and to create frequency lists and concordances. Part-of-speech (POS) taggers automatically label words in a text with their grammatical function, such as noun, verb, adjective, etc. POS taggers are useful for tasks such as syntactic parsing and grammatical error detection. \n\nParsers analyze the grammatical structure of a sentence. Machine learning tools can be used to train models for tasks such as text classification, sentiment analysis, and machine translation. \n\nMachine learning is increasingly used in applied linguistics to analyze large, unstructured language data, such as social media posts, and to perform tasks such as sentiment analysis and opinion mining. ","8db5d957-2403-4f86-ae2d-25400b926cc5",[1457],{"id":1458,"data":1459,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"3330b2cd-b0c7-4085-b670-4622d4e9fcd5",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1460,"multiChoiceCorrect":1462,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1464},[1461],"What software tools are used for automatically labelling words in text with their grammatical function?",[1463],"Part-of-speech taggers",[1465,1466,1467],"NLP processors","Text-to-speech generators","Context parsers",{"id":1469,"data":1470,"type":26,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"orbs":1473},"29845722-af34-4e75-af9f-a78fba6eed2d",{"type":26,"title":1471,"tagline":1472},"Computation Linguisitics and NLP","The crossover between linguistics and natural language processing.",[1474,1529,1587],{"id":1475,"data":1476,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1478},"8129ca88-a635-43e5-b30a-17eae2f300e9",{"type":25,"title":1477},"Foundations of Computational Linguistics",[1479,1495,1511],{"id":1480,"data":1481,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1485},"e2b37920-c167-4f7e-824c-56c5fed20d05",{"type":21,"title":1482,"markdownContent":1483,"audioMediaId":1484},"Introduction to computation linguistics","Computational linguistics is a field of study that combines knowledge of linguistics and computer science to develop computational models of language. \n\n ![Graph](image://6b3dd97c-484a-4933-b7a6-6f2751b8c218 \"Stephen Hawking's speech synthesizer\")\n\nThe goal of computational linguistics is to understand how language works and to develop computational tools and techniques for analyzing, understanding, and generating language data. \n\nOne of the key areas of research in computational linguistics is natural language processing (NLP), which focuses on the development of algorithms and computational models that can automatically analyze, understand, and generate natural language text and speech. Applications of NLP include machine translation, text-to-speech synthesis, and automated question answering.\n\n","08a008b3-fd55-4d24-8734-f61e5844ee2f",[1486],{"id":1487,"data":1488,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"994235b0-4d79-4978-94d6-17a27f0c1c2b",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1489,"binaryCorrect":1491,"binaryIncorrect":1493},[1490],"Which of these is a key component of computational linguistics?",[1492],"Natural Language Processing (NLP)",[1494],"Forensic Speech Analysis (FSA)",{"id":1496,"data":1497,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1501},"6f6d4bcd-b41e-4fbf-a31c-e84eef7e5e20",{"type":21,"title":1498,"markdownContent":1499,"audioMediaId":1500},"The evolution of Natural Language Processing","The history and development of Natural Language Processing (NLP) can be traced back to the 1950s, when researchers first began to explore the potential of computers to analyze and understand human language. \n\n ![Graph](image://ddb673ac-2e53-4a50-8993-e31ec05fd8a3 \"The IBM 704 - the first computer to synthesize speech\")\n\nIn the early days of NLP, researchers focused on developing rule-based systems that used sets of predefined grammatical rules to analyze and understand language. These systems were able to perform simple tasks such as identifying parts of speech, but they were limited in their ability to handle the complexity and variability of natural language.\n\n ![Graph](image://8adb939e-41f3-4b0a-94f0-14b172ec1f68 \"The first iteration of Apple's Siri, released in 2010\")\n\nIn the 1970s and 1980s, researchers began to develop statistical methods for natural language processing. In the 1990s, this evolved into the integration of machine learning techniques into NLP, which greatly improved the performance of NLP systems. \n\nInto the 21st century, NLP is available in everyone's pockets, in smartphones. Speech-to-text recording is more or less flawless at this point. The task of processing that language remains a major challenge. \n","9d801b59-5fdd-4f18-8c56-bd2c29b41dfd",[1502],{"id":1503,"data":1504,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"d805606b-882b-44ad-b4d8-3ed038591d84",{"type":51,"reviewType":25,"spacingBehaviour":21,"binaryQuestion":1505,"binaryCorrect":1507,"binaryIncorrect":1509},[1506],"In which decade did researchers begin to incorporate machine learning techniques into NLP?",[1508],"1990s",[1510],"1970s",{"id":1512,"data":1513,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1517},"bce3617a-a1f3-462a-886f-9c22756f6167",{"type":21,"title":1514,"markdownContent":1515,"audioMediaId":1516},"Grammar parsing, syntax analysis, and machine translation","Grammar parsing refers to the process of analyzing a sentence and determining its grammatical structure. This involves identifying the parts of speech (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives) and the grammatical relationships between them (e.g. subject-verb-object). \n\nGrammar parsers are often used as a first step in natural language processing tasks such as text summarization, information extraction, and machine translation.\n\nSyntax analysis is the process of understanding the grammatical structure of a sentence and how the words relate to each other. This includes analyzing the syntactic structure of a sentence, identifying the syntactic constituents such as phrases, clauses, and identifying the syntactic relations between the constituents. \n\nSyntax analysis is a crucial step in NLP tasks such as text summarization, information extraction, and machine translation, as it allows the system to understand the meaning of the sentence.\n\nMachine translation is the process of automatically translating text from one language to another. Machine translation systems use a combination of grammar parsing, syntax analysis, and statistical methods to analyze and understand the source text, and then generate a translation. ","a80a649d-51e2-477f-99bf-8bdafeaddab2",[1518],{"id":1519,"data":1520,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"40713138-880f-4f71-82e1-80c744970450",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1521,"multiChoiceCorrect":1523,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1525},[1522],"What is the process of analyzing a sentence and determining its grammatical structure called?",[1524],"Grammar parsing",[1526,1527,1528],"Syntax analysis","Semantic analysis","Morphological analysis",{"id":1530,"data":1531,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1533},"0dfb38ae-2ad6-49c7-85a2-ddddadbe090b",{"type":25,"title":1532},"Advanced NLP Techniques",[1534,1552,1569],{"id":1535,"data":1536,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1540},"03cf2f91-791d-436e-a07f-a7b251966e47",{"type":21,"title":1537,"markdownContent":1538,"audioMediaId":1539},"Understanding semantic meaning","Semantic meaning, also known as the meaning of a word, phrase, or sentence, is a fundamental aspect of natural language processing. Understanding semantic meaning is essential for tasks such as machine translation, text summarization, and information retrieval. \n\nThere are several approaches to understanding semantic meaning. One of the most popular is the distributional semantics approach, which is based on the distributional hypothesis that words that occur in similar contexts tend to have similar meanings. \n\nThis approach uses techniques such as word embeddings, which map words to high-dimensional vectors, to represent the meaning of words. These vectors can then be used to perform mathematical operations such as addition and subtraction to understand the meaning of phrases and sentences. ","1c28dd9c-9223-4b41-8f70-1844a00bfce9",[1541],{"id":1542,"data":1543,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"1f1932c3-cf46-4a8c-a610-954fc1ebf3aa",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1544,"multiChoiceCorrect":1546,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1548},[1545],"What is the name of the idea that words that occur in similar contexts tend to have similar meanings?",[1547],"Distributional semantics",[1549,1550,1551],"Formal semantics","Semantic role labeling","Word embeddings",{"id":1553,"data":1554,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1558},"a1c006ce-3067-41df-ad84-2661b2280b85",{"type":21,"title":1555,"markdownContent":1556,"audioMediaId":1557},"Contextual analysis and ambiguity","Contextual analysis is a method of interpreting the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences based on the context in which they appear. \n\nAmbiguity, on the other hand, is the ability of a word, phrase, or sentence to have multiple meanings. The two are closely related, as ambiguity often arises from a lack of context. In natural language processing, contextual analysis is used to disambiguate words and phrases that have multiple meanings. \n\nFor example, the word \"bass\" can refer to a type of fish or a low-frequency sound. Without context, it is difficult to determine which meaning is intended. However, if the sentence is \"I pan-fried some bass for my dinner\" it is clear that the word is referring to a type of fish.\n\n ![Graph](image://a3ae8d72-5403-4911-bb6d-86d59fbcef3d \"This would be the wrong kind of bass to have for dinner\")\n\nContextual analysis can also be used to understand the intended meaning of idiomatic expressions, such as \"kick the bucket,\" which does not literally mean to strike a pail with one's foot, but instead means to die. \n\nContextual analysis can be performed using various techniques, such as word sense disambiguation, which uses machine learning algorithms to determine the intended meaning of a word based on its context. \n\n\n","49112c88-1a38-4cdb-98b3-a00f605a6d03",[1559],{"id":1560,"data":1561,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"52942c42-9faa-48ab-97cb-9a152c13b82c",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1562,"multiChoiceCorrect":1564,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1566},[1563],"What is used to disambiguate words and phrases that have multiple meanings in natural language processing?",[1565],"Contextual analysis",[1527,1567,1568],"Syntactic analysis","Pragmatic analysis",{"id":1570,"data":1571,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1575},"484f78be-f848-496c-93f7-51b03913c50a",{"type":21,"title":1572,"markdownContent":1573,"audioMediaId":1574},"Corpus construction and language modeling","Corpus construction is the process of creating a dataset of text for the purpose of natural language processing. It is an important step in training language models, as the quality and quantity of the text in the corpus will affect the accuracy and performance of the model.\n\n There are several factors to consider when constructing a corpus. The first is the size of the corpus. A larger corpus will generally result in a more accurate model, but it also increases the computational resources required to train the model. \n\nThe second factor is the diversity of the texts included in the corpus. A diverse corpus will help the model learn to handle a wide range of language styles and formats, which will improve its ability to generalize to new texts. \n\nAnother important factor is the annotation of the corpus. Text can be annotated with various linguistic information such as part-of-speech tags, named entities, and syntactic structures. These annotations can be used to guide the training of the model and improve its performance.\n\nOnce a corpus is constructed, it can be used to train a language model. Language modeling is the task of predicting the probability of a sequence of words. It is a fundamental task in natural language processing, as it is used in many other tasks such as speech recognition, machine translation, and text generation. \n\nThere are several types of language models, such as n-gram models, recurrent neural networks, and transformers. N-gram models predict the next word in a sentence based on the previous n-1 words. \n\nRecurrent neural networks and transformers, on the other hand, are neural network-based models that can handle long-term dependencies, making them more suitable for modeling longer texts such as paragraphs or entire documents.","defd508d-01b1-4f6a-a93a-2a559e83fb0d",[1576],{"id":1577,"data":1578,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"d8c5d3b8-e8e1-489c-a8d8-a8b10684f5b7",{"type":51,"reviewType":34,"spacingBehaviour":21,"multiChoiceQuestion":1579,"multiChoiceCorrect":1581,"multiChoiceIncorrect":1583},[1580],"What is the process of creating a dataset of text for natural language processing called?",[1582],"Corpus construction",[1584,1585,1586],"Corpus annotation","Corpus analysis","Corpus modeling",{"id":1588,"data":1589,"type":25,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"pages":1591},"5762f2a4-3ad7-40ba-affa-e50486f4cdcc",{"type":25,"title":1590},"Applications of NLP",[1592,1606],{"id":1593,"data":1594,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1598},"76453fa7-2d02-490b-944b-97aff8e0dbea",{"type":21,"title":1595,"markdownContent":1596,"audioMediaId":1597},"Sentiment analysis and opinion mining","Sentiment analysis, also known as opinion mining, is the use of natural language processing and computational techniques to determine the sentiment or opinion expressed in a piece of text. \n\nThe goal of sentiment analysis is to classify text into positive, negative, or neutral categories, or to extract subjective information such as opinions, evaluations, appraisals, and emotions. \n\n ![Graph](image://da52af30-17fc-44e5-b206-0a70bcb286fe \"Chatbots use sentiment analysis. Image: Aphex34, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons\")\n\nOne of the most common applications of sentiment analysis is social media analysis, where it can be used to track public opinion about a product, brand, or topic. Sentiment analysis can also be used in customer service, where it can help to quickly identify and respond to customer complaints or feedback. \n\nThere are several techniques that can be used to perform sentiment analysis. One of the most basic techniques is lexicon-based sentiment analysis, which uses a pre-existing lexicon or dictionary of words and their associated sentiment scores to classify text. Another technique is machine learning-based sentiment analysis, which uses a training dataset to train a model to classify text into sentiment categories. \n\n\n","7f2dfc14-8d4e-457e-8698-bf1097b67f24",[1599],{"id":1600,"data":1601,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"30b04cc1-5ba0-4694-b89b-d98016dcd689",{"type":51,"reviewType":21,"spacingBehaviour":21,"activeRecallQuestion":1602,"activeRecallAnswers":1604},[1603],"What is the goal of sentiment analysis?",[1605],"To classify the opinions being expressed in text",{"id":1607,"data":1608,"type":21,"maxContentLevel":34,"version":21,"reviews":1612},"45aedeaa-2fdd-410e-9df7-f668eab5bba5",{"type":21,"title":1609,"markdownContent":1610,"audioMediaId":1611},"Speech recognition and text-to-speech synthesis","Speech recognition, also known as automatic speech recognition (ASR), is the use of technology to convert spoken language into text. The goal of speech recognition is to enable computers to understand and transcribe human speech with a high degree of accuracy. \n\nThere are two main approaches to speech recognition: rule-based and statistical. Rule-based speech recognition uses a set of predefined rules to recognize speech, while statistical speech recognition uses machine learning algorithms to learn patterns in speech data and make predictions. \n\nStatistical speech recognition is more commonly used in modern systems due to its ability to adapt and improve over time. One of the most popular techniques used in statistical speech recognition is the hidden Markov model (HMM), which is a probabilistic model that can be used to model sequential data such as speech.\n\n In addition to traditional speech recognition, there is also a subfield known as spoken language understanding (SLU), which aims to extract meaning and intent from spoken language. This can involve tasks such as recognizing named entities, identifying the topic of a conversation, or determining the sentiment expressed in a piece of speech.\n\nText-to-speech synthesis, also known as TTS, is the reverse process of speech recognition and it's the use of technology to convert written text into spoken language. \n\nThe goal of text-to-speech synthesis is to create synthetic speech that sounds as natural as possible. Like with speech recognition, there are two main approaches to TTS: rule-based and statistical. Statistical TTS has become more popular in recent years due to its ability to generate more natural-sounding speech. ","dd20634f-af46-4fd1-9e1b-d87293c85841",[1613],{"id":1614,"data":1615,"type":51,"version":21,"maxContentLevel":34},"5e9c5475-532e-49e6-9dee-329555b4715c",{"type":51,"reviewType":132,"spacingBehaviour":21,"clozeQuestion":1616,"clozeWords":1618},[1617],"Speech recognition and text-to-speech synthesis are two areas of Computational Linguistics.",[1619],"Computational Linguistics",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1621,"height":1621,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1622},24,"\u003Cpath fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\" d=\"m9 18l6-6l-6-6\"/>",{"left":4,"top":4,"width":1621,"height":1621,"rotate":4,"vFlip":6,"hFlip":6,"body":1624},"\u003Cg fill=\"none\" stroke=\"currentColor\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\" stroke-width=\"2\">\u003Cpath d=\"M12.586 2.586A2 2 0 0 0 11.172 2H4a2 2 0 0 0-2 2v7.172a2 2 0 0 0 .586 1.414l8.704 8.704a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 3.42 0l6.58-6.58a2.426 2.426 0 0 0 0-3.42z\"/>\u003Ccircle cx=\"7.5\" cy=\"7.5\" r=\".5\" fill=\"currentColor\"/>\u003C/g>",1778228383261]